Unit 1

LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES

At the end of the session/s, the students should be able to:

• solve different kinds of linear systems using elimination method.

• correctly identify different kinds of matrices.
• add and multiply matrices.
• prove the different properties of matrix addition and matrix multiplication.
• solve linear systems using Gauss-Jordan Reduction Method.
• find the inverse of the matrix using different methods.

Linear algebra came about from the study of systems of linear equations. So a good
start of learning the course shall begin by recalling mathematical concepts of linear systems.
You should go through illustrations and learning materials about linear equations familiar to
you, yet it is suggested that you carefully study the methods for it would guide you in dealing
the more complex mathematical ideas as we keep on advancing with the course.

In this chapter, as we deal with linear systems, mathematical concepts on matrices will
be introduced. Matrices can be used to compactly write and work with systems of equations.
Itcan be manipulated in any way that a normal equation can be. This is very helpful when we
start to work with systems of equations. It is helpful to understand how to organize matrices to
solve these systems.
.

1
ACTIVITY 1: Task: Let’s walk together and recall!

Direction: Describe the mathematical concepts you will encounter as you walk the road
towards mathematical wizardry.

Solution of
a linear
equation
x and y
intercepts

ax+by = c

y=mx + b

Linear
Equation
Start here

2
 Lesson 1: Systems of Linear Equations

Systems of linear equations are collection of linear equations. We can have linear
systems in two variables, linear systems in three variables, and linear systems in even more
variables. The key to all these systems is that all the variables are to the first degree.
A system of linear equations of m equations in n variables is a set of m equations, each
of which is linear in the same n variables. To illustrate:
a1x1 + a2x2 + a3x3 + . . . + anxn = b
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + . . . + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + . . . + a2nxn= b2
.
.
.
am1x1 + am2x2 + am3x3 + . . . + amnxn= bm

A solution of a system of linear equations is a sequence of numbers r1, r2 ,r3, . . . . , rn

that is a solution of each of the linear equations in the system.

SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

BY ELIMINATION

The main concept behind the elimination method is to create terms with opposite
coefficients because they cancel each other when added. In the end, we should deal with a
simple linear equation to solve, like a one-step equation in x or in y.

Case 1. By Adding the Two Equations, the variable “x” is eliminated

Adding x-column yields zero
ax + by = c
+ -ax + by = e (The coefficients of variable x are opposites)
0

3
Case 2. By Adding the Two Equations, the variable “y” is eliminated

Adding x-column yields zero

ax + by = c
+ ax - by = e (The coefficients of variable y are opposites)
0
Example 1. Solve the system of linear equations by elimination method
6x + 4y = 8
-x - 4y = 12

Solution:
First, add y column as it will eliminate the y variable instead of working
with the x column. This will result to:

6x + 4y = 8
-x - 4y = 12
5x = 20

To find the corresponding value of y just work on any of the two original
equations as we already know the value of x. Just simply substitute the value
of x to get y.
The process is shown below picking the first equation to wok on:

6x + 4y = 8
6(4) + 4y = 8
24 + 4y = 8
4y = 8 – 24 (Adding both sides of the equation by -24)
4y = -16
y = -4

The solution to the system of linear equation (x,y) = (4, -4)

Example 2: Solve the system of linear equations by elimination method

-3x - 4y = -5
12x - 3y = -18

4
 With the given system of linear equation, notice that neither the
variable x nor the variable y can be eliminated when added at once. What
you need to do is multiply a number to one of the equations, or both, until
Keep this you arrive at a numerical coefficient which only differ in signs.
in MIND! There are ways by which we can solve the given system of linear
When
equations, however, by closely looking the x-column we can easily eliminate
multiplying the
entire the variable x by multiplying +4 to the first equation. To illustrate:
equation by
any nonzero 4 ( -3x - 4y = -5 ) 4 -12x – 16y = -20
number only
changes its 12x - 3y = -18 12x - 3y = -18
form and -19y = -38
does not
change its As the result is a one-step equation you can solve y by dividing
original value. both sides by its coefficient.

−19 y −38 y
−19
= −19

y=2

With the of y = 2, solve x by substitution using either of the

two original equations. For this, you may prefer to work on the
first equation.

-3x - 4y = -5
-3x – 4(2) = -5
-3x - 8 = -5
-3x = 3
x = -1

The solution to the system of linear equation (x,y) = (-1, 2)

Note:
For a system of linear equation in variable, precisely one of the following is true.
1. The system has exactly one solution (consistent system).
2. The system has an infinite number of solution (consistent system).
3. The system has no solution (inconsistent system).

Example 3: Use the method of elimination to solve the system of linear

inequality.

. –x + y ≥ - 2
-2x + y ≤ 2

5
 With this system of linear inequality, notice that variable y will be
eliminated by multiplying – 1 to either of the two equations.

Keep this (-1) –x + y ≥ - 2 -x - y ≤ 2

in MIND! -2x + y ≤ 2 -2x + y ≤ 2
When -2x ≤ 4
multiplying the
entire
x ≤ -2
inequality by a
negative With the solved value of x ≤ - 2, solve y by substitution using either
number,
change the of the two original inequalities. Choosing the first inequality:
sense of the
inequality to –x + y ≥ - 2
its exact
-(-2)+ y ≥ - 2
opposite
4+ y ≥-2
y ≥ -6

The solution to the system of linear equation (x ≤ -2, y ≥ -6)

Example 4: Use the method of elimination to solve the system of linear

inequality.

x + 3y ≤ -1
-3x + y ≤ 1

With this system of linear inequality, notice that no variable will be

eliminated when added at once. The first thing you need to do is to introduce a
multiplier to one of the equations, or both, until you arrive at some coefficients
that only differ in signs.
There are few ways to do just that. However, looking at the x column, you
can easily make the coefficient 1 into 3 by multiplying the first equation by + 3. At
this point, you may proceed with the addition of x column. Performing the
process, it will result to:

x + 3y ≤ -1 3x + 9y ≤ -3
-3x + y ≤ 1 -3x + y ≤ 1
10y ≤ -2

6
 As the result is a one-step inequality you can solve y by dividing both
sides by its coefficient.

10y ≤ -2
y ≤ -1/5
With the solved value of y ≤ - 1/5, solve x by substitution using either of
the two original inequalities. For this, I opt to work on the first inequality.
1
x + 3 (- ) ≤ -1
5
3
x– ≤ -1
5
2
x≤-
5

2 1
The solution to the system of linear equation (x, y) ≤ (- ,- )
5 5

Note:
A system of linear inequalities involves several expression that, when
solved may yield a range of solution. Many of the concepts we learned when studying
systems of linear equations translate to solving a system of linear inequalities.

Now….TRY THIS!

ACTIVITY 2: Direction: Solve the system of linear equations/inequality.

1. 3x + 6y = 12
x+ y = 3

7
2. x + y = 3
2x + 2y =
3. x + y ≥ 3
x+y≥1

4. x + y ≥ 3
x+y≥1

5. x – y ≥ 3
2x – 3y ≥ 1

8
 Make a REFLECTION!!!

ACTIVITY 3: Direction: Complete the thought for each of the phrase below to give it a
more meaningful idea. Recall ideas which you have come across along
with the previous activities.

CARE to SHARE?

I have learned that________________.

I have realized that________________.
I will use my learning to ___________.

9
 Lesson 2: Matrices

We use matrices to solve systems of linear equations. We will advance our study
on matrices by familiarizing the three basic matrix operations: matrix addition, scalar
multiplication, and matrix multiplication. Then, we go further into proving the different properties
of matrix addition and matrix multiplication and finally to find the inverse of the matrix using
different methods.
Matrices are 2 dimensional array described as an ordered arrangement of
number or function which are represented as:

As illustrated above, the matrix is enclosed by [ ] or { }.

It is illustrated represented as A = [ aij ], where i and j are the row and
column number.
For a matrix of m rows and n columns, order is m x n, read as ‘m by ‘n.

Different Types of Matrices

1. Row Matrix: Matrix with one row

Example: A = [ 12 3 ]

2. Column Matrix: Matrix with one column

Example: A = [ 1112]
3. Square Matrix: Matrix with one equal number of rows and column

10
 [ ]
123
Example: A = 4 5 6
789

4. Rectangular Matrix: Matrix with one unequal number of rows and column

Example: A = [ 14 25 36 ]
5. Diagonal Matrix: Matrix with non-diagonal elements equal to zero

[ ]
100
Example: A = [ ]
10
05
or A = 0 5 0
009

THE ALGEBRA OF MATRICES

Matrix Addition and Multiplication

ADDITION OF MATRICES
You can add two matrices (of the same size) by adding their corresponding entries.

If A = aij and B = bij are matrices of same size m x n then their sum is the
matrix given by:
A + B = [ aij + bij ].

The sum of matrices of different sizes is undefined

Example:

[ ] [ ] [
a . −1 2 + 13 = −11 2 3 = 05
01 −12 0−1 1 2 −13 ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [
b . 0−12 + 0 0 0 = 0−1 2
5 13 000 51 3 ]
11
 c .¿ +¿ =¿

[ ]
d . A= −12 and B=¿ ¿
01
* With the above given matrix A and B its sum is undefined.

SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

Just as two or more real numbers or two or more matrices can be multiplied.
Multiplication of matrices generally falls into two categories, Scalar Matrix
Multiplication, in which a single real number is multiplied with every other element of
the matrix and Vector Matrix Multiplication wherein an entire matrix is multiplied by
another one.

When multiplying matrices, real numbers are referred to as scalars. You can
multiply a matrix A by a scalar c by multiplying each entry in A by c. To illustrate:

cA = [ ca ij ]

You can use - A to represent the scalar product (-1) A. If A and B are matrices of
the same size A - B, represents the sum of A and (-1) B. To illustrate:

A – B = A + (-1) B

Example:
For the matrices

[ ] [ ]
12 4 103
A= −3 0−1 and B= 23−2
243 246

Find (a) 2A, (b) –B, (c) 2A – B.

[ ][ ][ ]
124 2(1) 2(2)2( 4) 24 8
(a) 2 A=2 −3 0−1 = 2 (−3 ) 2 ( 0 ) 2(−1) = −6 0−2
243 2(2) 2(4)2(3) 486

[ ][ ]
103 −1 0−3
(b) −B=(−1) 2 3−2 = −2−3 2
246 −2−4−6

12
 [ ][ ][ ]
24 8 103 145
(c) 2 A−B = −6 0−2 - 23−2 = −8 3 0
486 246 240

MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

The third basic matrix operation is matrix multiplication.

This definition means that the entry in the ith row and the jth column of
the product AB is obtained by multiplying the entries in the ith row of A by
the corresponding entries in the th column of B and then adding the
results. The next example illustrates this proce

Example 1:
Find the product AB, where

[ ]
31
A= −4 0 and B= −23
−25
41 [ ]
First note that the product AB is defined because A has size 3 x 2 and B
has 2 x 2. The product will be a matrix of size 3 x 2 and will take the form

[ ][ [ ]
31 c 11 c 12
−4 0
−2 5
−23
41
= ] c 21 c 22
c 31 c 32

Observe the pattern below:

C11 = (3) (-2 ) + (1) (4) = -6 + 4 = -2

Keep this
in MIND! C12 = (3) ( 3 ) + (1) (1) = 9 + 1 = 10
For the C21 = (-4) (-2) + (0) (4) = -8 + 0 = -8
product of
matrices to be C22 = (-4) (3 ) + (0) (1) = 12 + 0 = 12
defined, the
C31 = ( -2) (2) + (5) (4) = -4 + 20 = 16
number of
columns of C32 = (-2) (3) + (5) (1) = -6 + 5 = -1
the 1st matrix
must be equal
to the number The product is:
of rows of the
2nd matrix. 13
 [ ][ [ ]
31 −210
AB= −4 0
−2 5
−23
41]= −8 12
16−1

Example 2:

Find the product AB, where

[ ]
−2 4 2
A= [
1 0 3 ∧B=¿
2−1 – 2 ] 100
−11−1

Solution:

][ ]
−2 4 2
[ 103
2−1 – 2
1 0 0 =¿
−11−1
−5 7−1
−3 6 6 [ ]
2x3 3x3 2x3

PROVING PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION

Let A, B, C be m ×n matrices and p and q be two non-zero scalars (numbers).

Then we have the following properties.

A= [ 13 24 ] ; B=[−10
−22 ] ; C=[
32 ]
−2 1

p=1 ; q=2

(i) A + B = B + A [Commutative property of matrix addition]

[ 13 24 ] + [−1 0
−2 2 ] =[
−2 2 ] [ 3 4 ]
−1 0 . 12
+

[ 1−1 20
3−2 4 2 ] =[
−23 2 4 ]
−1 1 02

[ 0162] = [ 0162]

14
 (ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) +C [Associative property of matrix addition]

[ 13 24 ] + ([−10
−22 [ 3 2 ]) ( [3 4 ] [−2 2 ] ) [ 32 ]
] + −2 1 = 1 2 + −1 0 + −21

[ 13 24 ]+[−31 41] = [ 0162] + [−21

32 ]

[−23
48 ] = [
48 ]
−23

(iii) ( pq)A = p(qA) [Associative property of scalar multiplication]

[ ] 12 12
{ 1 ( 2 ) } 3 4 = (1) 2 3 4 { [ ]}
2 [ 13 24 ] = 1 [ 26 48]
[ 26 48]= [ 26 48]
(iv) IA=A [Scalar Identity property where I is the unit matrix]

1 [ 13 24 ] = [ 13 24 ]
[ 13 24 ] = [ 13 24 ]
(v) p(A + B) = pA + pB [Distributive property of scalar and two
matrices]

1 ([31 24]+[−1 0
−2 2 ] ) = 1 ([ ]) + 1 ([
12
34 −22 ])
−10

1 ([1062]) = ([31 24]) + ([−10

−22 ])

([1062]) = ([1062])
(vi) ( p + q )A = pA +qA [Distributive property of two scalars with a
matrix]

Additive Identity
15
 The null matrix or zero matrix is the identity for matrix addition.

Let A be any matrix.

Then, A + O = O + A = A where O is the null matrix or zero
matrix of same order as that of A

Additive Inverse
If A be any given matrix then –A is the additive inverse of A

The Gauss – Jordan Elimination of Solving System of Linear Equations

Gauss – Jordan Elimination is the process of elimination which involves

creating an augmented matrix of both sides of our equations, changing this matrix into
reduced row echelon form, then finishing up the problem to find our solution.

Example : Solve the system of linear equations by Gauss- Jordan elimination.

x + 3y + z = 10
x - 2y - z = -6
2x + y + 2z = 10

Let’s begin by rewriting the system of linear equations to an augmented matrix.

That is, our 1st row is 1, -3, 1 and 10. Our 2nd row is 1, -2, -1 and -6 and our 3 rd row is 2,
1, 2 and 10. The matrix is then illustrated below:

[ ]
1 3 1: 10
1−2−1 : 6
21 2: 10

Then, we need to express the matrix in reduced echelon form and transform the
matrix to an identity matrix. The process is illustrated below:

[ ]
13 1 :10
0−5−2 :−16 -1 R1 + R2 = R2
0−5 0 :−10
-1R 1 + R3 = R3

16
 [ ]
13 1 :10
0−5 0 :−10 R2 R3
0−5−2 :−16

[ ]
13 1 :10
0−5 0 :−10 R2 + R3 = R3
0 0−2 :−6

[ ]
13 1 :10
01 0 : 2 R2 / -5
0 01 : 3
R 3 / -2

[ ]
10 1 :4
0 1 0: 2 -3 R2 + R1 = R1
0 0 1:3

[ ]
10 0 : 1
0 10 : 2 -1 R3 + R1 = R1
0 0 1: 3

The solution to the system of linear equation (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3)

Now….TRY THIS!

ACTIVITY 4: Direction: Answer as required in each item below.

A. Perform the indicated operation.

1. [
2 1
5 −4 ] [
-2
3 −6
−2 5 ]

[ ]
1 13
2. -2 −4 2−1 +5
020
−23
41[ ]

B. Given the following, prove at least 3 properties of matrix.

17
 A= [−4 3] [ 2−1] ; C=[−23 21]
3−2 B= 5 2
;

p=1 ; q=2

C. Solve the equation using Gauss-Jordan Elimination:

x + y - z = 7
x - y + 2z = 3
2x + y + z = 3

Make a REFLECTION!!!

ACTIVITY 5: Direction: Complete the thought for each of the phrase below to give it a
more meaningful idea. Recall ideas which you have come across along
with the previous activities.

CARE to SHARE?

I have learned that________________.

I have realized that________________.
I will use my learning to ___________.

18
Assess what you have learned

UNIT TEST
I. Direction:
Determine if whether each statement is true or false. If the If a statement is true,
give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from the text. If a statement is
false, provide an example that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite
an appropriate statement from the text.
1. The solution set of a linear equation can be parametrically represented in only one way.

2. A system of linear equations with fewer equations than variables always has at least one
solution.
3. For the product of two matrices to be defined, the number of columns of the first matrix
must equal the number of rows of the second matrix.
4. If A is an m x n matrix and B is a q x r matrix, then the product AB is an m x r matrix.
II. Direction: Answer as required in each item below.
19
1. Solve the linear systems using elimination method.
a. x - y = 4
2x + y = 2
2 1
b. x- y=0
4 3
3 x+ 2( y +5) = 10
2. Perform the matrix operation as indicated in each item.
a. Add:

[ ] [ ]
3−2 52
A= −4 3 ; B= 2−1
3−2 01
b. Multiply:

[ ]
1−3
A= −4 2 ; B=
50
−22
1−3 [ ]
c. Multiply

[ ]
3−2
−4 3 [ 12−3 ]
3−2
3. Prove that if A and B are diagonal matrices (of the same size), then AB = BA.
4. Prove that if A, B and C are square matrices and ABC = 1, then B is invertible and AB =
0, then B = 0
5. Prove that if A is a row-equivalent to B, then B is a row-equivalent to A.
6. Solve the linear system using Gauss-Jordan elimination.
a. x – 4y + 3z = 5
-x + 3y - z = -3
2x - 4z = 6
b. x – 2y + 3z = 9
-x + 3y = -4
2x – 5y + 5z = 1

20
Unit 2

DETERMINANTS

At the end of the session/s, the pstudents should be able to:

• correctly determine the determinant of amatrix using different methods
• show detailed proofs of properties of determinants

21
 In linear algebra, the determinant is a scalar value that can be computed from
the elements of a square matrix and encodes certain properties of the linear
transformation described by the matrix.
Lessons in this chapter will start on familiarizing procedures for evaluating a
determinant of a matrix. Then as we advance our discussion, we will look into the many
algebraic properties which determinants possess. Then, to further understand the lesson,
we will apply the mathematical concepts in solving problems on areas, volumes and
systems of linear equations.

ACTIVITY 1: A walk at the beach!

Direction: Describe each word which you may pick up to help you get to your journey of
locating a Mathematical treasure

Lesson 1: The Determinant of a Matrix: Its Definition and Properties

Every square matrix can be associated with a real number called its
determinant. Discussion in the early part of this chapter are lesson which is centered
on procedures for evaluating the determinant of a matrix.

22
 Historically, the use of determinants arose from the recognition of special
patterns that occur in the solutions of systems of linear equations. For instance, the
general solution of the system:

a1x1 + b1 y1 = c1
a2x2 + b2y2 = c2

can be shown to be:

c 1 b2−c2 b1 c 2 a1−c1 a2
x1 = a1 b2−a2 b 1
and x2 = a1 b2−a2 b 1

provided that the denominator of both fractions a 1 b2 −a2 b1 ≠ 0, this quantity is

the determinant of the coefficient matrix A.

To illustrate :

A= a b
2
[ ]
a1 b1
2

is given by:
det (A) =│A│ = a 1 b2 −a2 b1 .

Example 1: Find the determinant of each matrix:

a. A= [ 21 −32 ]

23
 │A│ = [ 21 −32 ]
= 2 ( 2) – 1 (-3)
=4+3
=7

b. A = [ 02 34]
│A│= [ 02 34]
= 0(4) – 2(3)
=0–6
= -6

PROVING PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

The Determinant of a Matrix Product

a. If A and B are square matrices of order n, then

det (AB) = det (A) det (B)

Proof:
Find │A│, │B│, and │AB│ for the matrices

[ ] [ ]
1−2 2 201
A= 0 32 and B= 0−1−2
10 1 31−2

Solution:

[ ] [ ]
1−2 2 201
A= 0 32 = - 7 and B= 0−1−2 = 11
10 1 31−2
24
The matrix product AB is

[ ][ ] [ ]
1−22 201 84 1
AB= 0 3 2 0−1−2 = 6−1−10 = - 77
101 31−2 5 1−1

Therefore:
│A│ │B│ = │AB│
(-7) ( 11) = -77
-77 = -77

b. If A is an n x n matrix and c is a scalar, then the

determinant of cA is given by
det (cA) = c n det (A)

Proof:
Find the determinant of the matrix.

[ ]
10−20 40
A= 30 0 50
−20−3010

Solution:
By factoring out 10, the matrix will be given by:

[ ]
1−2 4
A=10 305
−2−3 1

and

[ ]
1−2 4
A= 3 05
−2−31

= 5
Therefore:
det (cA) = c n det (A)

25
 1000 (5) = 10 3 (5)
5000 = 5000

The Determinant of an Invertible Matrix

A square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only

if det (A) ≠ 0, then
1
det (A-1) =
det ⁡( A)

To illustrate which of the two matrices A and B is nonsingular?

[ ] [ ]
0 2−1 103
Because A= 3−21 = 0 and B= 0−1 2 = 4
3 2−1 210

We can conclude that matrix B has an inverse (it is nonsingular).

Proof:
Find │B -1│for the matrix

[ ]
103
B= 0−1 2 = 4
210

[ ]
−1 3 3
2 44
3 1
B-1 ¿ 1− −
2 2
1 1 1
− −
2 4 4

= -4

Therefore:
26
 1
det (A-1) =
det ⁡( A)

1
-4 =
4

1 1
=
4 4

Conditions for a Nonsingular Matrix

If A is an n x n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.
1. A is invertible.
2. Ax = b has a unique solution for every n x 1 column matrix b.
3. Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
4. A is row-equivalent to In
5. A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
6. det(A) ≠ 0

Now….TRY THIS!

Activity 2: Answer as required in each item below.

1. Verify that | A| |B| = | AB| as you find (c) AB.

[ ]
A= −21
4−2
and B= [ 0−1
11
]
2. Use the fact that |cA| = cn | A| to evaluate the determinant of n x n matrix.

[ ]
1−2 4
A= 3 05
−2−31

Lesson 2: The Cofactor Expansion and Application

To define the determinant of a matrix of order higher than 2, it is convenient to

use the notions of minors and cofactors. That is

27
 If A ia a square matrix, then the minor My of the element ay is the determinant of
the matrix obtained by deleting the i th row and j th column of A. The cofactor Cy is
given by

Cy = (- 1) i + j My

[ ] [ ]
a 11 a 12a 13 a 11 a 12a 13
a 21 a 22a 23
a 31 a 32a 33
M21 = |a12 a 13
a32 a 33 | a 21 a 22a 23
a 31 a 32a 33
M22 = |a11
a31 |
a 13
a 33

Example 1: Find the minors of cofactors of a matrix

[ ]
0 21
A = 3−1 2
4 01

SOLUTION: To find the minor M11, delete the first row and first column of A and evaluate the
determinant of the resulting matrix.

[ ]
0 21
3−1 2 . M11 =
4 01
−1 2
0 1 | |
= - 1(1) – 0(2) = -1

Similarly, to find M12, delete the first row and second column.

[ ]
0 21
3−1 2
4 01
M12 = |34 21| = 3(1) - 4(2) = -5

Continuing this pattern, you obtain.

M11 = -1 M12 = -5 M13 = 4
M21 = 2 M22 = -4 M23 = -8
M31 = 5 M32 = -3 M33 = -6

Now, to find the cofactors, combine the checkerboard pattern of signs with these
minors to obtain.
C11 = -1 C12 = 5 C13 = 4
C21 = -2 C22 = -4 C23 = 8
C31 = 5 C32 =3 C33 = -6

Example 2: Evaluate the determinant by expansion.

[ ]
0 21
A = 3−1 2
4 01

28
 Notice that we deal with the same matrix as in Example 1. We
Keep this have found that the cofactors of the entries in the 1st row were:
in MIND!
C11 = -1 C12 = 5 C13 = 4
By Laplace’s
Expansion of
determinants,
Then by definition of a determinant, we have
we can │A│ = a 11 c 11+ a12 c 12+ a13 c13 First row expansion
evaluate a
determinant
by expanding = 0(-1) + 2(5) + 1(4)
any row or = 14
column.

Evaluating by 2nd row expansion

│A│= a 21 c 21 + a22 c 22 +a23 c 23 Second row expansion

= 3(-2) + (-1)(-4) + 2(8)

= 14

or by expansion with the first column

│A│= a 11 c 11+ a21 c 21+ a31 c31 First column expansion

= 0(-1) + 3(-2) + 4(5)

= 14

Now….TRY THIS!

Activity 3 : Answer as required in each item below.

1. Find the (a) minors and (b) cofactors of the matrix

[−65 23]
2. Find the determinant of the matrix below using the method of expansion by
cofactors. Use (a) the second row and the (b) the second column.

[ ]
−3 21
4 56
2−3 1

29
 APPLICATIONS OF DETERMINANTS

As we have examined procedures for evaluating determinants and studied

properties of determinants, we will then advance our study doing an explicit formula
for the inverse of a nonsingular matrix and then use this formula to derive a theorem
known as Cramer’s Rule.
Cramer’s Rule, named after Gabriel Cramer (1704–1752), is a formula that uses
determinants to solve a system of linear equations in variables. This rule can be
applied only to systems of linear equations that have unique solutions. To see how
Cramer’s Rule arises, look how it is used in solving area, volume and equations of
lines and planes.

Working with EQUATIONS:

a11x1 + a12x2 = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 = b2

Multiplying the first equation by -a21 and the second by a11 and adding the results
produces

-a21a11x1 + -a21a12x2 = -a21b1

a11a21x1 + -a11a22x2 = a11b2
(a11a22 - a21a12) x2 = a11b2 - a21b1.

Solving for x2 (provided that a11a22 -a21a12 ≠ 0) produces

a11 b 2−a21 b1
x2 =
a11 a22−a21 a12

Finally, recognizing that the numerators and denominators of both x1 and x2 can
be represented as determinants, we can have

x1 =
| |
b1 a12
b2 a22
x2 =
| |
a11 b 1
a21 b 2

| |
a11 a12
a21 a22 | |
a11 a12
a21 a22

The denominator for both x1 and x2 is simply the determinant of the coefficient
matrix A. The determinant forming the numerator of x1 can be obtained from A by

30
 replacing its first column by the column representing the constants of the system.
The determinant forming the numerator of x2 can be obtained in a similar way.
These two determinants are denoted
by [A1]and [A2] as follows.

[A1] = |bb 12 a 12
a 22 | and [A2] = |a11
a21 b 2|
b1

| A 1| | A 2|
You have x 1 =
| A|
and x2 =
| A|
. This determinant form of the solution is called
Cramer’s Rule

Example1: Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the system of linear equations.

4x – 2y = 10
3x – 5y = 11
Solution:

│A│ = [ 43 −2
−5 ]

= 14

Because │A│≠ 0, then the system has a unique solution. And, applying the
Cramer’s Rule will result

x= |1011 −2
−5| y= |43 1011|
14 14
−28 14
= =
−14 −14

=2 = -1

The solution to the system of linear equation (x, y)= ( 2, -1)

Working for the AREA OF A TRIANGLE:

The area of the triangle whose vertices are ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 )and ( x 3 , y 3 ) is given by

31
 [ ]
x1 y11
1
Area = ± det x 2 y 21
2
x3 y31

where the sign (±) is chosen to yield a positive area.

Example 2: Use Cramer’s Rule to find the area of the triangle whose vertices
are (1,0), (2,2), and (4,3).

[ ]
101
1
Area = ± det 2 2 1
2
431

3
=-
2

3
Therefore, the area of the triangle is
2

Now….TRY THIS!

Activity 4: Answer as required in each item below.

1. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (0,0), (2,0), (0,3).

32
 2. Use Cramer’s Rule to evaluate whether the points (1,2) , (3,4), (5,6) are collinear.

3. Solve the system of linear equations below using Cramer’s rule.

3x + 4y = -2
5x + 3y = 4

Make a REFLECTION!!!

ACTIVITY 5: Direction: Complete the thought for each of the phrase below to give it a
more meaningful idea. Recall ideas which you have come across along
with the previous activities.

CARE to SHARE?

33
I have learned that________________.
I have realized that________________.
I will use my learning to ___________.
Assess what you have learned

UNIT TEST

I.Direction:
Determine if whether each statement is true or false. If the If a statement is true,
give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from the text. If a statement is
false, provide an example that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite
an appropriate statement from the text.

34
 1. In Cramer’s Rule, the value of x1 is the quotient of two determinants,
where the numerator is the determinant of the coefficient matrix.

2. Three points ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) and ( x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear if the

determinant of the matrix that has the coordinates as entries in the
first two columns and 1’s as entries in the third column is nonzero.

3. If A is a square matrix, then the matrix of cofactors of A is called the

adjoint of A.

4. In Cramer’s Rule, the denominator is the determinant of the matrix

formed by replacing the column corresponding to the variable being
solved for with the column representing the constants.

II.Direction: Answer as required in each item. Show all necessary solution.

1. Find the determinant of the matrix

a. [−20 03 ]
[ ]
−15 0 4
b. 3 0−5
12 0 6

2. Determine which property of determinant is illustrated.

[ ][ ]
13 1 131
a. 0−1 2 = 25 4
12 1 1 21

b. [ 26 −1
−3 ]
=0

3. Use Cramer’s Rule to find an equation of the line passing through the
given points, (-4,0) , (4,4)

4. Let A, B and C and be three nonzero n x n matrices such that AC =

BC. Does it follow that A = B ? Prove your answer.

5. Prove that if the matrix A has an inverse, then the inverse is unique.

35
Unit 3

VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES

36
 In physics and engineering, a vector is characterized by two quantities (length
and direction) and is represented by a directed line segment. In this chapter you will see
that these are only two special types of vectors. Their geometric representations can
help you understand the more general definition of a vector.
This chapter begins with a short review of vectors in the plane, which is the way
vectors were developed historically.

At the end of the chapter the students should be able to:

1. relate the connection between points in a plane and vectors in a plane
2. graph a 2-vector in the Cartesian plane
3. perform operations on vectors accurately and can properly represent sum and
difference vectors graphically

REVIEW
Use a directed line segment to represent each vector in the plane.

(a) u = (2,3) (b) v = (-1, 2)

SOLUTION To represent each vector, draw a directed line segment from the origin to the
indicated terminal point, as shown in the figure below:

The first basic vector operation is vector addition. To add two vectors in the
plane, add their corresponding components. That is, the sum of u and v is the
vector

u + v = ( u1 , u2 ) + ( v1 , v2 ) = ( u1 , + v1 , u12 + v2
EXAMPLE Find the sum of the vectors.
a. u = (1,4) v = (2, -2)
37
 b. u = (3,-2) v = (3, -2)

SOLUTION
a. u+ v = (1,4) + (2, -2) = (3,2)

b. u+ v = (3,-2) + (-3, -2) = (3,2)= (0,0)

a. b.

The second basic vector operation is multiplication scalar. To multiply a vector

v by a scalar c, multiply each of the components of v by c. That is,

cv = c ( v1 , v2 ) = (cv1 , cv2 )

For instance, if a vector v is multiplied by 2, the resulting vector 2v is a vector

having the same direction as v and twice the length. In general, for a scalar c the
vector cv will be |c|times as long as v.
The product of a vector and the scalar is –v denoted by
-v = (-1) v
The vector –v is called the negative of v. The difference of u and v is defined as
u-v = u + v
and you can say v is subtracted from u.
-v = (-1) v

38
 Operations with Vectors in the Plane

EXAMPLE Find each vector given u = (3,4) (b) v = (-2, 5)

1
a. v
2
b. u−v
1
c. v+u
2

SOLUTION
c. Because v = (-2, 5), you have
1 1 1 1
v= ( (-2) , (5) ) = (- )
2 2 2 2

d. By definition of vector subtraction, you have

u−v = (3 – (-2) ) , 4 – 5 ) = (5, -1)
e. Using the result of part (a), you have
1 5 5 13
v + u = (-1, ) + (3, 4) = (-1 + 3, + 4) = (2, )
2 2 2 2

Properties of Vectors Addition and Multiplication in the Plane

Keep this
in MIND!

To prove each
property apply
the definition
of addition
and scalar
multiplication
using addition
and
multiplication
of real 39
numbers.
Note:
Proving the properties will be regarded as ACTIVITY 1.

Make a REFLECTION!!!

ACTIVITY 5: Direction: Complete the thought for each of the phrase below to give it a
more meaningful idea. Recall ideas which you have come across along
with the previous activities.

CARE to SHARE?

40
I have learned that________________.
I have realized that________________.
I will use my learning to ___________.
Assess what you have learned

UNIT TEST

I.Direction:
Determine if whether each statement is true or false. If the If a statement is true,
give a reason or cite an appropriate statement from the text. If a statement is

41
 false, provide an example that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite
an appropriate statement from the text.

1. For a nonzero scalar c, the vector cv is c times as long as v and has the same
direction as v if c > 0 and the opposite direction if c < 0.
2. A vector space consists of four entities: a set of vectors, a set of scalars, and
two operations.
3. The set of all integers with the standard operations is a vector space.

II.Direction: Answer as required in each item. Show all necessary solution.

1. Complete the proof of the cancellation property of vector addition by supplying

the justification for each step. Prove that if u, v, and w are vectors in a vector
space V such that u + w =v + w, then u= v
u+v=v+w Given
(u + w) + (-w) = (v + w) + (-w) a._______________
u + (w + (-w)) = v + ( w (-w)) b._______________
u+0=v+0 c._______________
u=v d._______________

2. Given the vertex v = (1,2,2) , sketch the graph of the following:

a. 2v
b. –v
1
c. v
2

3. Let u = (1, 2, 3) , v = (2, 2, -1), and w = (4, 0, -4), find:

a. u – v
b. 2u + 4v – w
c. U – v = 2w

References

Finkbeiner, D. (1960). Introduction to Matrices and Linear Transformation. D.B. Taraporevala.

Herstein, H. (1964). Topics in Algebra. Wiley.
Kolman, B. (1970). Elementary Linear Algebra. Pearson.

42
Lang, S. (1971). Linear Algebra. Springer.
Larson- Edwards y Falvo. (2009). Elementary Algebra.

43