Unit 1

Review of Fourier Transform

and Fourier Series

Taught by:
Dr. Prateek Verma
Assistant Professor
DYPIU Akurdi
1
Communication Systems
• Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange.

• The electronic equipments which are used for communication purpose are called as communication
equipments.

• Different electronic equipments when combine together form a communication system e.g. mobile
communication.

• It started since 1840s with line telegraphy, and with invention of transistors, Integrated circuits and
other semiconductor devices it became a popular field.

• With invention of satellites and fibre optics, it is reaching new heights and being used widespread.

2
Elements of a Communication System
• The communication process can be described as:
• Generation of thought pattern or image at the origin.

• The message is passed through the transducer to convert it into a time varying
electrical signal e.g. microphone

• The transmitter process the electrical signal from different aspects e.g. modulation.

3
Contd.
• Then the signal is passed through the channel or medium from transmitter to receiver.
The channel acts like a physical connection between transmitter and receiver.

• The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form
from distorted received signal i.e. demodulation.

• Destination is the final stage where the electrical signal is converted into original
form.

4
Analog Signal
• The signal which varies smoothly and continuously with time.

• These signals are defined for every value of time and they take on continuous values in a
given time interval.

• The vast majority of signals in the real world around us are analog in nature e.g.
temperature of a certain location may vary over a continuous range.

5
Digital Signal
• It is represented by a sequence of numbers where each number is representing the signal
magnitude at an instant of time. The resulting signal is called a digital signal.

• Digital messages are constructed with a finite number of symbols.

• We can use any number system to represent a digital signal e.g. binary number system.

• Here in Fig. waveform is a pulse train with 0 V and +5 V.

6
Need for Fourier Transform
• For transmission purpose, there is need of electrical signal because all equipments and
devices are electrical in nature.

• Therefore, non-electrical information signal is first converted into electrical signal.

• A signal is generally given in time domain, which tells about the amplitude of the signal at
a particular time instant.

• But if we want to know the frequency component present in the signal, we need some
mathematical tools.

• Fourier series and Fourier transform are such mathematical tools which are used to
analyze the signal (frequency domain signal).
7
Complex Numbers
• A complex number (a, b) or a + jb can be represented graphically by a point whose Cartesian
coordinates are (a, b) in a complex plane. Let us denote this complex number by z so that
𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒋𝒃
• The numbers a and b (the abscissa and the ordinate) of z are the real part and the imaginary part,
respectively, of z. They are also expressed as
Re z = a and Im z = b

• Note that in this plane all real numbers lie on the

horizontal axis, and all imaginary numbers lie on the
vertical axis.

• Complex numbers may also be expressed in terms of

polar coordinates. If (r, θ) are the polar coordinates
of a point z = a + jb, then 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and b =
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.

8
Sinusoids
• Sinusoids are the time-varying sine or cosine functions (or signals).

• Here, the function is representing an ac voltage i.e. 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕.

• Here the voltage from peak to peak will be 𝑽𝑷−𝑷 = 𝑽𝒎 + 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟐𝑽𝒎

9
 Contd.
• Here, the signal is a periodic signal ranging from −∞ to ∞.

• If we shift this signal towards the left by an amount 𝑛𝑇 then new signal will be 𝑣(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇), which will be
equal to 𝑣 𝑡 .

• If we shift this signal towards the right by an amount 𝑛𝑇 then new signal will be 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇), which will
be equal to 𝑣 𝑡 .

• If the above two conditions are satisfied then the signal is

called a periodic signal.

• The minimum time in which the signal repeats itself is called

the fundamental time period.

10
 Contd.
• We know, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓. Here, 𝜔 is the angular freq. (radians/sec) and 𝑓 is freq. in Hz.

• From here it can be said that, 𝑓 = 𝜔/2𝜋. Also, 𝑓 = 1/𝑇 where T is the time period of the signal.

• Therefore, 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔 or 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇

• Now we will try to change x-axis from t to 𝜔𝑡.

• Therefore, when 𝑡 = 0; 𝜔𝑡 = 0.
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑇
• Now when 𝑡 = ; 𝜔𝑡 = ∗ =𝜋
2 𝑇 2

2𝜋
• Now when 𝑡 = 𝑇; 𝜔𝑡 = ∗ 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑇

11
Contd.
• Therefore, more general term for a sinusoid function can be 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ϕ).

• Here, 𝜔𝑡 ± ϕ is called the argument of the function and ϕ is called the phase shift (which may be leading or
lagging).

• For example, let there be three signals: 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡, 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + ϕ , 𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − ϕ .

• Therefore, when 𝜔𝑡 = −ϕ; 𝑣2 𝑡 = 0 and when 𝜔𝑡 = +ϕ; 𝑣3 𝑡 = 0.

• Therefore, the phase difference between 𝑣2 𝑡 and 𝑣3 𝑡 is 2ϕ. It can be said that 𝑣2 𝑡 is leading 𝑣3 𝑡 by
2ϕ or 𝑣3 𝑡 is lagging 𝑣2 𝑡 by 2ϕ.
12
 Contd.
• A provides the peak value of the sinusoid, or the maximum value of the function. (A also provides the
minimum value of the function, which is simply the negative value of A.)

• ω governs the rate of oscillation of the signal—smaller values of ω mean that the signal is oscillating
more slowly, or that there is a longer time between peaks in the sinusoid.

• θ affects the translation of the sinusoid in time.

• A period is defined as the amount of time (expressed

in seconds) required to complete one full cycle.

• The duration of a period represented by T, may be

different for each signal but it is constant for any
given periodic signal.

13
 Conditions required to compare two sinusoids
• There are three conditions which should be satisfied to compare two sinusoids:

1. They should have the same frequency.

2. They should have the same form of expressions i.e. either sine or cosine.

3. They should have the same sign in their amplitudes (if one is + and one is -, then there is a shift of
180° ).

14
 Question
• Calculate the amplitude, phase, angular freq., period and freq. of the signal 𝒗(𝒕) =
𝟓𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟒𝝅𝒕 − 𝟔𝟎°).

• We will compare this given signal with the standard form i.e. 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − ϕ)

• Therefore, 𝑉𝑚 = 5.

• Then, 𝜔 = 4𝜋 radians/sec.

• Phase =ϕ = 60°

2𝜋 2𝜋 1
• Time period = T = = 4𝜋 = 2 = 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝜔

1
• Freq. = 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 2𝐻𝑧.

15
 Question
• A spring oscillates above a table as per the diagram and graph shown. Determine for
the graph:
(a) Amplitude (b) Period (c) Phase shift for sine and cosine wave (d) Vertical
Translation (e) Equation

(a) 25 cm
c. 0.8 sec towards right (cos wave) or 0.4 sec towards right (sine wave)
(b) 1.6 sec
d. 50 cm up
2𝜋
e. ℎ = 25 cos 1.6
𝑡 − 0.8 + 50 16
 Question
• Calculate the phase angle between 𝑽𝟏 = −𝟏𝟎𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟓𝟎°) and 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 −
𝟏𝟎°).

• First we will compare all three conditions:

(a) freq. is same
(b) expression is different
(c) amplitude sign is different.

• Now we have to convert sine to cos or vice versa with same sign in amplitude.

• Therefore, we will perform a right shift of 90° e.g. 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 which means 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 − 90° = −𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

• Now compare this signal with 𝑽𝟏 ; 𝑉𝑚 = 10, 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 + 50°.

• Therefore, we can say that 𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟒𝟎° = 𝑽𝟏 .

• Now compare 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑽𝟐 .

17
Signals
• A signal is a set of information or data.

• Signals are represented mathematically as a function of one or more independent variable.

• Examples include a telephone or a television signal, temperature, pressure, distance.

• Some other examples of our daily life can be music, speech, video signals etc.

• In all these examples, the signals are functions of the independent variable time.

• In electrical signal, the signal can be voltage or current, as these are a function of time as an
independent variable.

18
Systems
• Signals may be processed further by systems, which may modify them or extract additional
information from them.

• For example, an antiaircraft gun operator may want to know the future location of a hostile moving
target that is being tracked by his radar. Knowing the radar signal, he knows the past location and
velocity of the target.

• By properly processing the radar signal (the input), he can approximately estimate the future
location of the target. Thus, a system is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield
another set of signals (outputs).

• A system may be made up of physical components, as in electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic

systems (hardware realization), or it may be an algorithm that computes an output from an input
signal (software realization).

19
Size of a Signal
• The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity.

• Generally speaking, the signal amplitude varies with time.

• How can a signal that exists over a certain time interval with varying amplitude be measured by
one number that will indicate the signal size or signal strength?

• Such a measure must consider not only the signal amplitude, but also its duration.

• For instance, if we are to devise a single number V as a measure of the size of a human being, we
must consider not only his or her width, but also the height.

20
Signal Energy
• Consider the area under a signal x(t) as a possible measure of its size, because it takes account not
only of the amplitude but also of the duration.

• However, this will be a defective measure because even for a large signal x(t), its positive and
negative areas could cancel each other, indicating a signal of small size.

• This difficulty can be corrected by defining the signal size as the area under 𝑥 2 (𝑡), which is always
positive. We call this measure the signal energy 𝐸𝑥 , defined (for a real signal) as

∞
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

• This definition can be generalized to a complex valued signal x(t) as

∞
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
21
Signal Power
• The signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of the signal size.

• A necessary condition for the energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude → 0 as |t| → ∞.
Otherwise the integral will not converge.

• When the amplitude of x(t) does not → 0 as |t| → ∞, the signal energy is infinite. A more
meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case would be the time average of the energy, if it
exists. This measure is called the power of the signal.

• For a signal x(t), we define its power 𝑃𝑥 as

𝑇/2
1
𝑃𝑥 = lim 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→ ∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2

• We can generalize this definition for a complex signal x(t)

as 𝑇/2
1 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑥 = lim 𝑥 𝑡
𝑇→ ∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2
22
Contd.
• The signal power 𝑃𝑥 is the time average (mean) of the signal amplitude squared, that is, the mean-
squared value of x(t).

• Indeed, the square root of 𝑃𝑥 is the familiar rms (root-mean-square) value of x(t).

• Generally, the mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval approaching infinity exists if
the entity either is periodic or has a statistical regularity.

• If such a condition is not satisfied, the average may not exist. For instance, a ramp signal x(t) = t
increases indefinitely as |t| → ∞, and neither the energy nor the power exists for this signal.

• However, the unit step function, which is not periodic nor has statistical regularity, does have a
finite power.

23
Contd.
• When x(t) is periodic, 𝑥 𝑡 2 is also periodic. Hence, the power of x(t) can be computed from by
averaging 𝑥 𝑡 2 over one period.

• A periodic signal can be a power signal or neither energy nor power signal (NENP).

• But a periodic signal cannot be an energy signal because integration of a periodic signal from
− ∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞, we will get infinite area.

24
 Singularity Functions
• These singularity functions serve as the basic building blocks for the construction of more complex signals.

• These signals may be used to model a large number of physical signals which occur in nature.

• These singularity signals are:

Unit Step Unit Impulse Ramp

Function Function Function

25
 Unit Step Function
• The function only exits for positive side and zero for negative side.

• The function is discontinuous at t = 0.

• The unit step function, u(t), is defined as

26
 Contd.
• Sometimes, if we want a signal to start at t = 0 so that it may have a value of 0 for t < 0, then we will
multiply the given signal with unit-step function e.g. signal 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡

• This represents an exponential signal which starts at t = - ∞. If we want this signal to start at t = 0, then it
can be written as 𝑢′ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 . 𝑢(𝑡)

27
 Shifted Unit Step Function
• In many circuits, waveforms are applied at specified intervals other than t =0. Such a function may be
described using the shifted/delayed unit step function.

• A function which has value 0 up to the time t = a and thereafter has value 1, is written:

• For example, f(t) = u(t - 3) i.e. the equation means f(t) has value
of 0 when t < 3 and 1 when t > 3.

28
 Unit Impulse Function
• An unit-impulse function is denoted as 𝛿(𝑡) and may be expressed as 𝛿 𝑡 = 0 when 𝑡 ≠ 0.

∞
• It can also be expressed as:
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
• The unit-impulse function is also called as Dirac-Delta function.

• In Fig., the width of the pulse is zero, which means pulse exists
only at t = 0.

• The height of the pulse goes to infinity, also the area under the pulse curve is always unity.

• The upward pointing arrow indicates the actual value of infinity.

• The total area under the pulse is called as the strength of the impulse. 29
 Shifted Unit Impulse Function
• An unit-impulse function centered at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 . It is denoted by 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 .

• An unit-impulse function centered at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 and having an area = A.

• This function is used to represent point mass, point source etc.

30
 Unit Ramp Function
• A ramp function or ramp signal is a type of standard signal which starts at 𝑡 = 0 and increases linearly
with time.

• The unit ramp function has unit slope and represented by r(t).

31
 Classification of Signals
Continuous Time Discrete Time Non-Periodic
Periodic Signal
Signal Signal Signal

Real Signal Complex Signal Even Signal Odd Signal

Deterministic
Random Signal Energy Signal Power Signal
Signal

Analog Signal Digital Signal

32
 Continuous and Discrete Time Signal

• If t is a continuous variable, then a signal x(t) is a continuous time signal.

• If t is a discrete variable, then x(t) is a discrete time signal, which is generally denoted by x[n] with n being
an integer.

33
 Deterministic and Non-Deterministic Signal
• The signal which can be specified in time, or can be characterized mathematically, or the pattern of the
signal is regular, or the nature or amplitude of the signal can be predicted at any time is called as
Deterministic signal e.g. x(t) = bt

• A non-deterministic or random signal is the one whose occurrence is always random in nature. The pattern
of such signal is irregular e.g. thermal noise generated in electrical circuit.

34
 Periodic and Aperiodic Signal
• A periodic signal has a definite pattern and repeats over and over with a repetition period of T.

• If a signal does not repeat then it is called as Aperiodic signal. Sometimes, aperiodic signal have a period =
∞

35
 Even and Odd Signal
• The signal which is identical about the origin is called a even signal. This signal exhibits symmetry in the
time domain e.g. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 .

• The signal which does not exhibit symmetry or is anti-symmetry is called an odd signal. These signals are
not identical about its origin.

36
 Energy and Power Signal
• The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called an Energy Signal. Hence, x(t) is an
energy signal if 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ and P = 0.

• The signal which has infinite energy and finite average power is called a Power Signal. Hence, x(t) is a
power signal if 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ and E = ∞.

• However, if the signal does not satisfy any of the above two conditions, then it is neither an energy signal
nor a power signal.

37
Fourier Series (FS)
• Sine and cosine waves are the basic building functions for any periodic signal, which means that any
periodic signal basically consists of sine waves having different amplitudes of different frequencies and
having different relative phase shifts.

• Fourier series represents a periodic waveform in the form of sum of infinite number of sine and cosine
terms.

• It is the representation of the signal in time domain series.

Trigonometric or
Polar FS Exponential FS
Quadrature FS

38
Trigonometric Fourier Series
• A periodic function x(t) may be expressed in the form of trigonometric Fourier Series comprising the
following sine and cosine terms:

𝑥 𝑡
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤0 𝑡
+ ⋯ … … … . + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 sin 𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝑏2 sin 2𝑤0 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡

Or this can be written as ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)

𝑛=1
Where 𝑡0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0 + 𝑇

2𝜋
• Here, 𝑇0 = ; 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are known as Fourier coefficients.
𝑤0

• 𝑤0 is called the fundamental frequency and 2𝑤0 , 3𝑤0 ,… are called the harmonics of 𝑤0 .

• 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑜 𝑡 and 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 are called the fundamental components. 39

Contd.
• The value of 𝑎0 can be given as:
1 𝑡+𝑇0
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑡

• It is the average value of 𝑥 𝑡 and called as the dc component of 𝑥 𝑡 .

𝑡+𝑇0
2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . cos(𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
𝑡

𝑡+𝑇0
2
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . sin(𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
𝑡

40
Polar Fourier Series
• The polar FS is derived from trigonometric FS by combining the sine and cosine terms of same
frequency. It is represented as follows:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + 𝐶𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + ϕ𝑛 )
𝑛=1

𝑏
Where Cn = [𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛2 ]1/2 and ϕ𝑛 = − tan−1 [ 𝑛 ]
𝑎𝑛

and C0 = a0 = average value of 𝑥 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 cos(𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + ϕ1 ) + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤0 𝑡 + ϕ2 + ⋯

41
 Exponential Fourier Series
• The sine and cosine terms can also be expressed in exponential terms:

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
2 2
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡/𝑇0
𝑛=−∞
1 𝑡+𝑇0
Where Cn = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡/𝑇0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑡

• Here, n is extending from -∞ to ∞ instead of 0 to ∞. Due to this, frequencies in frequency spectrum will
extend from -∞ to ∞.

• If we express a signal using exponential Fourier Series, we obtain a double sided frequency spectrum.

• However, negative freq. signals does not exist physically. They are just used as a mathematical concept
42
and for convenience.
Dirichlet’s conditions in Fourier Series
• The continuous-time Fourier series exists only when the function x(t) satisfy the following three
conditions called as Dirichlet’s conditions.

a) 𝑥(𝑡) must possess only a finite number of discontinuities in the period T

b) 𝑥(𝑡) must have a finite number of positive and negative maxima in the period T.

c) 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable over the range of time period.

43
Symmetry Conditions
• If the function x(t) is even, then x(-t) = x(t), e.g. cos t, 𝑡 2

• The graph of even function is symmetrical w.r.t. y axis and in FS representation of even function, only
cosine terms are present (dc term is optional).

• Mathematically, 𝑎 𝑎

𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−𝑎 0
44
Contd.
• If the function x(t) is odd, then x(-t) = -x(t), e.g. sin t, 𝑡 3

• The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about the

origin and in FS representation of odd function, only
sine terms are present (dc term is optional).

• Mathematically, 𝑎

𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
−𝑎
• The sum or product of two or more even functions is an
even function.

• The sum of two or more odd functions is an odd function

and product of two odd functions is an even function.

45
Properties of Continuous Time FS

Time Convolu
tion Linearity
Different
iation

Time-
Multipl shifting
ication

Frequency
Time shifting
Scaling
Symmetry

46
Linearity
• Let there are two signals 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡). Then, the complex exponentials of these signals are 𝐶1𝑛 and 𝐶2𝑛 .

• Both the signals are having fundamental time period 𝑇0 . Since performing scaling function and adding them
results in
𝛼. 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝛽. 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡).
• Therefore, complex exponential of 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0 1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝛼. 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝛽. 𝑥2 𝑡 ]. 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0 𝑇0 0
1 𝑇0 1 𝑇0
Cn = [𝛼 ∗ 𝑥1 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡]+[𝛽 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
𝑇0 0 𝑇0 0

𝐶1𝑛 𝐶2𝑛
• Therefore, 𝑪𝒏 = 𝜶𝐂𝟏𝐧 + 𝜷𝑪𝟐𝒏

• Therefore, 𝜶𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝜷𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) ↔ 𝜶𝐂𝟏𝐧 + 𝜷𝑪𝟐𝒏

47
Conjugation
• Let there is a signal x(𝑡) with a fundamental time period of 𝑇0 . Then, the complex exponential Fourier
expansion of that signal is 𝐶𝑛 .
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• Taking conjugate of both the sides,

𝑇0
1
𝐶𝑛∗ = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 . 𝑒 +𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
0

• Since this is not a formula of complex exponential Fourier coefficient. Therefore, replacing n by –n.
𝑇0
∗
1
𝐶−𝑛 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
0
∗ ∗
𝑥 𝑡 ↔ 𝐶−𝑛
• Therefore, if we take complex conjugate of signal x 𝑡 , then its complex exponential Fourier expansion will
∗
become 𝐶−𝑛

48
Time Reversal
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the reversal operation by subjecting 𝑥(𝑡) to a system performing reversal and output will be
𝑥(−𝑡).
• The operation time reversal is only for 𝑥(𝑡). The t in exponential part will not change (because time reversal
operation will not expand or compress the signal waveform, it will just flip the waveform w.r.t. y axis.

𝑇0 Let −𝑡 = 𝜏, then −𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏

1 If 𝑡 = 0, then 𝜏 = 0
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 −𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 If 𝑡 = 𝑇0 , then 𝜏 = −𝑇0
0
−𝑇0 0
1 1 ′
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 +𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 (−𝑑𝜏) 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗(−𝑛)𝜔0𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝐶−𝑛
𝑇0 𝑇0
0 −𝑇0

Therefore, whenever 𝒙(𝒕) will go time reversal 𝒙 −𝒕 , then its complex exponential Fourier coefficient will also
49
undergo time reversal operation i.e. 𝐂−𝐧
Time Scaling
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the time scaling operation by subjecting 𝑥(𝑡) to a system performing scaling and output will
be 𝑥 𝛼𝑡 ; Al𝑠𝑜 α > 1 which means signal is compressing.
• Hence, time period will reduce and freq. will increase. Therefore new time period is 𝑇0′ = 𝑇0 /𝛼
2𝜋 2𝜋𝛼
• Angular Freq. 𝜔′0 = = = 𝜔0 𝛼.
𝑇0′ 𝑇0
𝑇0′ Let α𝑡 = 𝜏, then α 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏/α
1 If 𝑡 = 0, then 𝜏 = 0
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝛼𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔′0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇′0 If 𝑡 = 𝑇0′ = 𝑇0/α , then 𝜏 = 𝑇0
0

𝑇0 𝑇0
α 1
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0α𝜏/α 𝑑𝜏/α 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝐶𝑛
𝑇0 𝑇0
0 0

Therefore, whenever 𝒙(𝒕) will go time scaling 𝒙 𝜶𝒕 , then its complex exponential Fourier coefficient will not
50
undergo any change i.e. 𝐂𝐧 but 𝑻𝟎 will change.
Time Shifting
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the time scaling operation by subjecting 𝑥(𝑡) to a system performing scaling and output will
be 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 which means right shifting is performed. Also, time period and angular freq. will not change.

𝑇0 Let 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝜏, then 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏
1
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 If 𝑡 = 0, then 𝜏 = −𝑡0
𝑇0 If 𝑡 = 𝑇0 , then 𝜏 = 𝑇0 − 𝑡0
0 𝑇0 −𝑡0
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡0

𝑇0 −𝑡0 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 . 𝑑𝜏

𝑇0
1 𝑇0 −𝑡0 −𝑡0
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0(𝜏+𝑡0) 𝑑𝜏 1
𝑇0 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡0 𝑑𝜏
−𝑡0 𝑇0
−𝑡0

𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡0 . 𝐶𝑛

Therefore, whenever 𝒙(𝒕) will go time shifting 𝒙 𝒕 ± 𝒕𝟎 , then 𝐂𝐧′ = 𝒆±𝒋𝒏𝝎𝟎 𝒕𝟎 . 𝑪𝒏

51
Frequency Shifting
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the frequency shifting by an amount m i.e. 𝐶𝑛−𝑚 and let new time domain signal be 𝑥′(𝑡).

𝑇0 𝑇0
1 1
𝐶𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗(𝑛−𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 +𝑗𝑚𝜔0𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
0 0
𝒙′(𝒕)

𝑪𝒏 → 𝑪𝒏−𝒎 = 𝒙′ (𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕). 𝒆+𝒋𝒎𝝎𝟎 𝒕

52
Convolution in Time
• Let there are two signals 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) with same fundamental time period 𝑇0 . Then, the complex
exponentials of these signals are 𝐶1𝑛 and 𝐶2𝑛 .
• Let the resultant signal be 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 (𝑡). The Fourier coeff. of the resultant signal be 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛′ .
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the frequency shifting by an amount m i.e. 𝐶𝑛−𝑚 and let new time domain signal be 𝑥′(𝑡).

𝑇0
1
𝐶𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗(𝑛−𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
0

𝑪𝒏 → 𝑪𝒏−𝒎 = 𝒙′ (𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕). 𝒆+𝒋𝒎𝝎𝟎 𝒕

53