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1. INTRODUCTION

Metal casting process begins by creating a mold, which is the ‘reverse’ shape of the part we need. The
mold is made from a refractory material, for example, sand. The metal is heated in an oven until it
melts, and the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity. The liquid takes the shape of cavity, which
is the shape of the part. It is cooled until it solidifies. Finally, the solidified metal part is removed from
the mould.
A large number of metal components in designs we use every day are made by casting. The reasons for
this include:
(a) Casting can produce very complex geometry parts with internal cavities and hollow sections.
(b) It can be used to make small (few hundred grams) to very large size parts (thousands of kilograms)
(c) It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is re-melted and re-used
(d) Cast metal is isotropic – it has the same physical/mechanical properties along any direction.

Common examples: door handles, locks, the outer casing or housing for motors, pumps, etc., wheels of
many cars. Casting is also heavily used in the toy industry to make parts, e.g. toy cars, planes, and so
on.

1.1 Definition of Casting

Casting may be defined as items produced by pouring molten metal into a mould, and then solidifying
it. In technical terms this involves the creation of a mould out of sand, metal, or other materials, with a
cavity of a specific shape and dimension, pouring molten metal into the mould, and finally solidifying
the metal at a designated cooling speed. This method is known as "casting", and the products produced
through the method are called "casting".

1.2 Types and Characteristics

1.2.1 Cast Iron Castings

Cast iron castings are produced by melting pig iron, steel scrap, iron scrap and return scrap in an electric
furnace or a cupola, pouring it into a mould, and then solidifying. Examples include the commonly used
gray (grey) iron, heat-treated malleable cast iron, and high strength wear-resistant alloy cast iron, and
nodular cast iron (spheroidal graphite cast iron, ductile iron).

1.2.2 Steel Castings

Steel castings are cast from steel smelted in an electric furnace. The resulting products are superior in
toughness and impact resistance.

1.2.3 Nonferrous Castings

Nonferrous castings are made using such nonferrous metals as copper & its alloys, nickel, zinc or other
alloys composed mainly of such metals. Such castings are characterized by superior resistance to
corrosion, electricity, heat conductivity and lightness etc.
Other types of castings include highly accurate "die castings" produced by pouring molten metal into
precision dies under pressure, and highly precise "precision casting".
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Classification of ferrous and nonferrous castings

1.3 Development in foundry equipment and technology

The casting process was automated at a rapid pace starting in the 1950s. This is contributed to the stable
supply of high-quality, high-precise casting products.
The development made in new casting technology and techniques, the introduction of production
control systems focused on quality control and widespread transition of modern equipment and facilities
during this period have played a leading role in creating a dramatic jump in productivity.
Large-scale, high-pressure moulding line and vertically parting flaskless moulding line have been
adopted in the mass production casting field. Self-hardening moulding equipment were introduced
mainly in the non-mass production foundries. In addition high and low frequency induction furnaces,
processing and cleaning and finishing equipment became widely used.
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1.4 Flow Chart of Typical Foundry Operation

Drawing/ Sample

Product Drawing

Casting Design/ Drawing

Pattern Drawing

Pattern

Moulding (or die) materials Moulding (or die making)

Melting Molten Metal Mould (or die)

Raw Materials Solidification

Shake Out

Casting

Cleaning/ Shot Blasting

Fetling
(removal of gating system)

Finishing

Product

Inspection

Delivery
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2. Casting Operation
2.1 Gating System Design
The gating system design is the basic process plan formulated for each individual casting, and in its
broad definition involved the following operations.
i.) A drawing of an original casting, a gating system chart (feeder head sprue-, runner- and pattern
planning), and pattern making drawings
ii.) The selection of the chemical composition and the heat treatment conditions that will satisfy the
specification standards
iii.) The specification of pouring, moulding and finishing conditions
iv.) The selection of the moulding, core-making and the mixture of the foundry sand

Moreover, the following checkpoints are of particular importance when considering productivity, model
changes, etc., are made.
i.) Excessive thickness and small inside corner angles
ii.) The smoothness of component shape to avoid concentration of casting stress
iii.) Whether or not the shape facilities the easy removal or knocking out of core sand
iv.) Whether or not the core can be eliminated through a modification of the shape of castings parts

2.2 Pattern and Pattern Making

A pattern is the model of the product. The first step in casting is to make the model after the drawing of
the product is made.

2.2.1 Pattern making requirements

Any roughness of the pattern is transferred to the sand mould, which not only affects the roughness of
the casting surface but may also contribute to the damage of the mould itself. It is important, that the
surface of the pattern be smooth as possible. In addition, dimensions of the pattern should be accurate,
have a long service life, be able to resist abrasion caused by the foundry sand and stand up to the
pressure exerted during the moulding process without deformation or damage. Pattern used in green
sand moulding must be able to withstand moisture absorption with a minimum of deformation and
dimensional deviation.

2.2.2 Kinds and Characteristic of pattern materials

Pattern Characteristics No. of usable

materials times
Wooden pattern Easy to process and inexpensive to produce. 100 – 500
Susceptible to dimensional deviation due to
moisture, with a short service life.
Aluminum Have good machinability, less expensive than cast 1,000 – 10,000
patterns iron patterns, durability is slightly superior to that
of wooden patterns but not as cast iron patterns
Cast iron Expensive, but has good dimensional accuracy. 5,000 – 20,000
patterns Minimal deformation due to heat expansion.
Rubber patterns Silicon rubber is used, making a pattern draw 100 – 1,000
possible even with a slight under cut. Used mainly
in special casting processes and for art castings
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2.2.3 Types of Patterns

Type Application Example

Real Pattern is made quite the same as For simple
solid the product shaped castings
pattern of which pattern
is drawn out from
the mould
Single Solid

without any
divisions.
Solid Pattern is not divided, needs core For simple
pattern castings of which
pattern is to be
drawn from the
mould without
any divisions, but
needs core.
Two parts Pattern is divided to two parts of For simple shape
solid pattern drag and cope at the parting plane castings
comparative of
which patterns
are divided to
two parts for
drawing out from
the mould
Piled solid Pattern is divided to three or more For complicated
pattern parts in order to draw out from castings which
the mould and to insert core need check
smoothly in mould assembly. middle flask
Sweeping Pattern that makes mould For cylindrical
pattern scraping sand by turning the and disc-shaped
sweeping plate fixed to turning castings.
spindle. Sweeping plate has the
same sectional shape as casting
section
Frame guided Pattern that makes the mould by For castings such
sweeping scraping sand with sweeping plate as valves and
pattern moving along the frame guide. pipes (pipe
Sweeping pattern has the same bends).
sectioned shape as casting
section.
Skelton This pattern is used to make sand For large casting
pattern outer pattern and inner pattern. which has
Thickness gauge plates are variations in its
installed in proper intervals on section
basic plate. After setting this
pattern and flask, sand is rammed
up to outer edge of gauge plate
and scraped out moving a
sweeping bar along the gauge
plate. Then paper is lined on it.
Thus outer pattern is formed.

2.2.4 Pattern allowances

i.) Shrinkage Allowance
This is the allowance given to compensate for the shrinkage of the metal on cooling. Here, pattern is made
slightly bigger than the casting. Values of shrinkage allowance depends on casting metal, temperature of molten
metal, size and shape of casting, type of mould material and moulding method. For this purpose, shrink ruler
used.
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Ex.
Metal Allowance (mm/m)
Cast Iron 10
Steel 20
Brass 16
Aluminium 16
Zinc 16
Lead 26

ii.) Draft (or taper) allowance

In order to avoid damaging the surface of the mould when removing the pattern and the wood-pieces for the
vents, pouring cup, sprue, risers etc., it is important to incline the vertical surfaces of the part geometry. This
(slight) inclination is called a taper or draft.
Draft allowance is given on both internal and external surfaces.
On external surfaces 40 to 70 mm per m
On internal surfaces 10 to 25 mm per m
Allowance is influenced by size (vertical height) of the pattern.
Ex.

Figure: Taper in design

iii.) Machining Finish allowance

To bring the product to desired level of quality, it may have to be machined. For this, some machining allowance
is added on to the pattern.
The amount of allowance depend on
(a) Degree of finish required
(b) Size and shape of the casting
(c) method of making mould
(d) metal of casting

iv.) Camber allowance

In the cooling process of casting, due to the tensile stress of the later cooled part warpage occurs according to the
cooling speed and shape of casting. Expecting the amount of warpage, a pattern may be made with allowance of
warpage. It is called camber. Warpage depends on the thickness and method of casting and it is actually
determined by experience. Generally, 2 – 3 mm is considered appropriate for 1 m.

v.) Shake or Rapping allowance

The pattern is rapped (or shake) in the mould before it is withdrawn. This rapping increases the size of
the cavity slightly. Hence, shake allowance should be negative and the pattern is made slightly smaller
to compensate for the rapping.
2.3 Moulding (Mould making)
The moulding process involves the making of main mould, core and other mould components. In the broadest
sense, it is also used to refer to all of the operations performed on the moulding line: moulding, core making, core
assembly, core insert, mould closing, frame removal, shaking or knocking out, and the reclamation,
reconditioning and mixing of the moulding sand.

2.4 Melting and Pouring

The contents and the difficulty of the melting and pouring processes depend entirely upon the melting
temperature, latent heat of the metal, solidification shrinkage, and other inherent properties of the
casting materials.
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3. Casting Processes

The following table summarizes different types of casting processes, their advantages, disadvantages and
applications.

Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples

Sand Wide range of metals, sizes, poor finish, wide engine blocks, cylinder
shapes, low cost tolerance heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads, brake
pattern shapes strength components

Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, prototypes of mechanical
finish low production rate
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high small sizes impellers, injection mold
accuracy, good finish tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent small parts, Jewellery
finish expensive
Permanent mold good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
production rate shapes only

Die Excellent dimensional costly dies, small precision gears, camera

accuracy, high production rate parts, non-ferrous bodies, car wheels
metals

Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, limited pipes, boilers, flywheels
quality shapes

3.1 Sand Casting

Figure 3.1.1 Work flow in typical sand-casting foundry

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Sand casting uses natural or synthetic sand, which is mostly a refractory material called silica (SiO2). The sand
grains must be small enough so that it can be packed densely; however, the grains must be large enough to allow
gasses formed during the metal pouring to escape through the pores. Larger sized molds use green sand (mixture
of sand, clay and some water). Sand can be re-used, and excess metal poured is cutoff and re-used.

Figure 3.1.2 Schematic showing steps of the sand casting process

Typical sand moulds have the following parts (see above figure):
• The mould is made of two halves, the top half is called the cope, and bottom part is the drag.
• The liquid flows into the gap between the two halves, called the mold cavity. The geometry of the cavity is
created by the use the pattern. The shape of the patterns is (almost) identical to the shape of the part we need to
make.
• A funnel shaped cavity; the top of the funnel is the pouring cup; the pipe-shaped neck of the funnel is the
sprue, the liquid metal is poured into the pouring cup and flows down the sprue.
• The runners are the horizontal hollow channels that connect the bottom of the sprue to the mould cavity. The
region where any runner joins with the cavity is called the gate.
• Some extra cavities are made connecting to the top surface of the mold. Excess metal poured into the mould
flows into these cavities, called risers. They act as reservoirs; as the metal solidifies inside the cavity, it shrinks,
and the extra metal from the risers flows back down to avoid holes in the cast part.
• Vents are narrow holes connecting the cavity to the atmosphere to allow gasses and the air in the cavity to
escape.
• Cores: Many cast parts have interior holes (hollow parts), or other cavities in their shape that are not directly
accessible from either piece of the mold. Such interior surfaces are generated by inserts called cores. Cores are
made by baking sand with some binder so that they can retain their shape when handled. The mold is assembled
by placing the core into the cavity of the drag, and then placing the cope on top, and locking the mold. After the
casting is done, the sand is shaken off, and the core is pulled away and usually broken off.
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The core is held in position by supporting geometry called core prints (see figure 3.1.2 below). If the design is
such that there is insufficient support to hold the core in position, then metal supports called chaplets are used.
The chaplets will be embedded inside the final part.

Figure3.1.2 Design components of a mold showing chaplets

After the casting is obtained, it must be cleaned using air-jet or sand blasting. Finally, the extra metal near the
gates, risers and vents must be cut off and critical surfaces are machined to achieve proper surface finish and
tolerance.

3.1.1 Green Sand and Moulding

3.1.1.1 Green sand or Moulding Sand

The major production of castings is in sand moulds. Moulds for making a ton of castings may require 4 to 5 tons
of moulding sand.
The tonnage of sand, which must be handled in a foundry, is large, and its quality must be controlled to make
good castings.

3.1.1.1.1 General Properties of Moulding Sand

1. Green strength
The green sand, after water has been mixed into it, must have adequate strength and plasticity for making and
handling of the mould.
2. Dry strength
As a casting is poured, sand adjacent to the hot metal quickly loses its water as steam. The dry sand must have
strength to resist erosion, and the metallostatic pressure of molten metal, or else the mould may enlarge.
3. Permeability
Heat from the casting causes a green –sand mould to evolve a great deal of steam and other gases. The mould
must be permeable (i.e. porous), to permit the gases to pass off, or the casting will contain gas holes.
4. Thermal stability
Heat from the casting causes rapid wearing of the sand surface at the mould-metal interface. The mould surface
may then crack, buckle, or flake off (scab) unless the moulding sand is relatively stable dimensionally under
rapid heating.
5. Refractoriness
Higher pouring temperature, such as those for ferrous alloy at 1,300 to 1,800˚C require greater refractoriness of
the sand. Low-pouring-temperature metals, for example, aluminium, poured at 700˚C, do not require at high
degree of refractoriness from the sand.
6. Flowability
The sand should respond to moulding processes.
7. Produces good casting finish
8. Collapsibility
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Heated and which becomes hard and rocklike is difficult to remove from the casting and may cause the
contracting metal to tear or crack.
9. Is reusable.
10. Offers ease of sand preparation and control.
11. Removes heat from the cooling of casting.

3.1.1.1.2 Ingredients of Moulding Sand

Moulding sands are mixtures of three or more ingredients. Green sand contains clay and water, as well as the
principal sand constituent, SiO2. These three components provide the bulk and plasticity required of the
moulding sand. Other materials may be added to the sand mixture to enhance certain of the properties

Sand
Granular particles of sand, that is SiO2 principally, comprise 50 to 95 per cent of the total material in a moulding
sand. In different moulding sands, these sand particles may differ in the following ways:
1. Average grain size, grain size distribution, and grain shape.
The grain size and grain shape are very important as they define the surface quality of casting and the
major mould parameters such as strength and permeability:

2. Chemical composition.
3. Refractoriness and thermal stability.
Average fineness of the sand grains establishes the fineness of the moulding sand as a whole, and the grain size
distribution affects many of the sand properties.

Clay
Moulding sand may contain about 2 to 50 per cent of clay. With suitable water content, it is the principal source
of the strength and plasticity of the moulding sand. Clay is thus the bond, or binder, of moulding sands.
In same mineral deposits, clay and sand occur mixed in proper proportions, so that the sand can be mined and
used directly for moulding. It is then referred to as “natural moulding sand”.
In other sands, clay bond must be added to develop the proper strength and plasticity. Several types of clay are
used for this purpose.
Clay minerals used as bonding additions to sands include the following types:
1. Bentonites (montmorillonites)
2. Fire clay (kaolinites)
3. Special clays (halloysite, illite, attapulgite)
Green sands may be considered as clay-saturated or unsaturated aggregates according to the clay percentage
present. A clay-saturated green sand is defined as one containing a high enough percentage of clay so that any
further increase in clay content will not an increase in maximum green compressive strength of the aggregate.
The specific percentage of clay required for saturation depends on purity and type of clay, base sand, and
additives. In most cases, about 8 to 12 percent of bentonites (either sodium or calcium) or about 20 to 25 per cent
fire clay is sufficient to produce a clay-saturated mixture with the sand fineness of 60 to 100 AFS number.

Water
Water, present in amounts of about 1.5 to 8 percent, activates the clay in the sand, causing the aggregate to
develop plasticity and strength.
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Water in moulding sands is often referred to as tempering water. The water is absorbed by the clay up to a
limiting amount. Only that water rigidly held (adsorbed) by the clay appears to be effective in developing
strength. The rigid clay coatings of grains may be forced together, casting a wedging action and thus developing
strength.
Addition water, however, can act as a lubricant, and makes the sand more plastic and more mouldable, though the
strength may be lowered.

Additives
These are optional and added when special properties are needed.
Eg. Carbonaceous materials (sea coal, asphalt etc.) – to prevent burn-in effect, form vapour cushion against
mould wall
Cellulose (wood flour, ground nut shells) – improve collapsibility and flowability of sand
Silica Flour – increase mould density, reduces penetration in ferrous castings.

3.1.1.1.3 Kinds of Green Sands

There are two kinds in green sand, namely, natural moulding sand and synthetic sand.

Natural moulding sand

The sands which are produced by weathering of rocks are natural moulding sand and these can be directly used
for moulding. Silica sand surface is already coated with clay.

Synthetic sand
Synthetic sand are moulding sand which are prepared by mulling proper silica sand grain, binder, water and
additives so as to posses required physical and mechanical properties.

Comparison of Natural Sand and Synthetic Sand

NATURAL SAND SYNTHETIC SAND

Material Sand, Clay, Organic materials from weeds, Sand, bentonite, additives
tree, bacterium, etc.
Sand Treatment (Machine) Usually not necessary (if poor sand Necessary (Sand treatment
quality, a simple sand treatment will do.) equipment; mixer, etc.)
Moulding Easy Easy (Especially when sand
treatment has been sufficient.)
Repair of Mould Easy Relatively difficult
Shake-out Easy Easy

Reclamation Easy (only need water adjustment) Easy (although mixing is

necessary)
Life of Sand Limited Not limited
Effect on Castings. Mould swelling, Sand adherence gas Similar to Natural sand but of
defects. (depending on size of materials.) lesser degree (method is good for
rather large size castings.)

3.1.1.2 Moulding Operation

Sand moulds are made either manually or mechanically. Recently, the mechanised moulding is widely used,
because of the development of small and large moulding machines.

3.1.1.2.1 Manual Moulding

Manual moulding is suitable to small production quantity. Complicated shape gigantic (very large) casting is
difficult to be moulded mechanically. Therefore, moulding is done manually. Usually, sand with clay binders is
used.
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Steps of Moulding with the conventional cope and drag moulds

1. A mould board is put onto a flat

floor with sand scattered horizontally.
2. The pattern & the flask for drag are
put on the mould board. The flask
must be large such that the sand
thickness is within 30 -90 mm. The
position of sprue is determined
beforehand.
3. Sieved surface (facing) sand is put
to cover the surface of the pattern in
the flask. The facing sand layer is
made about 30 mm thick.
4. Moulding (baking) sand are then
poured into & rammed by using
rammer. It must be done carefully to
avoid ramming the pattern directly.
Ramming by stamping is also done in
the same manner. Sand piled
exceeding the upper edge level of the
flask is scrubbed away & the mould is
lifted together with the pattern from
the mould board.
5. The mould is rolled over & put
onto the mould board, & the other
half of the pattern & the flask for cope
are set on it. Parting agent is then
scattered or sprayed onto the parting
surface & the pattern surface.
6. Sprue rod or the pattern for the riser
is set & surface sand & baking sand
are poured into the flask & rammed.
Then if the flask does not posses pins
& lugs, marking should be done
before removing the cope. Then the
cope is removed from the drag & put
on a mould board horizontally.
7. Runner & gate are cut with spatula.
If the pattern for runner & gate are set
in contact with the main pattern
beforehand, cutting with spatula is not
necessary.
8. The pattern is removed from the
mould using a needle. The cores are
set in the mould cavity, & then the
cope & drag are closed together.

3.1.1.2.2 Mechanical Moulding

In mass production mechanised moulding is efficient & ensures the production of good moulds. The moulding
machine is chosen based on the dimensions, shapes, weight, production quantity, etc., of casting.
Machines used for this purpose are Jolt moulding machine (m.m.), Squeeze m.m., jolt squeeze m.m., high
pressure m.m., blow squeeze m.m. & sand slinder.
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i. Moulding by jolt moulding machine

Jolt is the moulding method done by repeated vertical impact. The flask, the pattern & sand are lifted & dropped
at regular intervals. This repetition vertical movement of the machine packs & rams up the sand in a flask on the
pattern plate.
Most of the modern moulding machine is shockless-jolt type, to prevent the impact of jolting from transmitting to
the earth & shaking buildings.

ii. Moulding by squeeze moulding machine

The method of moulding by

compressing the sand with
squeeze plate using oil or
pneumatic pressure is called
squeeze moulding. The
compressed air from the air
suction inlet for squeeze lifts up
the table quietly & presses it
against the squeeze plate fixed
on the top of machine. The
sand in the flask put between
the squeeze plate & the table
are moulded by the sufficient
compression.

iii. Moulding by jolt squeeze moulding machine

The typical moulding machine in foundry is jolt squeeze moulding machine. Here both jolting & squeezing
actions are done in the same machine. This moulding machine makes the cope & drag moulds simultaneously if
the depth of flask is not so deep.
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iv. Moulding by high-pressure moulding machine

The conventional moulding machine presses the mould surface at most by the pressure of 2 -3 kg/mm2. The type
called high pressure moulding machine presses the moulding surface by the pressure of 7 -30 kg/mm2. The
squeeze head of this machine is usually operated by hydraulic pressure. Moreover the squeeze head is divided
into many segments, each of separately moved by hydraulic cylinder. The upper hydraulic chambers are
connected to each other, & then each segment is, presses compressing the sand until the sand resistance is
balanced with hydraulic pressure. Therefore, whole surface is uniformly rammed up.
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v. Moulding by blow squeeze moulding machine
This machine is the type which blows the sand into the flask & squeezes the mould. The sequence of operation is
described under the diagram.

vi. Moulding by sand slinger

Sand slinger is the machine which fills up the sand by

slinging sand onto the pattern strongly by rapidly
rotating impeller. Feeding of sand to the slinger head is
usually done by belt-conveyor. The head turns around
the column for about 270 degrees & moves to & for.
Therefore, it covers a wide range for moulding.

Merits
(1) Sand slinger is suitable for moulding of medium
size to large size in wide range.
(2) Foundation work for it is rather easy.
Demerits
(1) Operation requires skill to some extent. Operators
suffer physical & mental fatigue.
(2) Articles of consumption must be changed in awhile.
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3.1.2 Sand Moulding Processes
3.1.2.1 Green -Sand Moulding
Green Sand Moulding is defined as a plastic mixture of sand grains, clay, water and other materials which can
be used for moulding and casting processes. The sand is called “green” because of the moisture present and is
thus distinguished from dry sand.

3.1.2.2 Dry-Sand Moulding

Dry sand moulds are made with moulding sand in the green condition and entire mould is then dried in an oven
at 300 to 650oF or by circulating heated air through the mould. Dry sand moulding may be done the same way
as green-sand moulding and usually mould cavity surface is coated or sprayed with a suitable mould coating.
• These moulds give good strength, greater hardness and Refractoriness.
• Time consuming drying operation is one inherent disadvantage.
• Skin-dried moulds – drying mould surface to ¼” to 1” by torches or electrical heating elements.

3.1.2.3 Floor and Pit Moulding

This type of moulding is mainly used for production of large intricate castings weighing from 1 to over 100
tons. Floor moulding is done on the floor of bays of the foundry set aside for these heavy jobs. A completed
floor mould is then skin dried.
When the pattern being moulded is too large to be handled in flasks, the moulding is done in pits. In this, pit is
dug on the foundry floor. The bottom of the pit is made of coke, straw & sand layer. The sides of the pit are
brick lined.
In corner of the pit a bent pipe is provided which connects the layer of coke with atmosphere for letting gases
generated go out in the atmosphere. The pattern may be suspended within the pit at correct position & sand is
rammed under it. If pattern bottom surface is flat it is not suspended.

3.1.2.4 Cement-Bonded sand Moulds

This moulding sand is a mixture of sand 8 to 12% Portland cement & 4 to 6% water. This sand develops great
hardness and strength by the setting action of Portland cement. Moulding is done as conventional way and sand
must be allowed to set or harden before the pattern be withdrawn. Then the mould is allowed to cure, or
continue setting for up to 72 hrs before the mould can be closed or assembled for pouring.
These moulds give considerable accuracy often more than that obtainable in other processes for making large
moulds.

3.1.2.5 CO2 Moulding or Sodium Silicate Process

This is a mixture of sand (SiO2) and 1.5 to 6% liquid Sodium Silicate. The sand mixture is first packed around
the pattern or into the core box and CO2 gas is passed through the sand mixture. A hardened mould is obtained
by gelation as following reaction.
Na2.mSiO2(mn+ x )H2O + CO2 ------Na2CO3.xH2O + m(SiO2.nH2O)
m - mol ratio of water glass
n - mol ratio of water indicating the content of Silica gel.
x - mol ratio of solution of Sodium Carbonate.
3.1.2.6 Shell Moulding
This process produces thin shell like mould of Silica sand coated with thermosetting resin which is thermo set
by the preheated of metallic pattern.
This gives good surface smoothness and dimensional accuracy to the casting. Therefore this process has been
applied as one of the precision casting process.

3.1.3 Core Making

Cores are sand shapes which set in the cavities of moulds to prevent the metal occupying the parts
corresponding to the holes or the vacancies of the castings to make them.
Many types of cores are available, such as oil core, shell core, CO2 core, air set core, etc., whose names relates
to binders or types of core making processes in addition to the sand with clay binder.
Core making can be done manually or mechanically.

3.1.3.1 Manual Core making

The making of core is done in core boxes. The escape of gas from the core should be uni-directional, so that
after making the core, vent holes are bored & channels are cut to connect those vent holes with each other to
guide the gas out of the mould. The completed core is dried in an oven & rounded at the comers by spatula or
smoothed on the surface.
The followings must be considered in manual core making;
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1. Pack core sand into core box uniformly.
2. Look into the dimensions & positions of core grids & diameters & positions of vents.
3. Treat the completed cores carefully without deformation or fracture.

3.1.3.2 Mechanical Core making

For core making by machine, core-blower is used. In core-blower, air is blown into the sand hopper, & core
sand is fed with the air into the clamped core box. The air escapes away through the vent holes of core box.
Core sand remains in the core box & turn to be a core. The clamp is released & core is removed.
The following must be considered in mechanical core making;
1. Design core boxes by which core making will be easy. Provide measures to prevent wear by sand.
2. Proper venting is necessary so that the air in the core box & the air brought into it with core sands by blowing
are smoothly exhausted out of -the core box. The shapes, positions & the number of vent holes are the most
important factors in core making. .

3.2 Shell-mold casting

Shell-mold casting yields better surface quality and tolerances. The process is described as follows:
The 2-piece pattern is made of metal (e.g. aluminum or steel), it is heated to between 175°C-370°C, and coated
with a lubricant, e.g. silicone spray.
Each heated half-pattern is covered with a mixture of sand and a thermoset resin/epoxy binder. The binder glues
a layer of sand to the pattern, forming a shell. The process may be repeated to get a thicker shell.
The assembly is baked to cure it.
The patterns are removed, and the two half-shells joined together to form the mold; metal is poured into the
mold.
When the metal solidifies, the shell is broken to get the part.

Figure 3.2.1 Making the shell-mold Figure 3.2.2. Shell mold casting

3.3 Expendable-pattern casting (lost foam process)

The pattern used in this process is made from polystyrene (this is the light, white packaging material which is
used to pack electronics inside the boxes). Polystyrene foam is 95% air bubbles, and the material itself
evaporates when the liquid metal is poured on it.
The pattern itself is made by molding – the polystyrene beads and pentane are put inside an aluminum mold,
and heated; it expands to fill the mold, and takes the shape of the cavity. The pattern is removed, and used for
the casting process, as follows:
- The pattern is dipped in a slurry of water and clay (or other refractory grains); it is dried to get a hard shell
around the pattern.
- The shell-covered pattern is placed in a container with sand for support, and liquid metal is poured from a hole
on top.
- The foam evaporates as the metal fills the shell; upon cooling and solidification, the part is removed by
breaking the shell.
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The process is useful since it is very cheap, and yields good surface finish and complex geometry. There are
no runners, risers, gating or parting lines – thus the design process is simplified. The process is used to
manufacture crank-shafts for engines, aluminum engine blocks, manifolds etc.

Figure 3.3 Expendable mold casting

3.4 Investment casting (lost wax process)

This is an old process, and has been used since ancient times to make jewellery. It is also used to make other
small (few grams, though it can be used for parts up to a few kilograms). The steps of this process are shown in
the figure below.

Figure 3.4 Steps in the investment casting process

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An advantage of this process is that the wax can carry very fine details – so the process not only gives good
dimensional tolerances, but also excellent surface finish; in fact, almost any surface texture as well as logos etc.
can be reproduced with very high level of detail.

3.5 Plaster-mold casting

The mold is made by mixing plaster of paris (CaSO4) with talc and silica flour; this is a fine white powder,
which, when mixed with water gets a clay-like consistency and can be shaped around the pattern (it is the same
material used to make casts for people if they fracture a bone). The plaster cast can be finished to yield very
good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. However, it is relatively soft and not strong enough at
temperature above 1200°C, so this method is mainly used to make castings from non-ferrous metals, e.g. zinc,
copper, aluminum, and magnesium.
Since plaster has lower thermal conductivity, the casting cools slowly, and therefore has more uniform grain
structure (i.e. less warpage, less residual stresses).

3.6 Ceramic mold casting

Similar to plaster-mold casting, except that ceramic material is used (e.g. silica or powdered Zircon ZrSiO4).
Ceramics are refractory (e.g. the clay hotpot used in Chinese restaurants to cook some dishes), and also have
higher strength that plaster.
The ceramic slurry forms a shell over the pattern; It is dried in a low temperature oven, and the pattern is
removed
- Then it is backed by clay for strength, and baked in a high temperature oven to burn off any volatile
substances.
- The metal is cast same as in plaster casting.
This process can be used to make very good quality castings of steel or even stainless steel; it is used for parts
such as impellor blades (for turbines, pumps, or rotors for motor-boats).

3.7 Vacuum casting

This process is also called counter-gravity casting. It is basically the same process as investment casting, except
for the step of filling the mold (step (e) above). In this case, the material is sucked upwards into the mould by a
vacuum pump. The figure 3.7 below shows the basic idea – notice how the mold appears in an inverted position
from the usual casting process, and is lowered into the flask with the molten metal.

Figure 3.7.1 Vacuum casting

One advantage of vacuum casting is that by releasing the pressure a short time after the mold is filled, we can
release the un-solidified metal back into the flask. This allows us to create hollow castings. Since most of the
heat is conducted away from the surface between the mold and the metal, therefore the portion of the metal
closest to the mold surface always solidifies first; the solid front travels inwards into the cavity. Thus, if the
liquid is drained a very short time after the filling, then we get a very thin walled hollow object, etc. (see Figure
3.7.2).
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Figure 3.7.2 Draining out metal before solidification yields hollow castings

3.8 Permanent mold casting (Gravity Die Casting)

Here molten metal is poured to a metal mould under the action of gravity and the two halves of the mold
are made of metal, usually cast iron, steel, or refractory alloys. The cavity, including the runners and gating
system are machined into the mold halves. For hollow parts, either permanent cores (made of metal) or sand-
bonded ones may be used, depending on whether the core can be extracted from the part without damage after
casting. The surface of the mold is coated with clay or other hard refractory material – this improves the life of
the mold. Before molding, the surface is covered with a spray of graphite or silica, which acts as a lubricant.
This has two purposes – it improves the flow of the liquid metal, and it allows the cast part to be withdrawn
from the mold more easily. The process can be automated, and therefore yields high throughput rates. In
addition, it produces very good tolerance and surface finish. It is commonly used for producing pistons used in
car engines, gear blanks, cylinder heads, and other parts made of low melting point metals, e.g. copper, bronze,
aluminum, magnesium, etc.
Advantages
• Less gas porosity than sand & die casting
• Heat treatable alloys are permanent mould casting.
Disadvantages
• Maximum & average of casting is smaller than sand casting
• Difficulty of casting high melting point moulds.

3.9 Die casting (Pressure Die Casting)

Here molten metal is poured under pressure into the cavity of the mould. Die casting is a very commonly used
type of permanent mold casting process. It is used for producing many components of home appliances (e.g rice
cookers, stoves, fans, washing and drying machines, fridges), motors, toys and hand-tools. Surface finish and
tolerance of die cast parts is so good that there is almost no post-processing required. Die casting molds are
expensive, and require significant lead time to fabricate; they are commonly called dies. There are two common
types of die casting: hot- and cold-chamber die casting.

Hot-chamber die-casting
In hot chamber die-casting, the metal is melted in a container attached to the machine, and a piston is
used to inject the liquid metal under high pressure into the die.
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The basic cycle of operation is as follows:
(i) die is closed and gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal;
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck passage and nozzle and into the die cavity; metal
is held under pressure until it solidifies;
(iii) die opens and cores, if any, are retracted; casting stays in ejector die; plunger returns, pulling
molten metal back through nozzle and gooseneck;
(iv) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die. As plunger uncovers inlet hole, molten metal refills
gooseneck cylinder.
The hot chamber process is used for metals that have low melting points and do not alloy with the die
material, steel; common examples are tin, zinc, and lead.
Advantages:
High productivity (up to 500 parts per hour)
Close tolerances
Good surface finish
Disadvantages:
The injection system is submerged in the molten metal
Only simple shapes
Area of application:
Mass production of non-ferrous alloys with very low melting point (zinc, tin, lead)

Cold chamber die casting

In cold-chamber die-casting, molten metal is poured into the chamber from an external melting
container, and a piston is used to inject the metal under high pressure into the die cavity

The operating cycle:

(i) die is closed and molten metal is ladled into the cold chamber cylinder;
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity; the metal is held under high pressure until it
solidifies;
(iii) die opens and plunger follows to push the solidified slug from the cylinder, if there are cores, they
are retracted away;
(iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die and plunger returns to original position.
This process is particularly useful for high melting point metals such as Aluminum, and Copper (and
its alloys).

Advantages:
Same as in hot chamber die-casting, but less productivity.

Disadvantages:
Only simple shapes
Area of application:
Mass production of aluminium and magnesium alloys, and brass
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3.10 Centrifugal casting
The process, in which the mould is rotated at high speed about its central axis (or an axis) while the
molten metal is poured in it, is a centrifugal casting process. Therefore, centrifugal casting make uses
of centrifugal force for filling the mould. There are three types of centrifugal casting processes namely
true centrifugal casting, semi-centrifugal casting and centrifuging.

(a) True Centrifugal Casting

Centrifugal casting uses a permanent mold that is rotated about its axis at a speed between 300 to 3000 rpm as
the molten metal is poured. Centrifugal forces cause the metal to be pushed out towards the mold walls, where
it solidifies after cooling. Solidification starts from the mould wall and progresses towards the center. The
thickness of casting depends upon the amount of molten metal poured. Parts cast in this method have a fine
grain microstructure, which is resistant to atmospheric corrosion; hence this method has been used to
manufacture pipes. Since metal is heavier than impurities, most of the impurities and inclusions are closer to the
inner diameter and can be machined away. Surface finish along the inner diameter is also much worse than
along the outer surface.
This is used to manufacture of hollow symmetrical products such as gun barrels bearings, cast iron pipes etc.

Sand mould is preferred when the casting is a long one, otherwise the metal mould be chilled before the molten
metal reach the far end of the mould.

(b) Semi-centrifugal Casting

In this method, centrifugal force
is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts. Density
of the metal in the final casting is
greater in the outer sections than
at the centre of rotation. The
process is used on parts in which
the centre of the casting is
machined away, such as wheels
and pulleys.

Advantages of centrifugal casting

➢ Successful for Cu alloys, Al alloys, Sn alloys castings
➢ Products with increase soundness and mechanical properties
➢ Yield is higher as low risers and gates are used
Disadvantages of centrifugal casting
➢ Limited (mostly) to symmetrical shapes above an axis of rotation