Major Project Report on

“Refrigerator Based on Peltier’s Effect”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree
Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Mechanical Engineering

Dr. A. P. J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

Under the esteemed guidance of
Mr. Rohit Srivastava

Submitted by
ASHUTOSH UPADHYAY 1848540023
AVNISH YADAV 1848540025
PANKAJ YADAV 1848540057
SWETA SRIVASTAVA 1848540100

S. R. INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

LUCKNOW, UTTAR PRADESH
2021-2022
1
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented by Ashutosh Upadhyay,
Avnish Yadav, Pankaj Yadav, Sweta Srivastava in partial fulfillment of
requirement for the award of degree of B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering is a
record of original work carried out by us under the supervision of Mr. Rohit
Srivastava, Assistant Professor, S.R. Institute of Management &
Technology, Lucknow, and has not formed the basis for the award of any other
degree or diploma, in this or any other Institution or University. In keeping with
the ethical practice in reporting scientific information, due acknowledgements
have been made wherever the findings of others have been cited.

Project Members:
Mr. Ashutosh Upadhyay 1848540023
Mr. Avnish Yadav 1848540025
Mr. Pankaj Yadav 1848540057
Ms. Sweta Srivastava 1848540100

Date:

2
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled REFRIGERATOR BASED ON

PELTIER’S EFFECT submitted by Ashutosh Upadhyay, Avnish Yadav,
Pankaj Yadav, Sweta Srivastava to the S.R. INSTITUTE OF
MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW, in partial fulfilment for
the award of the degree of B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering is a bona fide
record of project work carried out by him/her under my/our supervision. The
contents of this report, in full or in parts, have not been submitted to any other
Institution or University for the award of any degree or diploma.

Mr. Rohit Srivastava Mr. Anurag Shrivastava

Project Guide Head of Department
Department of Department of
Mechanical Engineering Mechanical Engineering

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we would like to thank our project guide Mr. Rohit Srivastava
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.R. INSTITUTE
OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW who has given valuable
support during the course of our project by clarifying our doubts and guiding us
with her novel ideas.
We extend our sincere thanks to Mr. Anurag Shrivastava, Head of
Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering for giving us this
wonderful opportunity to work in desired area of interest.
We extend our sincere thanks to all teaching staff of mechanical engineering
department, those who helped us in completing this project successfully.

Lastly, we also thank the people who directly or indirectly gave us

encouragement and support throughout the project.

4
 ABSTRACT

Thermoelectric refrigerators are emerging as a major game changer in the

refrigeration market. There is a development gap in creating general sized
Thermoelectric refrigerators and the market is full of compact thermoelectric
cooling systems for example: mini refrigerators, car seat coolers etc. Researches
are necessary to look for a solution to make them available for general usage.
This study is done to assess if the general sized model is feasible. Model used in
this study simulates the entire system under transient state, including the
thermoelectric module, heat exchanger and insulated compartment.
This project mimics simple household refrigerators, at only 1/10th of the size. It
is a captivating idea to replace traditional refrigeration systems with the
thermoelectric ones, not only they are the cheaper option but also environment
friendly due to their compact size and easy operation.
This study describes the functioning of thermoelectric refrigerator, the
methodology, construction along with the future scope of thermoelectric
refrigerators. Also, a detailed explanation of why the operation of thermoelectric
refrigeration is currently not possible for high scale uses and how this problem
can be rectified with the development in the semiconductor industry. Overall, this
study is beneficial in diversifying the refrigeration market by contributing in the
development of thermoelectric refrigeration systems.

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE Page No.

Cover Page 1
Candidate’s Declaration 2
Certificate 3
Acknowledgement 4
Abstract 5
Table of Contents 6
List of Figures, 7
List of Tables, List of Symbols 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Chapter 2: Thermo-electric Devices 10-12
Chapter 3: Peltier Module: Theory & Application 13-14
Chapter 4: Heat Transfer by Convection 15-16
Chapter 5: Components of Peltier based Refrigerator 17-20
Chapter 6: Prototype of Peltier based Refrigerator 21-23
Chapter 7: Governing Equations 24-32
Chapter 8: Methodology 33-34
Chapter 9: Result and Discussion 35-39
Chapter 10: Conclusion 40-41
Chapter 11: Future Scope 42-43
Chapter 12: Current Scenario of Thermo Electric Refrigeration 44-45
References 46
Cost Estimate 47

6
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2(a) Thermoelectric Module
Fig. 2(b) Peltier Effect
Fig. 2(c) Seebeck Effect
Fig. 3(a) Thermoelectric Peltier Module (TEC1 12706)
Fig. 3(b) Direction of Heat Flow in Practical TE
Fig. 4(a) Heat Transfer by Convection
Fig. 4(b) Fan used for Forced Convection
Fig. 5(a) Insulated Compartment
Fig. 5(b) Thermoelectric Module
Fig. 5(c) Heat Sink
Fig. 5(d) Digital Temperature Sensor
Fig. 6(a) Block Diagram of Prototype including various components
Fig. 6(b) Circuit Diagram of Thermoelectric Refrigerator
Fig. 7(a) Cutaway of a typical thermoelectric module
Fig. 7(b) Thermoelectric cooler with p-type & n-type thermoelements
Fig. 7(c) Illustration model from the side view
Fig. 7(d) Thermal Model of Peltier Cooler
Fig. 9(a) A thermal resistance circuit
Fig. 9(b) Ambient Temperature versus Time (min)
Fig. 9(c) TEC cold temperature versus Time (min)
Fig. 9(d) TEC hot temperature versus Time (min)
Fig. 9(e) Heat Transfer (Q) versus Time (min)
Fig. 9(f) COP versus Time (min)

7
 LIST OF TABLES
Table I. Experimental values of EPC (kWh/day) and COP
Table II. Variation (%) in EPC and COP with respect to on/off Control System

LIST OF SYMBOLS
ZTm Thermoelectric Figure of Merit
Tc Cold Side Temperature
Th Hot side Temperature
q Heat flow per unit area
α Seebeck Coefficient
𝑗⃗ Current density
⃗∇ Gradient
𝜌 Electrical Resistivity
𝑄̇𝑐 Rate of heat absorbed at cold junction/ Cooling Capacity
W Amount of Work per unit time
𝑇̅ Average Temperature
Ae Area of thermo electric element
Re Internal resistance of the couple
Σ Electrical Conductivity
Tint Internal Temperature
Text External Temperature
R1, R2 Resistance
h convective heat-transfer coefficient
A Exposed surface area
T Temperature of the immersed object
To Temperature of the fluid which is under convection
EPC Electrical Power Consumption
COP Coefficient of Performance
TE Thermo electric

8
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Thermoelectric refrigeration is the part of thermoelectrics that involves the use of

Peltier effect to transform electricity into cooling or heating effect. A simple
review of the literature indicates that current research on thermoelectrics is mostly
focused on thermoelectric generation – heat is transformed into electricity by
Seebeck effect – given the promising future of this technology on the field of
waste heat recovery for electricity generation. However, the fact remains that the
thermoelectric application with the most significant impact on the civil market up
to now is the thermoelectric refrigerator.

Compared to other refrigeration technologies, based on vapour-compression and

the emerging ones based on Stirling cycles, a thermoelectric refrigerator presents
important advantages. Thermoelectric (TE) modules have several advantages,
such as having no moving parts, compact size, they do not need any maintenance,
having the capacity of cooling under ambient temperature, and so forth. The lack
of moving parts and fluids makes them much more robust and reliable.
Furthermore, the interior temperature is easily governed by simple electronic
controllers that reduce its fluctuation to less than a degree Celsius.

These materials have applications developed for military and medical sectors, and
other emerging ones for solar hybrid and electronic cooling, the thermoelectric
refrigerator has already found a stable place in the civil market, emerging as a
reliable alternative in the field of low-power refrigeration. Car-seat coolers,
portable refrigerators, and high-quality beverage conservators are among these
applications

The separate technological advances in materials, cycles, and power density can
be combined readily to compound benefits. Performance will be enhanced for all
of these uses to the extent that conventional devices can be replaced with no
operating-cost increase. However, the most exciting prospects for TE technology
are that new uses will be enabled that have beneficial impacts on the environment.

9
 CHAPTER 2
THERMO-ELECTRIC DEVICES

Thermoelectric (TE) devices are semiconductor systems that can directly convert
electricity into thermal energy for cooling or heating or recover waste heat and
convert it into electrical power, are increasingly being seen as having the potential
to make important contributions to reducing CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions
and providing cleaner forms of energy.

Fig. 2(a) Thermoelectric Module

TE devices are solid-state heat engines. Unlike today’s air conditioners, which
use two-phase fluids such as the standard refrigerant R-134A, TE devices use
electrons as their working fluid.
In 1834, Peltier observed that if a current is applied across a junction of dissimilar
electrically conductive materials, either heating or cooling can occur at the
junction. When the current is reversed, the opposite effect is observed. Fig. 2(a)
below illustrates this process.

10
 Fig. 2(b): Peltier Effect

In 1821, Seebeck noticed that the needle of a magnet is deflected in the presence
of dissimilar metals that are connected (electrically in series and thermally in
parallel) and exposed to a temperature gradient. The effect he observed is the
basis for TE power generation. Fig. 2(c) represents direction of electron flow in
Seebeck Effect.

Fig. 2(c): Seebeck Effect

11
As shown in Fig. 2(c), if the junctions at the top are heated and those at the bottom
are cooled (producing a temperature differential), electron/hole pairs will be
created at the hot end and absorb heat in the process. The pairs recombine and
reject heat at the cold ends. A voltage potential, the Seebeck voltage, which drives
the hole/electron flow, is created by the temperature difference between the hot
and cold ends of the TE elements. The net voltage appears across the bottom of
the TE element legs. The Seebeck effect forms the basis
of the operation of TE couples (thermocouples) used extensively in temperature-
measurement systems. Electrical connections can be made from the TEs to an
external load to extract power.

In order for this process to be efficient, it is necessary to find materials that are
good electric conductors, otherwise electron scattering generates heat on both
sides of the barrier and throughout the materials. Also, the materials must be poor
thermal conductors, otherwise the temperature difference that must be maintained
between the hot and cold sides will produce large heat backflow. Similarly, the
Seebeck effect should be maximized. Optimization of these three parameters is
compromised because all three are affected by the electronic properties of the
materials.
Thermoelectric module generally works with two heat sinks attached to its hot
and cold sides in order to enhance heat transfer and system performance. For a
specific module and fixed hot/cold side temperatures, there exists an optimum
current for maximum coefficient of performance (COP) as shown in Eq. (1)

𝑇h
√1+𝑍𝑇m−
(𝐶𝑂𝑃)c,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇 𝑇−𝑇
c 𝑇c
(1)
h c √1+𝑍𝑇m +1

Where, ZTm is the thermoelectric material figure-of-merit at average hot and

cold side temperature Tm.

12
 CHAPTER 3
PELTIER MODULE: THEORY & APPLICATION

In a Peltier module, when the voltage is applied in these wires one side of the
Peltier module gets super-hot and the other side gets super cold. Nearly 200 years
ago when Charles Peltier tried passing current between two conductors made up
of different materials he found that the temperatures at the junction changes.
Actually, Charles Peltier wasn’t the first one to observe this phenomenon many
have tried such experiments in the past.

Fig 3(a): Thermoelectric Peltier Module (TEC1-12706)

Above figure shows a Peltier Module (TEC1-12706). However, this Peltier

module is based on Peltier effect when you see at the bottom are electrical
contacts and the cubes on the top of that are P and N semiconductor pellets.
Doping is used to segregate between P type and N type. The white sheet on the
top and bottom are usually a ceramic substrate made up of aluminum oxide or
beryllium oxide. These ceramic materials have high tolerance towards heat and
cold and they are also good insulators to have the Peltier effect take place, we
require two different types of materials.

13
 Fig. 3(b): Direction of Heat Flow in Practical TE

Let’s take a N type semiconductor and for the second one we need a different
type of conductor for this we use a copper conductor on both sides and now when
voltage is applied electrons start flowing through the wires to pass through the
copper plate, then through the N type conductor so the electrons will still continue
to flow through the N type semiconductor to pass through the other copper
conductor to finally discharge at the positive side. When the electron jumps from
the copper contact to the semiconductor it will either lose or gain the energy.
When the electrons travel up it will also absorb the heat at the lower junction and
then deposits it at the next junctions.
For a P type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are holes which are
positively charged. Holes does the opposite so obviously the junction at the
positive side becomes colder and the next junction becomes hot we can create a
high temperature gradient with just one pellet. Moreover, this single pellet will
consume 5-6 A of current for voltage less than 100 mV. Electrically it is in series
but thermally it is in parallel.
The P-N pair is called a couple. Technically it is called a thermocouple. We
require multiple such thermocouples in a Peltier module in order to create a good
amount of heat or cold.
The first three numbers on the Peltier module represents the no of thermocouples
present inside it. This module is called a thermo-electric cooler in the industry. In
order to get the best results we have to use a heat sink and fan on the hot side to
push all the heat out of the module. Similarly, we will use another fan on the cold
side to circulate the cool air within the fridge.
14
 CHAPTER 4
HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

4.1. Convection
Convection is the process of heat transfer by the bulk movement of molecules
within fluids such as gases and liquids. The initial heat transfer between the object
and the fluid takes place through conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens
due to the motion of the fluid.

Fig. 4(a): Heat Transfer by Convection

When a fluid is heated from one side, thermal expansion takes place. The one side
of the fluid, which hot, become less dense. Another side having colder fluid is
denser. Due to buoyancy, the less dense, hotter part of the fluid rises up. And the
colder, denser fluid replaces it. This process is repeated when this part also gets
heated and rises up to be replaced by the colder upper layer. This is how the heat
is transferred through convection.
4.2. Types of Convection
There are two types of convection, and they are:
• Natural convection
• Forced convection
4.2.1. Natural Convection:
When convection takes place due to buoyant force as there is a difference in
densities caused by the difference in temperatures it is known as natural
convection.

15
Examples of natural convection are oceanic winds.
4.2.2 Forced Convection:
When external sources such as fans and pumps are used for creating induced
convection, it is known as forced convection.
Examples of forced convection are using water heaters or geysers for instant
heating of water and using a fan on a hot summer day, pump, suction devices etc.
Forced Convection is governed by Newtons Law of Cooling, which states that
“the rate at which an object cools is proportional to the difference in temperature
between the object and the object's surroundings”.
Mathematically, Newton’s Law of Cooling is given as:
ⅆ𝑄
𝑃= = ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
ⅆ𝑡
ⅆ𝑄
Where, is the rate at which heat is transferred.
ⅆ𝑡
In this Refrigerator based on Peltier Module, we have applied a forced convection
on the hotter side of the Peltier Module by using a mini fan as shown in Fig. 4(b)
below, which have a maximum speed of 1900 RPM.

Fig. 4(b): Fan used for Forced Convection

The main reason to apply forced convection in Refrigerator based on Peltier

Module is to completely remove the heat dissipated from the hotter side of the
module directly to atmosphere. The Heat Sink is fitted with the Fan via several
screws. Heat sink also has a set of copper pipes going through it to maximize heat
transfer from the sink to the air. In order to increase the COP of refrigerator it
becomes important to remove the heat generated quickly. And this can only be
achieved using forced convection instead of natural convection.

16
 CHAPTER 5
COMPONENTS OF PELTIER BASED
REFRIGERATOR

5.1 INSULATED COMPARTMENT

Thermal insulation is defined as a material or combination of materials which on
application retards the flow of heat and adapted to any size, shape and surface.
Thus, the insulation is the outcome of performing the process to thermally isolate
the system using insulating materials to reduce the heat transfer rate drastically
between the system and the adjacent body or the environment. As we know the
ice vendors take advantage of thermocol for its economic value and good
insulation property as it does not allow the inner temperature of cooling medium
to go down.

Fig. 5(a) Insulated Compartment

Under normal operation, heat enters from the outside through the thermal
resistance Rins, and is extracted by the thermoelectric modules. This thermal
resistance is composed of the conductive thermal resistance of the insulation
material and the inner and outer convective thermal resistances. The
corresponding surface area, thickness and thermal conductivity of the insulation
material, as well as inner and outer convective thermal coefficients, are inputs of
the computational model. In addition, mass and specific heat of the insulation
structure and those of the interior air determine the corresponding thermal
capacities Cins and Cair.

17
5.2 THERMOELECTRIC MODULES
Thermoelectric (TE) modules are solid-state devices (no moving parts) that
convert electrical energy into a temperature gradient, known as the "Peltier effect"
or convert thermal energy from a temperature gradient into electrical energy, the
"Seebeck effect".

Fig. 5(b): Thermoelectric module

Figure shows a thermoelectric module which require a DC (Direct Current) power

source rather than AC (Alternating Current) that's widely distributed through the
electric grid and delivered to wall outlets. AC-to-DC transformers, simply called
"power supplies" or "PSUs" are most commonly used to provide the appropriate
DC power for thermoelectric modules, and assemblies. The most widely used TE
modules are powered with a 12-volt nominal power source though many modules
are designed for operation at lower voltages, and a few higher. In some cases,
batteries and battery chargers (without too much AC ripple) can also be used as
sources of power for 12V nominal modules.
The cooling capacity for TE modules is linear to the voltage applied (up to the
Vmax rating) so 15V supplies are occasionally used with our 12V nominal
modules for enhanced performance. Most of the power supplies we sell have a
rheostat allowing for ± 10% adjustment to the rated power, so 12V supplies can
be turned up to 13.2V, and 15V supplies turned down, as desired. Most of our
12V nominal TE modules have a Vmax of 16V and that should not be exceeded.
5.3 HEAT SINK
A heat sink is an electronic device made of good thermal conducting material and
usually attached to an electronic device to dissipate the unwanted heat. It is used
to cool the circuit components by dissipating the excess heat to prevent

18
overheating, premature failure, and improve the reliability and performance of
the components.
The cold-side heat exchanger comprises all the elements that transfer heat from
the interior air to the thermoelectric modules, whereas the hot-side heat exchanger
is composed of those that transfer heat from the modules to the ambient. displays
a finned heat sink at either side of the modules, although heat pipes,
thermosyphons or simple plane plates could be mounted. The characterization of
these systems is complex, since convection, conduction, contact and constriction
take place, along with the presence of phase-change fluids.

Fig. 5(c): Heat Sink (Heat Exchanger attached with a cooling fan)

5.4. TEMPERATURE SENSOR

A digital thermometer is attached at the front door of Refrigerator. It is a device
which detects the inside temperature of insulated compartment. This device
consist of a temperature sensor at one end and other end has a digital display for
showing temperature change. Both the ends are connected using a wire. Two
Button cell size LR44 are used to provide power to the digital display. It detects
temperature change between range -50 oC TO 110 oC (-58oF to + 158oF).

19
 Fig. 5(d) Digital Temperature Sensor

5.5 DC POWER SUPPLY

The Peltier Module requires DC power supply for its working, hence a power
driver is used to deliver constant current to the cooler at 12V, 10Amp.

20
 CHAPTER 6
PROTOTYPE OF PELTIER BASED FRIDGE

Peltier module with Heat Sink is connected on top of the Frame or main body of
refrigerator to ensure that cold air from the module is evenly distributed in all
directions inside the refrigerator compartment. The frame is made up of plywood
of 10mm. The Peltier module with the Heat sink is fitted on the upper portion of
the frame. A digital thermometer is attached at the upper portion of the frame to
display the inside temperature of the refrigerator.
Fig. 6(a) represents the thermoelectric refrigerator. It has following specifications
as listed below:

Fig. 6(a): Block Diagram of Prototype including various components

21
6.1 Circuit of Thermoelectric Refrigerator:
When a DC current (I) is applied to the circuit, the thermo electric module starts
working as a cooler from one side and heater from another side, depending on
the direction of the current. Thermoelectric cooler transfers heat from one side
of the module to the opposite side against the temperature gradient, creating a
cooling effect. Fig. 6(b) illustrates the circuit diagram of a thermoelectric
refrigerator system along with the direction of heat flow. Here Tc is the
temperature of cold junction, Th is the hot junction temperature.

Fig. 6(b): Circuit Diagram of Thermoelectric Refrigerator

6.1. Materials used:

1) Plywood of 10mm thickness is used for making main frame.
2) Thermocol Sheets is used for making the inside of the refrigerator to
provide insulation.
3) Aluminium foil is used on top of thermocol to increase the cooling effect
and insulation.

6.2. Insulated Chamber or Refrigerator Dimension:

1) Inner Height = 0.360 m,
2) Outer Height = 0.503 m,
3) Inner Width = 0.425 m, outer width = 0.560 m,
4) Inner Depth = 0.405 m, and outer depth = 0.552 m.

22
6.3. Peltier Module:
1) Model number: TEC1-12706
2) Voltage: 12V
3) U max (V): 15.4V
4) Imax (A): 6A
5) Q Max (W): 92W
6) Internal resistance: 1.98 Ohm +/- 10%
7) Power Cord: 150mm,
8) HS Code: 854150, Type: Cooling Cells,
9) Usage: Refrigerator/Warmer having Dimensions: 40*40*3.9mm.
10) Mounted between two heat exchangers, and connected in series to a Grelco
GVD electric power supply

6.4. Heat Exchanger:

The heat exchanger at the hot side includes a finned heat sink.
6.5. Power Supply:
Source: 12 volts DC power unit, Module: 12 volts, Fans: 7 amps, Temperature
indicator: 12 volts, Minimum power required is 12 volts at 6 amp.
6.6. Heat Sink:
Both heat sinks are made out of aluminium and present a base of 155 × 155 ×
12mm3. Additionally, 23 fins with dimensions 155 × 23 × 1.5 mm3 are mounted
over them. The cold extender is a 60-mm-long aluminium prism, with 40 × 80
mm2 of base area.
6.7. Axial Fans:
Two Sunon KDE1208PTS1-7 axial fans, with up to 5.2 W of electric power
consumption
6.8. Temperature Sensor:
Temperature Range of -50 oC TO 110 oC (-58oF to + 158oF), Operating Voltage
of 1.5 V, Temperature Accuracy: +1oC (0.2oF), Dimension: 48.5*28*15.2

23
 CHAPTER 7
GOVERNING EQUATIONS

7.1. Ideal Equations:

A very essential equation for the rate of heat flow per unit area 𝑞⃗ was formulated
as shown in Equation (7.1), which is

q ⃗T
⃗ = 𝛼𝑇𝚥 − 𝑘∇ (7.1)

where 𝛼 is the Seebeck coefficient, 𝑗⃗ the current density, k the thermal

conductivity and ⃗∇ the gradient. This equation relates the heat flow, the electric
current and the thermal conduction, leading to the steady-state heat diffusion
equation as shown in Equation (7.2), which is written as,

⃗ 𝑇) + 𝑗⃗ 2 𝜌 − 𝑇 ⅆ𝛼 𝚥 ⋅ ⃗∇𝑇 = 0
⃗∇ ⋅ (𝑘∇ (7.2)
ⅆ𝑇

Where, 𝜌 is the electrical resistivity. The first term gives the thermal conduction,
the second term gives the Joule heating, and the third term pertains to the
Thomson effect which results from the temperature-dependent Seebeck
coefficient. The above two equation governs the thermoelectric phenomena.

24
 Fig. 7(a) Cutaway of a typical thermoelectric module

Fig. 7(b) Thermoelectric cooler with p-type and n-type thermoelements

Consider a steady-state one-dimensional thermoelectric cooler module as shown

in Fig. 7(a), and the module consists of many p-type and n-type thermocouples,
where one thermocouple (unicouple) with length L and cross-sectional area A is
shown in Figure 7(b). An electrical current is applied and induces a heat flow at
the cold and hot junction temperatures as shown. With an assumption that the
Seebeck coefficient is independent of temperature, no thermal and electrical
contact resistances, and no heat losses, Equation (7.2) reduces to
25
 ⅆ ⅆ𝑇 𝐼2 𝜌
(𝑘𝐴 )+ =0 (7.3)
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 𝐴

The solution for the temperature gradient with two boundary conditions (
𝑇𝑥=0 = 𝑇𝑐 and 𝑇𝑥=𝐿 = 𝑇ℎ ) is,

ⅆ𝑇 𝐼2 𝜌𝐿 𝑇ℎ −𝑇𝑐
| = 2𝐴2 𝑘 + (7.4)
ⅆ𝑥 𝑥=0 𝐿

Equation (7.1) is expressed in terms of p-type and n-type thermocouples

ⅆ𝑇 ⅆ𝑇
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑛 [(𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛 )𝑇𝑐 𝐼 + (− 𝑘𝐴 ⅆ𝑥 | ) + (− 𝑘𝐴 ⅆ𝑥 | ) ] (7.5)
𝑥=0 𝑝 𝑥=0 𝑛

where n is the number of thermocouples, 𝑄̇𝑐 is the rate of heat absorbed at the
cold junction. Substituting Equation (7.4) in (7.5) gives,

1 𝑘𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝑘𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑛 [(𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛 )𝑇𝑐 𝐼 − 2 𝐼 2 − ( + ) (𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )] (7.6)
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛

Finally, the cooling power at the junction of temperature Tc is expressed as,

1
𝑄̇𝑐 = 𝑛 [𝛼𝑇𝑐 𝐼 − 2 𝐼 2 𝑅 − 𝐾(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )] (7.7)

Where,
𝛼 = 𝛼𝑝 − 𝛼𝑛 (7.8)

𝜌𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝜌𝑛 𝐿𝑛
𝑅= + (7.9)
𝐴𝑝 𝐴𝑛

26
 𝑘𝑝 𝐴𝑝 𝑘𝑛 𝐴𝑛
𝐾= + (7.10)
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛

If we assume that p-type and n-type thermocouples are similar, we have that 𝑅 =
𝜌𝐿/𝐴 and K = kA/L, where 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑝 + 𝜌𝑛 and 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑝 + 𝑘𝑛 . Equation (7.7) is
called the ideal equation which has been widely used in science and industry. The
rate of heat liberated at the hot junction is

1
𝑄̇ℎ = 𝑛 [𝛼𝑇ℎ 𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑅 − 𝐾(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )] (7.11)
2

Considering the 1st law of thermodynamics across the thermoelectric device,

we have
𝑊̇ = 𝑄̇ℎ − 𝑄̇𝑐 (7.12)

The amount of work per unit time across the module (rate of work) is obtained
substituting Equations (7.7) and (7.11) in (7.12).

𝑊̇ = 𝑛[𝛼𝐼(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) + 𝐼 2 𝑅] (7.13)

where the first term is the rate of work to overcome the thermoelectric voltage,
whereas the second term is the resistive loss. Since the power is W = IV, the
voltage across the couple will be

𝑉 = 𝑛[𝛼(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) + 𝐼𝑅] (7.14)

The COP is defined by the ratio of the cooling power to the input electrical power.
1
𝑄̇𝑐 𝑛[𝛼𝑇𝑐 𝐼−2𝐼 2 𝑅−𝐾(𝑇ℎ −𝑇𝑐 )]
COP = = (7.15)
𝑊̇ 𝑛[𝛼𝐼(𝑇ℎ −𝑇𝑐 )+𝐼 2 𝑅]

27
There are two values of the current that are of special interest: the current I mp that
yields the maximum cooling power and the current ICOP that yields the maximum
COP. The maximum cooling power can be obtained by differentiating Equation
(3.7) and setting it to zero. The current for the maximum cooling power is found
to be,

𝛼𝑇𝑐
𝐼𝑚𝑝 = (7.16)
𝑅

The optimum COP can be obtained by differentiating Equation (3.15) and setting
it to zero
ⅆ (𝐶𝑂𝑃)
=0 (7.17)
ⅆ𝐼
We finally have

𝛼Δ𝑇
𝐼𝐶𝑂𝑃 = (7.18)
𝑅(√1+𝑍𝑇̅ −1)

where Δ𝑇 = 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 , 𝑍 = 𝛼 2 /𝜌𝑘 and 𝑇̅ is the average temperature of Tc and Th.

On the basis of Th, Z𝑇̅ is expressed by

Δ𝑇
𝑍𝑇̅ = 𝑍𝑇ℎ (1 − 2𝑇 ) (7.19)
ℎ

28
7.2 Other Parameters involved in Calculation of COP are as follows:

a) Area of the thermoelectric element;

𝐴𝑒 = 𝐺𝑒 𝑋𝐿𝑒

b) The internal resistance of the couple;

𝜌𝐿𝑒
𝑅𝑒 =
𝐴𝑒

c) The thermal conductance;

𝑘𝐴𝑒
𝐾𝑒 =
𝐿𝑒

d) The figure of merit:

The thermoelectric figure of merit Z indicates if a material is a good thermo
electric cooler. It depends on three material parameters: electrical
resistivity ρ (or electrical conductivity σ ¼ 1=ρ), Seebeck coefficient α and
total thermal conductivity k between the cold and hot sides.
𝛼2
𝑍=
𝜌𝑘

e) Practical considerations on the dimensionless figure of merit: ZT

represents the efficiency of the N-type and P-type materials which
compose a thermo element. A thermoelectric material having a higher
figure of merit ZT is more convenient, as it can carry out higher cooling
power or temperature drop.

29
 Current thermoelectric devices are considered to be:
• inefficient when ZT=1;
• able to recover waste heat when, ZT = 2;
• able to match a refrigerator when ZT =4/5;

f) Amount of current:

𝑉𝑜
− 𝛼(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )
𝐼𝑜 = 𝑛
𝑅𝑒

g) Amount of Heat absorbed or Cooling Capacity:

The cooling capacity Qc results from the energy balance at the cold side of
the thermo electric refrigerator.

1
𝑄̇ℎ = 𝑛 [𝛼𝑇ℎ 𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑅 − 𝐾(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )]
2

h) Input Power:
1
𝑊𝑜 = 𝑛[(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) + 𝐼𝑜2 𝑅𝑒 ]
2

30
7.3 Theoretical Analysis:
Figure 7(c) shows the illustration Peltier cooler module from the side view of the
position in which the temperatures were measured during the experiment. Internal
temperature (Tint) is the temperature in the foam box.

Fig. 7(c) Illustration model from the side view.

External temperature (Text) is the temperature outside of the foam box which is
also as the ambient temperature. Cold temperature (Tcold) is the cold side of the
thermoelectric module plate whereas hot temperature (Thot) is the temperature
on the hot side of the thermoelectric module plate. Figure 7(d) shows the
thermal resistance model for the Peltier model.

Fig. 7(d) Thermal model of the Peltier cooler.

31
Table below consists of values of various parameter involved in the calculation
of COP of Peltier based Refrigerator:

Peltier model (TEC 12706) Description

Maximum Curent, Imax 6 Ampere
Maximum Voltage, Vmax 15.4 V
Qmax 63 Watt
Maximum Temperature Difference 67 C
Number of thermocouples 127
Material Aluminium Oxide
Thickness 0.0038m
Length 0.004 m
Width 0.004 m
Seebeck Coefficient 2.2 x 10-4 V/K
Electrical Resistivity 1.2 x 10-2 V/K
Thermal Conductivity Kp=1.62 x 10-2 W/cm K
Kn=1.62 x 10-2 W/cm K
Geometrical Factor, Ge Ge= 0.12cm
Length of Element, Le Le= 0.2 cm
Resistance R1 0.365 K/W
Resistance R2 0.215 K/W

32
 CHAPTER 8
METHODOLOGY

The steady-state Electric Power Consumption (EPC) and Coefficient of

Performance (COP) of the thermoelectric refrigerator are the parameters used to
compare the three control systems. Transitory states such as door openings,
introduction of hot load, etc. are not addressed in this study, since an average
domestic refrigerator works in steady state during 70% to 80% of the day.
The EPC of the thermoelectric refrigerator is calculated by equation given below,
which also includes the consumption of the fan (2 W). Similarly, one can obtain
the heat flow rate absorbed by the thermoelectric modules from the inner
compartment using second equation, since this parameter equals the heat flow
rate entering the refrigerator through the walls.
The thermal resistance of the wall was experimentally proven to be 2.11 K/W. Te
is represented by probe number 1, whereas Tin is represented by the average
temperature of probes 7 and 8. Finally equation third provides the COP of the
thermoelectric refrigerator.

∫Cycle  (𝑉𝐼+2)d𝜏
EPC(kWh/ day ) = 24/1000 (8.1)
𝜏Cycle

𝑇 −𝑇
∫Cycle   𝑅e in d𝜏
𝑄̇c (kWh/ day ) = wall
24/1000 (8.2)
𝜏Cycle

COP = 𝑄̇c /EPC (8.3)

33
 Table I. Experimental values of EPC (kWh/day) and COP:

Table II. Variation (%) in EPC and COP with respect to on/off
Control System:

Ways to Improve COP:

1) Optimize the heat dissipation: Improving heat transfer is a key aspect to
increase COP. This can be achieved by distributing the heat flow referring
to the hot side of a Peltier module in the surface of a finned heat sink.

2) Reduce the electrical contact and thermal resistances: illustrate how

optimized configurations of thermo electric coolers are able to provide a
negative thermal resistance in the operation at high COP, giving the
possibility of extending the limits of air-cooling devices for electronics
applications.

3) Use new materials: Such material having negative Thomson effect.

4) Use Multistage Modules: Additional stages increase the temperature

difference ΔT between heat source and heat sink, but lead to higher power
consumption and to reduction of the thermo electric system efficiency.
Optimized thermoelectric materials are used for cascades of three-and
four-stage thermoelectric cooling modules.

34
 CHAPTER 9
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

A thermoelectric cooler is usually used for temperature control tools, besides its
applications in military, aerospace, industrial and scientific work, thermoelectric
cooling is gradually getting more involvement into people’s daily life.
Thermoelectric cooling devices are widely used for electronic cooling such as
PC-processors, portable food & beverage storages, temperature-control car seats
and even thermoelectric air-conditioners.
Scientific community has placed huge amount of efforts on thermoelectric
cooling research for scientific instruments for electronic and optoelectronic
systems. Sometimes it is also used in precise temperature instruments for example
to cool the laser temperature and infrared detectors. Therefore, it is very
convenient to build small-scale thermoelectric cooling machines for these
applications.
Therefore, in this study, we have constructed a mini Peltier based refrigerator. To
illustrate the movement of energy from inside the cooler to the outside, a thermal
resistance circuit had been illustrated. The mini thermoelectric cooler contains an
internal heat sink, a thermoelectric model and an external heat sink. R1 and R2
are the internal and external heat sink resistance.

Fig. 9(a) A thermal resistance circuit

To design a mini Peltier cooler, it is essential to know the design requirement

such as the amount of heat removed from the internal heat sink, Qc and the
external electric power, W is to be applied to the TEC to flow the energy from a
low temperature to a high temperature. The performance of the mini cooler is
assessed by the coefficient of performance (COP). The COP is a function of Qc
divided by the W. To calculate Qc and W, one need one needs to determine the

35
Tc (TEC cold surface temperature) and Th (TEC hot surface temperature).
However, the value of Tc and Th are not known initially because they depend on
the design of all components. The simulation routine was started by setting the
design requirement of internal air temperature, Tint and external air temperature,
Text. Next was to assume a certain value of the temperature difference, ΔT. Based
on the assumed temperature difference, ΔT, Tc and Th, Re, R1 and R2, the COP
could be easily estimated.
9.1. Ambient temperature versus time:
Figure 9(b) shows the temperature change inside the cooler box. The temperature
inside the box (Tint), took approximately 10 minutes to drop from ambient
temperature, 30°C to 19°C. After that, the inner box temperature stabilized with
an average temperature of 18.5°C. The temperature measurement was ended after
240 minutes.

Fig. 9(b)Ambient temperature versus time

9.2. TEC cold temperature versus time:

When the TEC connected to the power supply, the current flow across a
junction between two different wires of the TEC. This caused the heat to
transfer from one side of the TEC surface to another due to the Peltier effect.
Due to a sudden temperature drop to the TEC surface temperature, the heat
from the cooler was conducted from a cold surface to the hot surface. As can
be seen in figure 9(c), the cold surface temperature, Tc had dropped even
lower temperature than the inner air temperature, Tint. Before reaching the

36
 steady state temperature, the TEC surface temperature plummeted to its lowest
point of 8.9°C before reaching a steady state at approximately 9.5°C for more
than 3 hours.

Fig. 9(c) TEC cold temperature versus time(min)

9.3. TEC hot temperature versus time:

Fig. 9(d) shows the change of TEC hot surface temperature, Th with time. As can
be observed that the Tc took almost 50 minutes to reach a plateau. The theoretical
Th had shown a good agreement with experimental data with less than 0.52%
deviation. The theoretical average value of Th seems practical with 44.91°C
which is 15°C higher than ambient temperature.

Fig. 9(d) TEC hot temperature versus time(min)

37
9.4. Amount of heat absorbed by the TEC cooler versus time:
Fig. 9(e) displays the amount of external energy (electric power) needed to
power the TEC and to cool the mini thermoelectric cooler down to 18.5°C
from the ambient temperature. For the mini cooler of size 26mm X 20mm X
18 mm, it needed approximately 24.5 W to achieve the cooler temperature.

Fig. 9(e) Heat Transfer(Q) versus time(min)

9.5. Coefficient of performance (COP) of the TEC cooler versus time:

As shown in figure below, the experimental result of the COP ranged from
0.524 to 0.531. The attainable COP in this study was found better than the
typical COP output found in another study. The typical COP normally was
found between 0.16–0.64 at operating temperature difference approximately
ΔT=20°C. The performance of the thermoelectric coolers depends on the
effectiveness of the hot and cold side heat sinks. The COP could be refined by
improving the module thermal resistances, thermal interface materials, and
heat exchanger effectiveness.

38
Fig. 9(f) COP vs Time(min)

39
 CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION

A mini Peltier cooler was fabricated by using a thermoelectric Peltier cell coupled
with fan-cooled heat sinks. The use of Peltier thermoelectric module has the big
potential to replace the oversized conventional vapour refrigeration in designing
a mini cooler for specific applications.

The objective of this study is to design, fabricate and to validate a model of the
mini thermoelectric cooler that operates in the actual conditions. This study
consisted of modelling a theoretical background of the Peltier cooler to predict its
performance. The performance that had been assessed including the minimum
achievable cold temperature, the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
and coefficient of the performance of the cooler. For the theoretical modelling,
the temperature difference between the internal space of the cooler box and the
ambient were firstly assumed.

The assumed value was used in the simulation to predict the hot and cold
temperatures of the Peltier cell surfaces. This value is essential in predicting the
Peltier cooler performance such as the coefficient of performance (COP) and the
heat removal from the
mini cooler.

The study was followed by designing, fabricating and testing of the mini cooler
prototype. For the actual testing, the ambient temperature, the internal and
external air temperatures of the foam box and hot temperature and cold
temperature of the plate were measured. The experimental data gathered in the
testing were used to validate the theoretical model. It was found that the error
between the experimental and simulation data were less than 1% which ensured
the validity of the model.

The testing results showed that the internal cooler box temperature drops
significantly more than 10°C from its original temperature before reaching a
steady state temperature. Meanwhile, the measured cold surface temperature of
the Peltier cell extremely slumped to lower than 9°C while the hot surface
temperature peaked up to higher than the ambient temperature at 45°C. This big
temperature gradient created across the thermoelectric cell surfaces showed the
effectiveness of the Peltier effect. In term of performance, the mini cooler was
capable to remove approximately 25W of internal heat with 0.5 coefficient of

40
performance (COP). The cooler COP was found above than this value in previous
study by other researchers.

There are few recommendations for future study could be made to enhance the
mini cooler performance:

• To use better performance passive heat sinks for heat dissipation such as
heat pipe heat sink.

• To use active cooling liquid, heatsink (with air cooling) for removing
external heat from the Peltier module.

• To use high-performance Peltier cell.

• To use high conductivity thermal interface material for linking the heat
sinks and the Peltier cell.

41
 CHAPTER 11
FUTURE SCOPE

The separate technological advances in materials, cycles, and power density can
be combined readily to compound benefits. More-efficient cycles are coming into
use in automotive, electronic enclosure, and personal climate-control
applications. As higher-ZT materials become available, they should be able to be
incorporated into existing TE designs with relatively little modification.
If the average ZT value reaches two; room, home, and commercial solid-state
heating, ventilating, and air-cooling systems become practical. The systems
would replace refrigerant R-134A, which has a greenhouse gas equivalence of
1430 times that of CO2, with electric current as the working fluid. Such systems
will not only have zero CO2 equivalency from leakage and refrigerant disposal,
but they would have exceptional heat-pumping performance too. So that if the
source of electrical power were green, fossil fuel usage would be eliminated in
the winter as well.
Also cooling and temperature control of microprocessors, communications
circuitry, electro-optical systems, and other electronic components become
attractive. Because of their ruggedness, portability, and ready ability to be
electrically powered, TE systems should provide more-efficient and better
performing temperature control in vehicles of many types, including cars, trucks,
trains, and aircraft. The advantages, in addition to eliminating unfriendly
refrigerants, would again be that the very efficient cooling and heating would be
contained in the same package and operate with the same controls.
TE materials are also an alternative to enable substantial waste-heat harvesting
and primary power-generation applications. Various government-sponsored
programs are underway in the various countries of the world like United States
and Japan to increase vehicle mileage by converting a fraction of the heat in the
exhaust systems of trucks and cars to electric power.
Hence, TE technology are on a path to overcome the historic limitations of low
efficiency and high cost per watt of power conversion that have limited its
applications in the past. If the final enabling advancement, higher ZT in TE
materials, is realized, gas-emission–free solid-state home, industrial, and
automotive air conditioning and heating would become practical. In power
generation, fuel consumption and CO2 emissions would be reduced by electric
power production from vehicle exhaust. Industrial waste-heat recovery systems
42
could reduce emissions by providing supplemental electrical power without
burning additional fossil fuel. Performance will be enhanced for all of these uses
to the extent that conventional devices can be replaced with no operating-cost
increase. However, the most exciting prospects for TE technology are that new
uses will be enabled that have beneficial impacts on the environment.

43
 CHAPTER 12
CURRENT SCENERIO OF THERMO ELECTRIC
RERIGERATION

India is the third largest producer of electricity in the world. The national electric
grid in India has an installed capacity of 399.467 GW as of 31 March
2022.Renewable power plants, which also include large hydroelectric plants,
constitute 39.2 % of total installed capacity. The per capita electricity
consumption is low compared to most other countries despite India having a low
electricity tariff.
India has a surplus power generation capacity but lacks adequate fuel supply,
transmission and distribution infrastructure. The average plant load factor of the
thermal power plants is below 60% against the norm of 85%. India's electricity
sector is dominated by fossil fuels, in particular coal, which produced about three-
quarters of the country's electricity. The government is making efforts to increase
investment in renewable energy. The government's National Electricity Plan of
2018 states that the country does not need more non-renewable power plants in
the utility sector until 2027, with the commissioning of 50,025 MW coal-based
power plants under construction and addition of 275,000 MW total renewable
power capacity after the retirement of nearly 48,000 MW old coal-fired plants. It
is expected that non-fossil fuels generation contribution is likely to be around
44.7% of the total gross electricity generation by 2029-30.
Semiconductors also have a role in ensuring renewable energy sources are
harvesting power optimally. They are installed in secondary devices such as
sensors in solar panels, drives and pumps in wind and water turbines, and
protection circuits in energy conversion and transfer stations to ensure the entire
operations run smoothly and efficiently, with minimal loss of power.
Semiconductors also have a role to play in clean energy due to the large amounts
of energy they take to manufacture. Large semiconductor manufacturing facilities
can use up to 100 megawatt hours of energy per hour, accounting for 5% to 30%
of their total operating costs (depending on location).
Semi-Conductors are widely used in:
a. Electronic devices (i.e. mobile phones, laptops, microwaves, refrigerators
etc.)
b. Embedded systems (Microcontrollers/Microprocessors)

44
 c. Semiconductors have high thermal conductivity and are thus used as a
cooling agent in thermoelectric applications.
d. Used in LEDs, OLEDs etc.
The world’s leading semiconductor manufacturers are located in the United
States and the Asia-Pacific region. According to the Semiconductor Industry
Association (SIA), the United States owns 46 percent of the market share for
global sales of semiconductors.
For such applications, it is required that semiconductor chips are manufactured at
large scale. Today’s semiconductor companies are facing a host of challenges.
Semiconductor companies are grappling with increased design complexity, a
talent shortage, and pandemic-related issues that are disrupting the complex,
global supply chain that links players in different markets. The shortage is now
so concerning that it is prompting more large technology companies. Industry
news site Semiconductor Engineering highlighted the risk of a chip shortage
partly due to a lack of 200mm manufacturing equipment. It is also extremely
expensive and requires a well-trained workforce for its manufacturing.
Semiconductor materials can help to reduce this demand, however, through IoT-
powered technology. This technology can monitor and automate semiconductor
fabrication to ensure that it is using minimal energy resources in semiconductor
manufacture. In this way, the role of semiconductors in clean energy is laced
throughout the energy equation.

45
 REFERENCES

[1] D. Zhao, G. Tan, “A review of thermoelectric cooling: materials, modeling

and applications”, Applied Thermal Engineering (2014)
[2] “Advanced computational model for Peltier effect-based refrigerators”, A.
Martinez, D. Astrain, A. Rodriguez, P. Aranguren, a Mechanical, Energy and
Materials Engineering Department, Public University of Navarre,Spain (2016)
[3] “Experimental study on the influence of Peltier effect on the output
performance of thermoelectric generator and deviation of maximum power” Jun
Wanga, Peiguo Caoa, Xingjun Lia (2019)
[4] “A review on thermo electric cooling parameters and performance” Diana
Enescua, Elena Otilia Virjoghe, Department of Electronics,Tele communications
and Energy,Valahia University of Targoviste, Romania (2014)
[5] “Performance Prediction of Commercial Thermoelectric Cooler Modules
using the Effective Material Properties”. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2015
[6] www.irjet.net

46
 COST ESTIMATE

Sr. No. Component Price

1. Thermoelectric Peltier Module ₹ 299/-

2. Heat Sinks (2) ₹ 249/-

3. Fan/ Cooler ₹ 400/-

4. Digital Temperature Sensor ₹ 220/-

5. Door Hinges (2), Screws ₹ 1000/-

6. Thermocol Sheets (2) ₹ 60/-

7. Cardboard (2 Piece) ₹ 60/-

8. Fevicol ₹ 80/-

9. Thermal Paste Compound ₹ 60/-

10. Sum Total ₹ 2,428/-

47