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An Analysis of the CO2 Reduction Effect of a Column-Beam Structure Using

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DOI: 10.1177/1420326X11423162

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 Indoor and Built Environment
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An Analysis of the CO2 Reduction Effect of a Column-Beam Structure Using Composite Precast
Concrete Members
Sungho Lee, Jinkyu Joo, Jeong Tai Kim and Sunkuk Kim
Indoor and Built Environment 2012 21: 150 originally published online 21 September 2011
DOI: 10.1177/1420326X11423162

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 Original Paper
Indoor and Built Accepted: July 22, 2011
Environment Indoor Built Environ 2012;21;1:150–162

An Analysis of the CO2

Reduction Effect of a
Column-Beam Structure
Using Composite Precast
Concrete Members
Sungho Leea Jinkyu Joob Jeong Tai Kima Sunkuk Kima
a
Department of Architectural Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
b
Shindongah Engineering & Construction, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Key Words was to analyze the CO2-reduction effect of the improved

CO2 reduction E Column-beam structure E Green system constructed with enhanced composite PC
frame E Composite precast concrete members. The improved system would greatly con-
tribute to CO2 reduction with an average of 25.0% as
compared with the bearing wall structure; and 2.8%
Abstract compared to the existing GF.
Over the past 30 years, Korea has adopted structural
frames with bearings for apartment buildings. The unit
planning flexibility of such a structural system is
inadequate, when compared to the column-beam
system. The system would allow renovation easily Introduction
and would provide various other legal benefits to
constructors in Korea. For this reason, a column-beam The construction sector in Korea accounts for 30% of
system, named by green frame (GF), implemented with the total CO2 emission, which is one of the major
composite precast concrete (PC) members was pre- greenhouse gases that could be contributing to the climate
viously developed. However, since the scheme would change. In the construction industry, structural construc-
require a performance improvement to increase its tion is the process with the highest emission of CO2 [1].
economic effects and constructability, a further im- Many countries have increased efforts to reduce green-
proved system has been developed. In the case of house gases. Such efforts have led to the construction of
structural construction, it is a construction process that green buildings throughout the world [2–5]. In Korea, an
emits the most CO2. Along with the constructability and energy performance score calculated based on the
economic feasibility of a construction system, a reduc- ‘‘Housing Performance Rating System’’ is regarded as an
tion in CO2 is also critical. The purpose of this paper unexpected expense when considering apartment sales [6].
The country is actively seeking to reduce CO2 emissions by

ß The Author(s), 2011. Reprints and permissions: S. Kim,

http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav Department of Architectural Engineering, Kyung Hee University, 1 Seocheon-
DOI: 10.1177/1420326X11423162 dong, Giheung-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 446-701, Republic of Korea. Tel. þ82
Accessible online at http://ibe.sagepub.com 31 201 3366, Fax þ82 31 203 0089,
Figures 1–6 appear in colour online E-Mail [email protected]
introducing ‘‘Act of the construction and performance devised with an adequate consideration to economic
evaluation of environment-friendly apartment buildings’’ feasibility, constructability and environmental friendliness.
and arranging ‘‘Clause of the energy saving design and The purpose of this paper is to analyze the CO2-reduction
construction criteria of apartment buildings’’. effect of an enhanced GF, a column-beam structure that
The domestic construction industry has been construct- comprised of the enhanced composite PC members.
ing buildings with bearing wall structures to apartment Structural construction with enhanced GFs can be applied
buildings for the past 30 years [1]. Since the bearing wall to all general buildings but the focus of this study was on
structure lacks unit changeability, a significant amount of apartment buildings, which comprise most of the domestic
dismantling or reinforcing of structures must be performed construction sector. This study has emphasized the tech-
when a building requires renovation due to deterioration nology needed to reduce the effects of global warming
and a change in lifestyle [2]. As a result, most residents resulting from CO2 emissions. The enhanced GF is
would prefer rebuilding to renovation. Rebuilding would expected to be a key technology contributing towards
generate a significant amount of waste since all the low-carbon and green growth that would encourage
structural frames are demolished. Rebuilding could also energy reduction in Korea, where 50,000 apartment
waste a tremendous amount of resources. It is expected buildings are built annually.
that 70% of all construction wastes generated in 2020 will
be due to rebuilding. To resolve this problem, a flat plate
structure that would enable the rebuilding of apartment Comparison of Structure Types
buildings has been developed over the past few years and
this has been reflected in various designs of recent Korean Currently, the structural systems used in apartment
housing. However, the earthquake-resistant performance buildings in Korea are bearing wall and flat plate
of the flat plate structure is generally weak and would structures. However, a change in the structural system of
generate a significant amount of CO2 and embodied apartment buildings is inevitable due to the various
energy cost due to an increase in the quantity of rebar [1]. technical, economic and environmental advantages of
To solve the above problem, the government has composite PC members. An analysis of the advantages/
enforced an incentive system that would allow builders disadvantages of various structural systems is shown in
to increase the height and volume of a building by using a Table 1.
column-beam structure; a structure that would allow a The bearing wall structure consists of a bearing wall
changeable unit configuration is now widely applied to the and a slab. In terms of quantity of resources, the bearing
underground parking lot of apartment buildings [7]. The wall structure uses more materials that compose the frame
column-beam structure is advantageous due to its change- when compared to other structural systems. It needs 4.9 m2
able unit configuration, constructability and quality of form, 57.2 kg of rebar and 0.62 m3 of concrete per unit
assurance but the system would increase the floor height floor area as shown in Table 1. This leads to a high
and construction cost under the condition of keeping the emission of CO2 due to the use of more resources than
same ceiling height [1]. To address the disadvantages of other structural systems. The construction time per floor
the column-beam structure, a study on developing the would be at least 7 days, and more noise and vibration
column-beam structure with composite precast concrete between floors would be generated. In addition, since the
(PC) members was carried out [2,8]. The developed green space is not changeable, the life of the structure cannot be
frame (GF) was an improvement on the bearing wall and fully utilized. However, the bearing wall structure has
flat plate structures. Through testing and simulation, the some advantages in that it is a verified technology with
GF has been proven to be beneficial in terms of structural technical and structural stability based on 30 years of
safety, constructability and economic feasibility. In addi- construction usage.
tion, construction using the GF technology could lead to a The flat plate structure consists of a column, slab and
reduction in CO2 emissions due to a decrease in the input non-bearing walls. In terms of quantity of resources, the
of resources [9–11]. flat plate structure is similar to the bearing wall structure.
Regarding the GF, issues related to the complex joint It needs 3.93 m2 of form, 63.5 kg of rebar and 0.58 m3 of
between the column and the beam, and the rebar of the concrete per unit floor area as shown in Table 1. The
beam that penetrates the steel columns must be solved [11]. construction time per floor based on this structure would
A system that addresses GF-related problems must be be at least 6 days, and the floor height can be reduced
developed and an enhanced structural system should be when compared to the column-beam structure.

CO2 Reduction Effect of Composite PC Members Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 151
Table 1. Characteristics of the structure types [11]
Description Bearing wall structure Flat plate structure Column-beam structure with
composite PC members

Structural framework Bearing wall Column þ retaining wall Column: RC þ steel joint
Slab: 180  210 mm thick Slab: 210 mm thick or more Beam: Composite PC
Slab: 150 mm thick
Quantity of resources Form: 4.90 m2 m2 Form: 3.93 m2 m2 Form: 0.12 m2 m2
Rebar: 57.2 kg m2 Rebar: 63.5 kg m2 Rebar: 41.7 kg m2
Concrete: 0.62 m3 m2 Concrete: 0.58 m3 m2 Concrete: 0.47 m3 m2
Construction time Min. 7 days/floor Min. 6 days/floor 3  4 days/floor (40  60 days
saved assuming 20 floors)
Benefit Inflexible structure for Partially flexible structure 10% more admitted in
renovation for renovation construction cost when
compared to bearing
wall structure.
10% more admitted in
volume and height.
Flexible structure for
renovation.

PC: precast concrete, RC: reinforced concrete.

RC Beam SS Beam <Green Beam> <Green Beam>

H -Shape steel CT Shape steel

• Fire-proof covering • Additional decrease of steel frame

not required quantity
• Decrease of steel frame • Increase in efficiency of materials
• Increase of construction • Fire-proof covering required quantity • CO2 emission reduced
wastes • High floor height • Low floor height
• Longer construction • Cause pollutions • Eco-friendly
period due to the wet • Increase of construction cost
construction
Fig. 1. Concept of a green beam [2].

The spacing of the flat plate structure is changeable in would require less resources, 0.12 m2 of form, 41.7 kg of
comparison to the bearing wall structure. However, the rebar and 0.47 m3 of concrete per unit floor area, than the
flat plate structure would require a large quantity of other structures described above. A summary of the
rebar due to the increase in the slab thickness and lower structures is shown in Table 1. The incorporation of
earthquake-resistance performance without sufficient steel composite PC members can lead to cost savings of about
reinforcement. This structural system is called the effect of 2  10% of structural work when compared to the cost for
weak column and strong beam, when compared to the a bearing wall structure. The construction time per floor
bearing wall structure. The flat plate structure also would be 3 or 4 days depending on the in situ reinforced
requires the reinforcement of punching shear near the concrete (RC) work of core area adopted for the
capital of columns. apartment building. When assuming a 20-floor construc-
The column-beam structure with composite PC mem- tion project, about 40  60 days can be saved and
bers consists of a column, beam and slab. The structure overhead costs (e.g., construction management cost and

152 Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 Lee et al.

 <PC Column> <Green Column> <Green Column>

Re-bar
penetration

• Structural concerns with • Steel section inserted • Birth of hybrid connection (upper-
weak connection and between pre-cast concrete RC connection, lower-steel connection)
quality control during columns • Providing stable and economical
construction • Providing steel connections solutions for Green Frame
to composite beams
Fig. 2. Concept of a green column [10].

Sleeve type Column-pre-installation Column-post-installation

Coupler type Coupler type

Top of slab
Bottom of sla
Bottom of be

Fig. 3. Installation types of green column.

project finance expense) can be reduced. In terms of spatial bending moment based on a preliminary study of H-Shape
division, it is easy to adjust the column intervals with PC Steel is removed. This would reduce the steel quantity and
members and flexible unit planning would be possible. ensures the efficiency of materials. The GB system is
With the adoption of column-beam structure, the volume superior in terms of a reduction in material quantity,
and height limits of buildings are legally 20% alleviated. construction cost and CO2 emission [2,10]. When a GB is
The constructability and quality would be assured with the applied on the ground, the floor height can be reduced.
use of PC, and 20–30% of CO2 emission and more than The application of a GB underground would reduce the
80% of construction wastes would be reduced when amount of excavation needed. Furthermore, a GB can be
compared to other structural systems [11]. used not only with a green column (GC) but also with steel
and RC columns.
Green Frame A GC is a composite PC column where a joint is made
A GF is a combination of a RC structure and a steel between a 1  3 story RC column and steel. When a GC is
structure. It is manufactured using PC so as to improve connected to a GB, the top rebar of the GB penetrates the
quality and productivity. Diagrams showing the concept steel joint of the column to join the RC frame and the
of GF are shown in Figures 1 and 2. In the case of a green lower steel can be joined to the steel frame via fastening
beam (GB), the upper flange that contributes less to the with bolts and welding. Thus, when a GB and GC are

CO2 Reduction Effect of Composite PC Members Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 153
Table 2. Characteristics of green column installation
Description Sleeve type Coupler type
Column-pre-installation Column-post-installation

Verticality Poor Poor Poor

Safety Good Poor Good
Constructability of PC joints Normal Poor Poor
Time of jointing work Normal Poor Poor
Quality Good Good Good

PC: precast concrete.

Table 3. Requirements for improvement of the green frame [11]

Type Problems

Green column Sleeve type: Cost increases due to the use of grouting mortar.
Coupler type: Longer installation time and difficulty in handling installation tolerance.
Green beam Difficulty in installation since the rebar of the beam penetrates the steel joints

T .. T type

Fig. 4. Typical type of enhanced green beam.

applied together for a joint, structural stability is ensured, method, the column is installed and then compressed
constructability is enhanced and the construction time is mortar is used to connect the upper column hole and the
reduced. lower column rebar. Such a process would increase the
When a GF is applied to apartment buildings, it can cost, yet due to the PC is produced in a factory, quality
maintain both the flexible spatial division and the lower can be assured.
floor height, which are the characteristics of the structure. Bolts and welding are used for GB coupling. One issue
The constructability can be improved by adopting the that arises when installing a GB is that it would require a
hybrid coupling method. In addition, the use of composite hole in the steel column in order to receive the top rebar to
PC members can minimize the forming process, which be connected to the steel columns at the other side of the
reduces manpower and construction time [12]. material. The hole is made so as to be wider than the
Shown in Figure 3 are three types of GC connection diameter of the rebar when considering the deformed rebar
methods: sleeve type, column-pre-installation coupler type shape. However, the constructability is reduced during the
and column-post-installation coupler type. As shown in installation. Some of the areas for improvement in the GF
Table 2, it is difficult to adjust the verticality and in the are given in Table 3. An enhanced GF is developed to
case of the column-pre-installation method, the safety solve these problems.
issue would be compromised. In the case of the coupler
type, there are difficulties pertaining to the joint part and
would prolong the installation time. Furthermore, if there Enhanced Green Frame
are construction errors occurring, the problem would not The concept of an enhanced GF is the same as that of a
be able to be solved on site. In the case of the sleeve-type GF. An enhanced GF consists of an enhanced GB and an

154 Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 Lee et al.

 Green Frame Enhanced Green Frame

Steel frame Steel frame

connecting connecting Screw
beam and column beam and column threaded
bolts

RC column RC column
(3 floors/piece) (3 floors/piece)

Coupler-joined
column Plate for
Connecting reinforcement connecting
Sleeve bolts

1.Sleeve type 2. Column-pre-installation 3. Column-post-installation 4. Bolt connection

coupler type coupler type before column installation

Fig. 5. Type of enhanced green column [11].

enhanced GC. An enhanced GB having different section The installation of an enhanced GF is as shown in
and arrangement of steel from the existing GF is shown in Figure 6. A bolt connecting method is used to enhance
Figure 4. The beam end is the column joint part and the the convenience of connecting the coupler-joined column
beam end’s negative moment section is arranged with T- part, which is reflected in the design. A comparison of the
shaped steel so as to optimize the bolt joints and the joint advantages/disadvantages of the enhanced GF and GF is
load transfer mechanism. Shape steel is removed from the shown in Table 4. Since the enhanced GF is temporarily
centre of the beam, which is instead organized with lower installed by connecting bolts and the verticality could be
rebar and concrete. This would thus minimize the use of adjusted for connection, there would be no effect on the
steel, which in turn would lead to a reduction in CO2 installation and an easier adjustment of the frame angle
emission. There are a total of 12 types of enhanced GB is ensured. The column post-installation method is
compositions combined with 4 shape steels for arranging chosen so as to ensure constructability and safety.
the end’s negative moment section and 3 shape steels for When installing the column upper bolt-type joint part,
arranging the central moment section. In this study, the the plate holes can be adjusted to handle construction
T.T type of enhanced GB was examined. error, improving the construction precision and reducing
The composition of an enhanced GC is shown in the installation time. The quality of GCs is ensured with
Figure 5. The column is composed of three floors and one the enhanced GF through the use of PC manufactured in
story, in which the structural mechanism is the same as in a factory.
the GC. The materials are installed by fastening bolts.
When installing and joining an enhanced GC, the main bar
of the lower column is connected to the upper column Case Study
using a manufactured screw thread. This would not only
ensure construction speed and convenience but would also The purpose of this case study was to calculate the
reduce the time of using lifting equipment, resulting in a quantity of main materials used in the bearing wall
reduction in energy and CO2 emission. structure and compare this with the amount used in the

CO2 Reduction Effect of Composite PC Members Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 155
 1. Lifting and setting composite PC beams 4. Casting concrete slab

2. Bolting composite PC beams 5. Installing upper column (3 stories/piece)

3. Fabricating top and bottom rebar of beams 6. Grouting of column joint

Fig. 6. Installation process of an enhanced green frame.

Table 4. Characteristics of column installation types

Type Bolt type (enhanced GC) Sleeve type (GC) Coupler type (GC)
Column-pre-installation Column-post-installation

Verticality Good Poor Poor Poor

Safety Good Good Poor Good
Constructability of PC joints Good Normal Poor Poor
Time of joint work Good Normal Poor Poor
Quality Good Good Good Good

GC: green column, PC: precast concrete.

156 Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 Lee et al.

enhanced GF structure. To compare under equal con- require at least a 210 mm thick slab, whereas the enhanced
dition of both structures, an apartment building was GF would require only a 150 mm thick slab to satisfy the
designed by the bearing wall and enhanced GF structure, standard. The concrete quantity of column and beam
respectively, and the material quantity of the typical would only require in the enhanced GF, so the total
floor of each structure was estimated. Based on the concrete quantity would be 297.71 m3 for the bearing wall
calculated quantities, the amount of CO2 emission that structure and 145.31 m3 for the enhanced GF. Compared
could be generated from each construction material was to the bearing wall structure, the use of enhanced GF
calculated so as to determine and compare the total CO2 system would allow builders to reduce material usage by
emissions that could be generated by the two structural about 51%.
systems. The quantity of rebar and steel frame in the structural
The preconditions for calculating the material quan- types was calculated. Both the bearing wall structure and
tities were as follows: the enhanced GF would use 10 mm, 13 mm, 16 mm, 19 mm
and 22 mm in diameter for the rebar. The quantity of rebar
1. As there are little difference in materials used for
used in the typical floor of the bearing wall structure
construction of building foundation and underground
would be 23.131 tons, while 14.911 tons of rebar would be
structure, such as car-parking structure and com-
required for the typical floor by using the enhanced GF
munity facilities, in both types of structure these were
system. In the enhanced GF, steel frames would be used at
excluded for consideration. Only the quantity of
the column and beam coupling part in order to realize
ground materials was included for calculation for
efficient composite members. Thus, while there would be a
comparison and analysis.
reduction in the use of rebar in the enhanced GF to about
2. The quantity of building core structure com-
36% of that would be used in the bearing wall structure,
prising staircase, lift box, and corridor that is
however, 3.132 tons of steel frames would be needed for
installed in the same manner is excluded from the
the enhanced GF. In total, 23.131 tons of steel products
calculation.
would be needed for the bearing wall structure and 18.043
3. The surface finishes of building elements, such as wall
tons in the enhanced GF. Therefore, a 22% reduction in
and floor are placed in the same manner in each
the steel quantity would be realized when the enhanced GF
structural type being considered and therefore not
is applied for the renovation in comparison to the bearing
included in the calculation. As such, only the main
wall structure.
materials of structural construction including the
The quantities of materials used for the form and wall
concrete, rebar, steel, form and wall partition were
partitions were also compared. In the case of the bearing
considered in the material quantity calculations.
wall structure, a system form would be used. For the
enhanced GF, a joint form at the column-beam joint part
Calculation of Material Quantity would be employed [14]. The quantity of form would be
The material quantities calculated based on the design 2033 m2 for the bearing wall structure and 462 m2 for the
drawing are compared in Table 5. In order to compare the enhanced GF. In case of the enhanced GF, the internal
concrete quantity, the structural materials were divided wall would be installed by light weight partitions instead
into those used for the wall, floor slab, column and beam. of forming in situ concrete. Thus, when using the enhanced
The quantity of wall concrete would be 157.78 m3 for the GF, 77% of the form quantity would be reduced when
bearing wall structure and 18.69 m3 for the enhanced GF. compared to the bearing wall structure, however, an
The bearing wall structure would compose of bearing walls additional 343 m2 of wall partition (gypsum board) would
and would require about eight times more wall concrete be required.
than for the enhanced GF system, which only use concrete The overall quantity of concrete required would be
in the walls separating the households and the core. The reduced by about 51% when the enhanced GF was used.
quantity of concrete needed for the floor slab would be The thickness of the slab could be reduced to 150 mm with
139.93 m3 and 81.21 m3 for the bearing wall structure and the enhanced GF due to the excellent anti-noise char-
the enhanced GF, respectively. About 1.7 times more acteristics of column-beam structure, which would further
concrete would be needed for the slab for the bearing wall reduce the dead load of the structure. Thus with a spiral
structure than would be for the enhanced GF. The reason effect, further reduction of the column and beam sizes
for the difference was that according to the Korean would reduce the over-consumption of construction
Government’s Act [13], the bearing wall structure would resources. Composite materials would be effectively

CO2 Reduction Effect of Composite PC Members Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 157
158
Table 5. Comparison of material quantities
Material Classification Total quantity Quantity per unit area
Bearing wall Enhanced GF Bearing wall Enhanced GF

Concrete Cast-in-place Wall 157.78 m3 18.69 m3 0.376 m3 m2 0.045 m3 m2

Slab 139.93 m3 81.21 m3 0.333 m3 m2 0.193 m3 m2
PC Girder – 20.11 m3 – 0.048 m3 m2
Column – 25.30 m3 – 0.060 m3 m2
Total 297.71 m3 145.31 m3 0.709 m3 m2 0.346 m3 m2
Rebar Arranged–in-place Wall 16 mm 0.024 ton – – –
13 mm 11.084 ton – 0.026 tonm2 –
10 mm 4.166 ton – 0.010 tonm2 –
Subtotal 15.274 ton – 0.036 tonm2 –
Slab 13 mm 2.631 ton 0.560 ton 0.006 tonm2 0.001 tonm2
10 mm 5.226 ton 2.376 ton 0.012 tonm2 0.006 tonm2
Subtotal 7.857 ton 2.936 ton 0.019 tonm2 0.007 tonm2
PC Girder 19 mm – 3.692 ton – 0.009 tonm2
10 mm – 1.280 ton – 0.003 tonm2

Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162

Subtotal – 4.972 ton – 0.012 tonm2
Column 22 mm – 5.923 ton – 0.014 tonm2
10 mm – 1.080 ton – 0.003 tonm2
Subtotal – 7.003 ton – 0.017 tonm2
Total 23.131 ton 14.911 ton 0.055 tonm2 0.036 tonm2
Steel frame PC Girder – 2.087 ton – 0.005 tonm2
Column joint – 1.045 ton – 0.002 tonm2
Total – 3.132 ton – 0.007 tonm2
Total rebar þ steel frame 23.131 ton 18.043 ton 0.055 tonm2 0.043 tonm2
Form Sidewall gang form 131 m2 – 0.312 m2m2 –
Balcony gang form 183 m2  0.436 m2m–2 –
Euro form 1053 m2 462 m2 2.507 m2m2 1.100 m2m2
Plywood 3 times, ceiling 654 m2 – 1.557 m2m2 –
Slope, step room 12 m2 – 0.029 m2m2 –
Steel form – – – –

Lee et al.
Total 2033 m2 462 m2 4.840 m2m2 1.100 m2m2
Wall partition Base panel (sidewall) – 131 m2 – 0.312 m2m2
Base panel (balcony exterior) 183 m2 183 m2 – 0.436 m2m2
Balcony interior 160 m2 160 m2 – 0.381 m2m2
Interior wall – 210 m2 – 0.500 m2m2
Total 343 m2 684 m2 – 1.629 m2m2

GF: green frame, PC: precast concrete.

applied in the enhanced GF, which would lead to about a time and manpower required for frame and carpentry
22% reduction in the quantity of rebar and steel frame. works.
The reduction in the quantity of form in the enhanced GF
would contribute to a reduction in both the construction Calculation of CO2 Emission
The basic units of CO2 emission per main material used
Table 6. The basic units of CO2 emission per main material used in
when constructing apartment buildings are shown in
apartment buildings [10,15]
Table 6. The main materials that would greatly contribute
Classification Basic unit of CO2 emission to CO2 emission include the concrete, rebar, steel frame,
per material quantity
form and wall partition (gypsum board).
Concrete 140.43 kg-CO2 m2 The potential CO2 emission of apartment buildings per
Rebar 4002.04 kg-CO2/tonf structure was calculated based on the design drawing and
Steel frame 3699.38 kg-CO2/tonf
Form 3.83 kg-CO2 m2 is shown in Table 7. The CO2 emission per unit area based
Gypsum board 33.75 kg-CO2 m2 on the use of concrete would be 99.5 kg-CO2 m2 for the
bearing wall structure and 48.6 kg-CO2 m2 for the

Table 7. Comparison of CO2 emissions

Material Classification Total qty. (kg-CO2 m2) Qty. per unit area (kg-CO2 m2)
Bearing wall Enhanced GF Bearing wall Enhanced GF

Concrete Cast-in-place Wall 22,157.0 2624.6 52.8 6.2

Slab 19,650.4 11,404.3 46.8 27.2
PC Girder  2824.0  6.7
Column  3552.9  8.5
Subtotal 41,807.4 20,405.9 99.5 48.6
Rebar Arranged-in-place Wall 16 mm 96.0  0.2 
13 mm 44,358.6  105.6 
10 mm 16,672.5  39.7 
Subtotal 61,127.2  145.5 
Slab 13 mm 10,529.4 2241.1 25.1 5.3
10 mm 20,914.7 9508.8 49.8 22.6
Subtotal 31,444.0 11,750.0 74.9 28.0
PC Girder 19 mm  14,775.5  35.2
10 mm  5122.6  12.2
Subtotal  19,898.1  47.4
Column 22 mm  23,704.1  56.4
10 mm  3995.3  9.5
Subtotal  27,699.4  66.0
Subtotal 92,571.2 59,347.5 220.4 141.3
Steel frame PC Girder  7720.6  18.4
Column joint  3865.9  9.2
Subtotal  11,586.5  27.6
Total rebar þ steel frame 92,571.2 70,934.0 220.4 168.9
Form Sidewall gang form 501.7  1.2 
Balcony gang form 700.9  1.7 
Euro form 4033.0 1769.5 9.6 4.2
Plywood three times, ceiling 2504.8  6.0 
Slope, step room 46.0  0.1 
Steel form    
Subtotal 7786.4 1769.5 18.5 4.2
Wall partition Base panel (sidewall)  4421.3  10.5
Base panel (balcony exterior) 6176.3 6176.3 14.7 14.7
Balcony interior 5400.0 5400.0 12.9 12.9
Interior wall  7087.5  16.9
Subtotal 11,576.3 23,085.0 27.6 55.0
Total 153,741.2 116,194.3 366.1 276.7

: not applicable, GF: green frame, PC: precast concrete.

CO2 Reduction Effect of Composite PC Members Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 159
Table 8. CO2 emission per unit area of each structural design
Classification CO2 emission per unit area (kg-CO2 m2) Total CO2 Ratio (%)
emission of
Concrete PC Rebar Steel frame Form work Gypsum
main material
board
per unit area
(kg-CO2 m2)

Average from Bearing wall 87.3 — 229.3 — 18.7 33.7 369.1 100.0
Hong et al. [10] Flat plate 81.5 — 254.0 — 15.1 49.8 400.4 108.5
research GF Type 1 58.2 8.1 128.3 54.3 4.2 49.8 302.9 82.1
Type 2 58.2 8.1 130.7 33.5 4.2 49.8 284.6 77.1
Average from this Bearing wall 99.5 — 220.4 — 18.5 27.6 366.1 99.2
research Enhanced GF 33.4 15.2 141.3 27.6 4.2 54.9 276.6 75.0

GF: green frame, PC: precast concrete.

enhanced GF. The CO2 emission per unit area would be wall structure. This is because the rebar arrangement
reduced to less than 50% if enhanced GF was used. This would be reinforced in order to prevent the slab of the
was due to a reduction in the thickness of the floor slab upper capital from being damaged by punching shear.
since the columns and beams would be thinner and the In case of the GF, H-shaped steel (Type 1) and reverse
noise-proof performance would be improved. This has T-shaped steel (Type 2) were used in the study. As a result,
illustrated the structural efficiency of the enhanced GF. a higher quantity of structural steel would be used in
The calculation of CO2 emission per unit area was the Type 1 GF than Type 2, generating more CO2, while
based on the use of rebar and steel frame and this would the less quantity of rebar is used due to more steel flange.
be 220.4 kg-CO2 m2 for the bearing wall structure and The opposite situation occurred for the Type 2 that has
168.9 kg-CO2 m2 for the enhanced GF, showing a less quantity of structural steel and more rebar instead
reduction by 23% of CO2 emission when using the than Type 1. When considering this situation, the CO2
enhanced GF, due to the efficient arrangement of steel emission per unit area of the Type 1 GF would be
shapes. 302.9 kg-CO2 m2, while that of the Type 2 GF would be
The calculation of CO2 emission per unit area based on 284.6 kg-CO2 m2, about 82.6% and 77.10%, respectively,
the use of forms would be 18.5 kg-CO2 m2 for the bearing of the CO2 emitted from the bearing wall structure.
wall structure and 4.2 kg-CO2 m2 for the enhanced GF; In this study, the amount of CO2 emission per unit area
illustrating a 77% reduction in the CO2 emission when of the bearing wall structure was found to be 366.1 kg-CO2
using the enhanced GF. Such a reduction was due to the m2. If this is compared with the 369.1 kg-CO2 m2 given
use of PC manufactured in a factory, not concrete poured by Hong et al. [10], the error range would be within 1%,
on site, and the use of wall partitions instead of a concrete illustrating a reliable result. However, there is a significant
walls (the wet construction method) to divide internal difference in the CO2 emission from each material, such as
spaces. However, in case of the enhanced GF, wall from the concrete and the rebar. This is because CO2
partitions would be used for the internal space division would be emitted in an interaction with the concrete and
of households, which could resulted in CO2 emissions of the rebar, so the CO2 emission of the entire structure, not
55.0 kg-CO2 m2 due to the gypsum board. merely a single material, should be considered.
If the CO2 emission of the enhanced GF and that of the
Comparison of CO2 Emissions bearing wall structure are compared per materials
A comparison of the CO2 emission of the enhanced GF composing the structure, a higher CO2 emission of
with GF, bearing wall and flat plate structures is shown in the enhanced GF would be expected due to the use
Table 8. The total CO2 emission per unit area due to the of steel frame and wall partitions. However, with
bearing wall structure from a study by Hong et al. [10] on the enhanced GF, there would be a decrease in the
the application of a GF would be 369.1 kg-CO2 m2. In use of concrete, rebar, form and the temporary material
the same study, the CO2 emission per unit area of the flat with a high basic unit; leading to a 24.4% reduction in the
plate structure was found to be 400.4 kg-CO2 m2, which CO2 emission when compared to the bearing wall
would be 108.5% of the CO2 emission due to the bearing structure.

160 Indoor Built Environ 2012;21:150–162 Lee et al.

 When compared to the GF with the same structural temporary materials and reduces management costs.
concept, the enhanced GF system would require less Furthermore, the enhancement in the constructability of
quantity of concrete and the enhanced GB’s central part the joint part of PC members would lead to less equipment
moment would be stabilised by the rebar arrangement, usage when installing materials, resulting in a safer
increasing the rebar quantity per unit area. Yet, the total environment and further reduction in the use of temporary
amount of steel frame would be reduced, decreasing the materials. While these advantages are expected to con-
overall use of steel. Compared with the GF, a reduction of tribute to an additional CO2 reduction, further analysis is
CO2 emissions by 2.8% could be achieved by using the required. In terms of production and installation, the
enhanced GF, improving the constructability and eco- application of enhanced GF would greatly contribute to
nomic feasibility of the renovation. CO2 reduction. Some of the analyzed improvements due to
the use of enhanced GF are as follows:

Discussion and Conclusion 1. When compared with the bearing wall structure,
which is mostly used today, the enhanced GF would
The column-beam structure would allow flexible plan- lead to an average CO2 reduction of 25.0%.
ning of buildings and future renovation and refurbishment 2. When compared to the CO2 emission per unit area of
or alteration and would enhance constructability and the existing GF, the use of enhanced GF would
quality. Yet, there are disadvantages due to a higher floor reduce CO2 emissions by 2.8%.
height and expensive construction cost. To solve these If the enhanced GF was applied to apartment buildings,
problems, a GF system constructed with the composite PC this would allow flexibility for renovation or alteration of
members has been developed and the usefulness of the the apartment and would extend the life of the structure.
system has been demonstrated. However, a new require- Also, when considering both the waste materials generated
ment to improve the safety and constructability has led to during the rebuilding of existing apartment buildings and
the development of the enhanced GF. The new structural the resource use, the reduction of CO2 emissions due to the
system should be verified not only in terms of its economic application of the enhanced GF would be greater than
feasibility and constructability but also its environmental expected.
friendliness. Thus, this study was undertaken to illustrate
the CO2 emission of the bearing wall structure and the
enhanced GF.
The field-production technology of composite PC Funding
members could enable an additional reduction in CO2
emission due to a decrease in delivery costs since PC This work was supported by the National Research
manufactured in a factory would not need to be Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea
transported, and would also ameliorate the use of government (MEST) (No. 2011-0001031).

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