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Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training: A Global Overview
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A WORLD BANK STUDY
Logistics Competencies,
Skills, and Training
A GLOBAL OVERVIEW
Alan McKinnon, Christoph Flöthmann,

Kai Hoberg, and Christina Busch
Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training
WORLD BANK STUDY
Logistics Competencies,
Skills, and Training
A Global Overview
Alan McKinnon, Christoph Flöthmann, Kai Hoberg, and Christina Busch

© 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433
Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org
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ISBN (paper): 978-1-4648-1140-1

ISBN (electronic): 978-1-4648-1141-8
DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1
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Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

Contents
Acknowledgments ix
About the Authors xi
Executive Summary xiii
Abbreviations xix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Background 1
Measuring Logistics Competence in the Logistics
Performance Index 1
Scope and Objectives of the Report 5
Conceptual Framework 5
Report Outline 7
Reference 7
Chapter 2 Methodology and Sources 9
Chapter 3 The Quest for Logistics Competence: Survey Evidence 13

Previous Findings on Logistics Skills 13
Four Levels of Logistics Employment 14
Widely Perceived Logistics Skills Shortages 15
Reasons for Shortages 21
Notes 23
References 23
Chapter 4 Sector Case Studies 25

Truck Drivers 25
Reasons for the Driver Shortage 27
Solutions to the Problem 29
Humanitarian Logistics 31
References 33
Chapter 5 Training and Skills Development 35

Nature and Scale of Logistics Training 35
Stakeholders in Training and Skills Development 38
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vi Contents
Examples of Best Practices in Competence Development 43

Industry Associations 45
Notes 52
References 52
Chapter 6 Recruitment and Retention 55

Recruitment 55
Retention 57
References 60
Chapter 7 The Role of the Public Sector in Enhancing Logistics

Competence 61
Facilitator and Regulator 61
Direct Support and Intervention 64
References 66
Chapter 8 Logistics Competence Maturity Matrix 67

Logistics Competence Maturity Self-Assessment Tool 69
Chapter 9 Conclusion 71
Appendix A Selected Literature Related to Logistics Skills,

Competence, and Training 73
Appendix B Example of Continuing Professional Development

(CPD) for Logistics 77
Appendix C Supplementary Survey Results 79
Appendix D Self-Assessment Tool 83
Appendix E Results from the World Bank Logistics Performance

Index Survey 2015/2016 85
Box
1.1 Criteria Used in the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) Survey 3
Figures
ES.1 Evidence from the 2016 LPI xv
ES.2 Sources of Training xvi
1.1 LPI 2014 “Logistics Quality & Competence” Score, Over- and
Underperformers 2
1.2 Availability of Qualified Personnel by Employee Group and
LPI Quintile 4

Contents vii
1.3 Availability of Qualified Personnel by Region 4

3.1 Availability of Suitably Qualified Logistics Staff (All Regions) 15
3.2 Availability of Suitably Qualified Logistics Staff in Emerging
(Developing) and Developed Regions 16
3.3 Importance and Availability Rating of Logistics Competencies
at Occupational Levels 17
3.4 Future HRM Challenges in Logistics in Developed and
Emerging (Developing) Regions 20
5.1 Sources of Training 36
5.2 Time Allocation to Training 36
5.3 Variety of Logistics Training 37
5.4 Impact of Training on Performance 37
5.5 Training Content 39
5.6 Role of Logistics Associations 41
5.7 Dual Education and Youth Unemployment 48
5.8 Hands-On Learning Experience: McKinsey & Company
Model Warehouse 49
5.9 Hands-On Logistics and SCM Business Games 50
5.10 GAVI STEP Framework: HR Leadership for Supply
Chain Managers 52
6.1 Key Aspects for Recruitment 56
6.2 Employee Retention Ability 57
6.3 Professional Development Stairway 58
8.1 Logistics Competence Maturity Matrix 68
E.1 Respondents Indicating “Low” or “Very Low” Availability
of Qualified Personnel in the Respective Employee Groups,
by LPI Quintile 86
E.2 Respondents Indicating “Low” or “Very Low” Availability
of Qualified Personnel in the Respective Employee Groups,
by Region 86
E.3 Respondents Indicating “Low” or “Very Low” Availability of
Qualified Personnel in the Respective Employee Groups,
by Income Group 87
Map
2.1 Countries Covered by Interviews 10
Tables
2.1 Interview Sample Overview 10
2.2 Descriptive Statistics of Survey Sample 11
6.1 Staff Retention Factors 59

Acknowledgments
This report has been commissioned by the World Bank’s Global Trade Team at
the Trade and Competitiveness Global Practice, under the guidance of Jose
Guilherme Reis (practice manager). The report was prepared by Alan C.
McKinnon, Christoph Flöthmann, and Kai Hoberg at the Kühne Logistics
University in Hamburg, Germany, with additions from Christina Busch and Jean-
François Arvis at the World Bank.
The project leaders were Christina Busch and Jean-François Arvis. Thomas
Farole and Virginia Tanase were peer reviewers for the project concept note.
Robin Carruthers, Claire Hollweg, and Sanda Liepina were peer reviewers for
the report.
The authors and project leaders can be reached at Alan.McKinnon@the
-klu.org, [email protected], [email protected], and
[email protected].
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About the Authors
Alan McKinnon is professor of logistics in the Kühne Logistics University in

Hamburg. He was founder and director of the Logistics Research Centre at
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, until January 2012 and is now a professor
emeritus of this university. He holds or has held visiting professorships in China,
Malaysia, South Africa, Sweden, and the United Kingdom A graduate of the
universities of Aberdeen, British Columbia, and London, he has been researching
and teaching in freight transport/logistics for over 35 years and has published
extensively in journals and books on many different aspects of the subject. Much
of his recent research has focused on the links between logistics and climate
change. He was a lead author of the transport chapter in the latest Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. McKinnon has been
an adviser to several governments, parliamentary committees, and international
organizations including the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, World Bank, and United Nations. He was chairman of the World
Economic Forum’s Logistics and Supply Chain Council and is currently a
member of its Council on the Future of Mobility. He was a member of the
European Commission’s High Level Group on Logistics, and, until recently, was
chairman of the Transport Advisory Group of the EU Horizon 2020 research
program. He is Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport and
a recipient of its highest distinction, the Sir Robert Lawrence Award. In 2015
he was appointed a Fellow of the European Logistics Association.
Christoph Flöthmann is a PhD candidate in supply chain management
(SCM) at Kühne Logistics University and Copenhagen Business School.
Beforehand, he graduated with a diploma degree (MSc-equivalent) in business
administration with majors in SCM and management science, finance and trans-
port economics, from the University of Cologne. Flöthmann’s research focuses on
the intersection of SCM and human resource management. In particular, his
empirical research is concerned with the backgrounds, competencies, and contri-
butions of people managing supply chains. His research has been published in
the Journal of Business Logistics, Supply Chain Management Review, and Logistik
Heute (German). Before starting his academic career, he gained practical experi-
ence at OSCAR Consulting GmbH, Bayer MaterialScience AG, and DB
Schenker AG in Germany and Indonesia.
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xii About the Authors
Kai Hoberg has been an associate professor of supply chain and operations
strategy at the Kühne Logistics University, Hamburg, since May 2012. He was
an assistant professor of supply chain management at the University of Cologne,
Germany, and received his PhD from Münster University, Germany. Before
returning to academia, Hoberg worked as a strategy consultant and project man-
ager in the operations practice of Booz & Company. During his academic career
he has conducted research at various universities, for example, Cornell University,
Israel Institute of Technology, National University of Singapore, and University
of Oxford. Hoberg’s research focuses on strategic and data-driven topics in logis-
tics and supply chain management. He publishes in highly ranked academic
journals like the Journal of Operations Management, Production and Operations
Management, and Journal of Business Logistics. Hoberg currently supervises four
PhD students and cooperates with companies like Procter & Gamble, McKinsey &
Company, and Jungheinrich.
Christina Busch is an economist at the World Bank Group in Washington,
DC. She is part of the Global Trade Team within the Trade and Competitiveness
Global Practice. Busch joined the World Bank in 2012 and has worked with the
Trade Logistics and Connectivity team since 2013. She has contributed to ana-
lytical, advisory, and lending activities in the areas of trade logistics, regional
integration, connectivity, and trade facilitation. Busch is a co-author of the World
Bank’s 2014 and 2016 Logistics Performance Index. Before joining the World
Bank Group, Busch worked in the economic policy program of the Bertelsmann
Foundation in Germany. Previously, she served as director of programs at
the Friedrich Naumann Foundation in Washington, DC. Christina holds an
MSc degree in economics (Diplom-Volkswirtin) from Humboldt-Universitaet
zu Berlin and a master of public administration degree from Columbia
University. She is currently pursuing a PhD in economics at Technische
Universität Berlin, Germany.

Executive Summary
Efficient supply chains are critical to economic development, trade integration

and competitiveness. Logistics services are typically provided by a private logis-
tics company to a retail or industrial firm. The quality and efficiency of these
services heavily depend on economy-wide features, including government inter-
ventions, which are typically referred to as logistics performance, following the
World Bank Logistics Performance Index (LPI). Countries experience large
differences in their logistics performance, and lower quality of service nega-
tively impacts production and international trade.
Public interventions and private public dialogue play an important role in
enhancing performance and in establishing sustainable supply chain connections
both internationally and domestically. Government policies include the soft and
hard infrastructure of trade and commerce, trade facilitation initiatives, and regu-
lation. Government and international agencies have traditionally paid more
attention to infrastructure and trade facilitation than to fostering the develop-
ment of quality services and a skilled workforce.
Logistics at the operational level is a labor-intensive industry with many blue
collar workers (e.g., truck drivers, warehouse operators) and administrative
clerks. How well these employees are qualified, trained and retained is a major
factor of logistics performance. Yet this factor is often overlooked or taken for
granted. It depends not only on HR policies of specific companies but also on
national initiatives to educate and train for occupations in the sector. This report
attempts at filling this gap in the knowledge of skills and competencies, and solu-
tions to upgrade them. It expands observations made in the World Bank’s 2016
LPI report.
This report has been prepared by the World Bank and its research partners
at the Kühne Logistics University (KLU). It is the first of its kind to look at
skills and competencies in logistics globally. It sheds light on the present state
of training, recruitment and retention in logistics and supply chain manage-
ment. It evaluates the perceived challenges of finding and retaining qualified
employees across countries and across job categories. The project compares the
logistics skills and training situations in developing markets in Africa, South
America and Asia with those of more developed countries in Europe and
North America. It identifies examples of good practices and institutions to
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xiv Executive Summary
“upskill” the logistics sectors. Finally, one of this study’s main outputs is guid-
ance to governments and stakeholders of developing countries on how to
upgrade logistics skills and training capabilities.
The study builds on multiple sources. An online survey of logistics companies
worldwide was carried out. In addition, data from the LPI 2016 survey was used.
36 interviews of experts in logistics education and training in all major world
regions were conducted. Case studies and examples have been developed to
examine the needs and initiatives taken in specific sectors. Detailed attention has
been given to the trucking sector given its social and environmental footprint in
most developing countries. The report also depicts examples of country initia-
tives involving government, stakeholders in the logistics community, educational
institutions, professional associations and recruitment and training agencies.
Finally the report identifies reference resources which can be used as part of
national “upskilling” initiatives.
There is no universal standardized taxonomy of logistics activities. For the
purpose of this study, the following broad occupational levels are distin-
guished: (a) operational or blue-collar workers, (b) administrative staff, (c)
logistics supervisors, and (d) supply chain managers. These occupational
levels include different types of jobs depending on the nature of service or
facility.
Key Findings
Both the LPI survey and the survey carried out for this study show a general
perception across the logistics sector that qualified logistics-related labor is in
short supply on all occupational levels in both developed and developing coun-
tries. Shortages range from a lack of truck drivers to problems in filling senior
supply chain management positions. Respondents in developing countries point
to the supervisory level for the most severe perceived skills shortage (figure ES.1).
In developed countries skill shortages were perceived at all levels, but at a much
lower level. The survey and other sources suggest that this problem is likely to
remain the same or worsen over the next five years.
Backing these observations with “hard” market data would have gone beyond
the ambition of this report. Employment and wage statistics are typically not
available in developing countries with the expected level of sectoral and occu-
pational details. Yet domestic studies in some countries such as China, India,
the United States, the United Kingdom, Vietnam, and the Republic of Korea
have reported that businesses are having difficulty recruiting staff with the
required skills in logistics/supply chain management.
There is an expert consensus on the reasons for the perceived shortage.
In all countries, the logistics sector suffers from low prestige and status of
operational logistics workers in many cultures and societies. It offers low salary
levels compared to other sectors, leading to an inferior position in the “war for
talent”. Developing countries face a limited supply of skilled labor, even
though countries may suffer from high levels of unemployment. The study

Executive Summary xv
Figure ES.1 Evidence from the 2016 LPI
Respondents indicating “low” or “very low” availability of qualified

personnel in the respective employee groups, by LPI Quintile
Logistics managers, e.g.,

responsible for supply chain
management
Logistics supervisors, e.g., shift

leaders, traffic controllers
Administrative logistics staff,

e.g., traffic planners, expediters
Operative/blue collar staff,

e.g., truck drivers, pickers
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percent
1st LPI quintile (lowest 3rd LPI quintile 5th quintile (highest
performing) performing)
2nd LPI quintile 4th LPI quintile
Source: Arvis et al. 2016.
observes a lack of vocational school preparation for logistics jobs. Logistics

developments, particularly in IT, demand new competencies that the existing
workforce does not possess. This form of market failure disproportionally
impacts the young, who typically form an untapped reservoir of apprentices
in some occupations (e.g., trucking). The reasons for shortages of blue-collar
workers in developed economies are partly similar, such as lack of attractive-
ness, and are partly tied to cultural aspects and the ageing demographic struc-
ture of the logistics workforce.
Upskilling and Retaining the Labor Force

The report highlights the need for a major expansion of logistics training and
skills development initiatives in developing countries. Developing regions are
lagging behind developed countries in terms of training budgets, course content,
and quality of the educational experience and sources of training. Often,
training—if offered at all—is limited to short-term, on-the-job training provided
by colleagues during daily operations (figure ES.2).
The study describes the roles that the various stakeholder groups can play in
the education, training and development of logistics employees, individually and
collectively, to upgrade their logistics skill levels. Beyond companies and their
employees, other stakeholders such as logistics associations, higher educational

xvi Executive Summary
Figure ES.2 Sources of Training
Internal only
External provider/trainers only
Mix of internal and external
Unknown
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percent
Emerging regions Developed regions
institutes and vocational training institutions have a mutual interest in this

effort. The report outlines best practices in competence development that are
particularly relevant for developing regions. For instance, training initiatives for
the current workforce are facilitated using off-the shelf resources and competen-
cies provided by global reference organizations. FIATA, the global association of
freight forwarders, or the International Road Union (for trucking companies)
have established training programs or train-the-trainer schemes. These could be
deployed even more widely.
Fewer resources exist for the education of potential employees. The report
outlines best practices in competence development that are particularly relevant
for developing regions. It also proposes training initiatives that can be imple-
mented even on tight budgets and at low maturity levels in the educational and
logistics sectors:
• International branch campuses of established Western universities with a

strong background in logistics. GeorgiaTech and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology have opened several satellites in emerging economies in Latin
America and East Asia. German and Dutch Technical Universities also have
established cooperations in logistics globally.
• Updating and adjustment of current university curricula, which could involve
international expertise from leading global institutions.  
• Multiple stakeholder collaboration such as “dual education” and apprentice-
ships (e.g., Germany, Austria), which could help create job opportunities for
the young.  
• Experimental and blended learning approaches, tailored to the needs of the
sector.  

Executive Summary xvii
Expert panels and surveys have emphasized the centrality of human resources
management. Recruitment and retention strategies should complement invest-
ment in skills. Otherwise the sector might be trapped in a vicious circle where
high turnover makes it difficult to “upskill”. Companies in the sector must
improve their HR policies and strive to retain key employees by offering inter alia: 
• Transparent career paths

• Appealing working environments
• Investment in the development of the workforce (training programs at the
company level)
In developing countries, support provided by institutions such as the World

Bank could include components helping companies enhance their HR
strategies.
Quality of recruitment and retention is also a question of image, which in the
case of logistics is often poor. Collectively the logistics sector could invest in
promoting the image of its professional opportunities, targeting especially the
younger professionals. The upsides of a career in logistics must be emphasized:
they include internationality, working in intercultural teams, stimulating working
environments, mobility, key contribution to the economy and general welfare,
and involvement in technological innovation.
The Role of Public Sector Initiatives

Government agencies can play a role in enhancing competencies and skills in
the logistics sectors. Hiring employees is done by private companies and train-
ing them is largely a private responsibility, too. Nevertheless, governments play
an important role either directly (e.g., via regulation or provision of training),
or by facilitating private initiatives. Public interventions that leverage logistics
competence include the following:
• Provision of education or training by public institutions or financial support to

training
• Education policy and development of curricula
• Advocacy, public private dialogue and multi-stakeholder collaboration
• Regulation of freight and logistics services, as certain activities are specifically
regulated, including customs brokerage or trucking
• Setting and harmonizing competence standards applicable to different jobs
• Leading by example: raising skills levels in state-owned logistics enterprises
(typically ports and railways)
• Investing in human capital as a component of the development of logistics and
freight  infrastructure
Finally, the study proposes a short guide for policy makers and international
organizations intervening to support logistics improvements. It consists of a

xviii Executive Summary
logistics competence maturity matrix that classifies countries into three catego-
ries based on their LPI competence index (basic, intermediate or advanced).
The matrix includes summary guidance for (a) a national assessment of skills and
competencies and (b) the priority areas of interventions upgrading logistics skill
levels, depending on the category of countries. As part of its country work, the
World Bank has recently begun offering a more comprehensive assessment of
skills and competencies at the national level.

Abbreviations
3PL third-party logistics service providers

AILOG Associazione Italiana di Logistica e di Supply Chain
Management (Italy)
APICS Association for Operations Management
ATI Accredited Training Institutes
BLM business, logistics, and managerial
BVL Bundesvereinigung Logistik (Germany)
CEL Centro Español de Logística
CILT Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport
CLI Center for Latin American Logistics Innovation
CNT National Confederation of Transport (Brazil)
CPC certificate of professional competence
CPD continuing professional development
CSCMP Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals
CSCP certified supply chain professional
CTL Center for Transportation and Logistics
DB Deutsche Bahn
ELA European Logistics Association
FIATA International Federation of Freight Forwarding Associations
GAVI Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization
GCLOG Graduate Certificate in Logistics and Supply Chain
Management (MIT)
GUtech German University of Technology (Oman)
HGV heavy goods vehicle
HLA Humanitarian Logistics Association
HR human resources
HRM human resources management
IAMM Indian Association of Material Management
ICT information and communication technology
ILO International Labour Organization
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xx Abbreviations
INALOG Instituto Nacional de Logística (Uruguay)

IRU International Road Union
ISM Institute for Supply Chain Management
IT information technology
KLU Kühne Logistics University
LATAM Latin America
LINCS Leveraging, Integrating, Networking, Coordinating Supplies
Program (United States)
LPI Logistics Performance Index
MGCM French training agency for logistics and supply chain
management
MISI Malaysia Institute for Supply Chain Innovation
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
NGO nongovernmental organization
NHVR National Heavy Vehicle Regulator Initiative (Australia)
NSDC National Skills Development Corporation (India)
PPP public-private partnerships
PtD People that Deliver
PTL Polish Supply Management Leaders (industry association)
RWTH Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule
(Aachen, Germany)
SCM supply chain management
SETA Skills Education Training Authority (South Africa)
SMEs small and medium enterprises
STEP Strategic Training Executive Program
TCI Transport Corporation of India
TETA Transport Education and Training Authority (South Africa)
TLI The Logistics Institute
UAE United Arab Emirates
VP vice president
WTD Working Time Directive

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Background
Logistics has been a major growth sector in the world economy in terms of levels
of activity and expenditure for many decades. In addition to being an important
sector in its own right, logistics strongly influences the economic performance of
other industries and the countries in which they are located. Given its critical
importance to economic development and social welfare, logistics must be ade-
quately resourced—in the physical sense and in terms of human resources.
Despite extensive mechanization and automation, logistics at the operational
level intrinsically remains a people business. This makes the logistics performance
of companies and countries highly dependent on the quantity and quality of the
workforce.
The policy focus and national business dialogues have so far emphasized
infrastructure, investment climate, or trade facilitation. Increasingly, human
resources, competencies and skills are a collective concern, too. Studies in
countries such as China, India, the United States, the United Kingdom, Vietnam,
and the Republic of Korea have reported that businesses are having difficulty
recruiting staff with the required skills in logistics/supply chain management.
These skills shortages range from a lack of truck drivers to problems in filling
senior supply chain management (SCM) positions. Why do many employed
logistics staff lack the necessary competencies to adequately perform the tasks
they are assigned? This could reflect the competence of the people attracted into
the industry, the level of training they receive and the way they are managed and
motivated. The logistics sector’s recruitment potential is often constrained by its
relatively poor image. Career planning can also be deficient, with the result that
some high-caliber operatives and managers abandon logistics for other roles.
Measuring Logistics Competence in the Logistics Performance Index

Macro-level evidence of the problem can be found in the World Bank’s bi-annual
Logistics Performance Index (LPI) report. This survey-based index was estab-
lished to help countries identify the challenges and opportunities they face in the
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2 Introduction
field of trade logistics and what they can do to improve their logistical perfor-
mance. The LPI 2014 survey compares the performance of 160 countries (Arvis
et al. 2014). The respondents assess the six key components of logistics perfor-
mance listed in box 1.1. The fourth criterion, the quality of logistics in a country
and its competence to provide it, is the one most closely related to this study.
There is a reasonably close relationship between aggregate LPI scores and GDP
per capita values. A simple regression analysis was done to assess whether (loga-
rithmic) GDP per capita is a good predictor of logistics quality/competence scores,
using LPI 2014 data. As figure 1.1 shows, developed countries with high GDPs per
capita are ranked higher than developing countries in their LPI quality & compe-
tence score. But GDP per capita is not a perfect predictor. Green and red labels
have been used in figure 1.1 to show how countries can have much higher or
lower logistics competence scores than their GDP per capita would suggest.
This diagram also shows that over- and underperformers are present in all
income groups, that is, low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries.
The statistical analysis indicates that countries can reach higher levels of logis-
tics competence than their economic output per capita predicts. This fact
should serve as a strong motivation for the various stakeholder groups
(e.g., governments, logistics companies and associations) in under-performing
countries to upskill their workforce. In trying to upgrade its logistics, a country
would be well advised to expand logistics skills and training initiatives. It would
also benefit from external guidance on how to devise and implement such
initiatives, partly on the basis of experience in countries such as the United
Kingdom and Germany, which have a good track record of upgrading and
professionalizing their logistics workforce.
Figure 1.1 LPI 2014 “Logistics Quality & Competence” Score, Over- and Underperformers
Netherlands Norway
Germany
4.0 United Kingdom
“Logistics Quality & Competence”
South Africa
3.5 Malaysia
China Qatar
LPI score 2014
Thailand
Vietnam
3.0 Malawi India
Kuwait
2.5
Gabon
Equatorial
2.0 Afghanistan Congo, Rep. Guinea
6 8 10 12
Log of GDP per Capita

Introduction 3
Box 1.1 Criteria Used in the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) Survey
1. Efficiency of customs and border clearance
2. Quality of trade and transport infrastructure
3. Ease of arranging competitively priced shipments
4. Competence and quality of logistics services—primarily in trucking, forwarding and
customs brokerage
5. Ability to track and trace consignments
6. Timeliness—frequency with which shipments reach consignees within scheduled or
expected delivery times
To supplement the analysis of the World Bank/KLU report, the 2016 LPI
edition for the first time included a question on logistics skills and competencies.
Respondents were asked to indicate the availability (from “very high” to “very
low”) of qualified personnel for four groups of logistics personnel:
1. Operative staff, for example, truck drivers or warehouse pickers

2. Administrative staff, for example, traffic planners, expediters or warehouse
clerks
3. Logistics supervisors, for example, warehouse shift leaders or traffic controllers
4. Logistics managers, for example, those responsible for transport, warehousing
operations or SCM.
Responses to the survey confirm a global perception of scarcity of adequately

qualified personnel at all four occupational levels in both developed and devel-
oping countries, but particularly in the countries that form the bottom quintile
in the LPI (figure 1.2). In those countries, the shortage of logistics staff in the
“mid tiers”, that is, administrative staff and supervisors, is most acute. A similar
picture emerges in the second-lowest LPI quintile, where the share of low or very
low availability was rated at around a third for all four occupational levels.
The problem of skills shortages is less acute but equally present in the third,
fourth and fifth LPI quintile.
When broken down by geographic region, Latin America and the Caribbean
emerges as the region with the highest skills gap across all employee groups
(figure 1.3). A full 43 percent of respondents for instance indicated that the
availability of logistics managers, that is, those with the most sophisticated
responsibilities, was either “low” or “very low”. Yet also for each of the three
remaining employee groups (operative, administrative and supervisory), about a
third of respondents indicated low or very low availability of staff.
Comparatively high skills deficits of between 20 percent and 30 percent at
all job levels were reported in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The pic-
ture is more nuanced in East Asia and Pacific, were shortages of administra-
tive and managerial staff were more acute than those of operative and
supervisory staff. In the Middle East and North Africa, the low level of staff

4 Introduction
Figure 1.2 Availability of Qualified Personnel by Employee Group and

LPI Quintile

management


e.g., traffic planners, expediters

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percent
1st LPI quintile (lowest performing)
2nd LPI quintile
3rd LPI quintile
4th LPI quintile
5th quintile (highest performing)
Source: Logistics Performance Index 2016.
Figure 1.3 Availability of Qualified Personnel by Region

management


e.g., traffic planners,
expediters

0 10 20 30 40 50
Percent
North America Middle East and
Latin America and Caribbean North Africa
Europe and Central Asia South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa East Asia and Pacific

Introduction 5
shortage at the managerial level (11 percent) vs. the other levels (around 20
percent each) stands out. This could be a favorable outcome of higher educa-
tion programs (B.Sc. and M.Sc.) in logistics and SCM that were introduced in
the region over the past decade. Morocco could serve as an example of a
country that owing to those programs does not see a severe shortage of mana-
gerial staff. However, difficulties in finding workers on lower sophistication
levels, for example, truck drivers and warehouse pickers, are still pertinent in
the country.
Scope and Objectives of the Report

The report builds on this observations and provides the first global overview of
skills and competencies in logistics. Thus it provides perception survey data on
the current supply of and demand for qualified logistics personnel across the
four occupational levels and around the globe. Furthermore, it sheds light on
the current state of training, recruitment, retention and related challenges in
the logistics/SCM field.
This report has four objectives:
1. Review the nature (occupational level and geographical patterns) of the

perceived shortages of qualified logistics personnel around the world, particu-
larly in developing economies.
2. Review the current practices of training and skill development in developing
regions and suggest improvements based on best practice examples.
3. Review the recruitment and retention strategies for logistics companies that
are applicable around the globe. Potential challenges for human resources
management (HRM) in the logistics sector over the next five years are also
discussed.
4. Provide guidance for public sector on helping upgrade the logistics workforce
and identify a set of actions that governmental agencies can take.
Conceptual Framework
The report builds on several concepts which will be referred to throughout the
document.
Definition of logistics: Includes the range of activities related to the move-
ment, storage and handling of goods and related information and communication
technology (ICT). It encompasses SCM responsibilities, but excludes employees
whose main focus is purchasing, production management or sales. The functional
range is defined by the nature of the job rather than the type of business. It is not,
therefore, confined to the employees of logistics companies and includes staff
performing logistics tasks in the manufacturing and retail/wholesale sectors.
In the context of the poorest countries, humanitarian and health logistics play a
large role, and these are affected by the skills shortage as well.

6 Introduction
Labor markets and skills shortage: The ability of a country to meet the labor
requirements of logistics/SCM can be defined in terms of both demand and supply.
Ideally the demand would be measured in two ways: by the number of personnel
required and by their required skill levels, and the supply by the numbers of
people being trained and the number of apprentices and graduates entering the
sector. Unfortunately this market data is not available, certainly not globally, and
rarely so nationally even in advanced economies. For these reasons. In assessing
the scale of skills shortages and the level of educational/training support, the
report relies on survey data and indirect evidence. These provide qualitative
information on the ease of finding and retaining adequate skills in a given country
environment. Hereafter, any reference in the report to a shortage refers to the
subjective difficulty of finding adequately skilled staff according to requirements
of the survey respondents.
Levels of skill and responsibility: In this report, four levels of logistics staff are
distinguished: a) operatives b) administrators c) supervisors and d) managers.
A mature logistics job market would have an adequate supply of staff at each of
these levels. Obviously, each level requires a different set of skills and knowledge.
These occupational levels are explained in chapter 3.
Geography: The report takes a global perspective on the availability of
logistics skills and the efforts to improve it. Time and resource constraints did not
allow us to conduct a comprehensive overview of all countries. Since developing
countries tend to get lower scores on the logistics competence criterion, they
received much of the attention. Experts from developed countries were surveyed
and interviewed as they can act as benchmarks and role models. They are a
source of good practice on how to develop logistics/SCM as a career path and
profession. A set of best practice examples was compiled that developing
countries can adopt to improve their logistics skill bases. The study examines the
situation in developed countries partly because they are also experiencing logis-
tics recruitment problems. The report contains a case study of the truck driver
shortage, which is currently causing concern in the US and several European
countries, and likewise in India. In recent years, migration has helped some coun-
tries relieve labor shortages in the logistics sector. For instance, Western Europe
heavily depends on truck drivers from Eastern Europe to fill vacant positions.
New recruits in Thai warehouses often migrate from the Lao People’s Democratic
Republic and Myanmar. Therefore, the report considers the contribution that
migration can make to the cross-border transfer of logistics skills and
competencies.
Stakeholders: There are many stakeholders involved in developing and cer-
tifying logistics competencies and generally addressing the problem of labor
shortages. Accordingly, experts from several stakeholder groups were inter-
viewed and surveyed (see interview and survey sample overview in chapter 2).
By examining the roles of these various stakeholders, the report aims to provide
an integrated overview from numerous perspectives.

Introduction 7
Report Outline
The report is structured as follows: chapter 2 introduces the methodology
implemented in the report and the sources of data and information. Chapter 3
discusses the results of surveys on logistics competence requirements and
shortages across all world regions. Chapter 4 includes sector case studies in the
trucking industry and humanitarian logistics sectors. Chapter 5 addresses train-
ing and skills development, in particular, sources of training, stakeholders and
best practices. Chapter 6 sheds light on recruitment and retention strategies.
Chapter 7 provides guidance and recommendations for public sector institu-
tions. Chapter 8 presents a logistics competence matrix, a framework that
enables stakeholders to self-assess the level of logistics competence in their
country and provides a brief overview for possible activities to raise the com-
petence level. Chapter 9 summarizes the report.
Reference
Arvis, J.-F., D. Saslavsky, L. Ojala, B. Shepherd, C. Busch, A. Raj, and T. Naula. 2016.
Connecting to Compete 2016—Trade Logistics in the Global Economy. The International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.

CHAPTER 2
Methodology and Sources
The report draws on a mix of research methodologies and data sources.

The combination of qualitative semi-structured interviews, a quantitative
online survey and a comprehensive literature review enables us to study logis-
tics competencies and their development from multiple perspectives.
Semi-structured interviews: 36 telephone/Skype and two face-to-face inter-
views were carried out with five categories of stakeholders. Map 2.1 shows a map
with all countries covered during the interviews. Table 2.1 provides a breakdown
by region and examples of job titles and descriptions. Due to a confidentiality
agreement, company and personal names are not disclosed. The sample of inter-
viewees included:
1. Distinguished researchers working in the fields of logistics and SCM

2. Representatives of professional logistics institutes including CILT (Chartered
Institute of Logistics and Transport, United Kingdom and International),
BVL (Bundesvereinigung Logistik, Germany), ELA (European Logistics
Association, Europe as a whole), CSCMP (Council of Supply Chain
Management Professionals, United States), IAMM (Indian Association of
Material Management), APICS (Association for Operations Management),
and regional logistics training agencies
3. Representatives of government-sponsored agencies responsible for
training/logistics skills development, such as the former Skills for Logistics
in the United Kingdom and the International Labour Organization (ILO)
4. Senior logistics and HR managers at multi-national logistics service providers
(3PL) with extensive global recruitment
5. Representatives of organizations engaged in humanitarian and health
logistics, such as the Humanitarian Logistics Association (HLA) and People
that Deliver (PtD)
A comprehensive framework for the interviews was developed. The semi-

structured setup gave the flexibility to gain new insights and take full advantage
of the interviewees’ expertise, while maintaining consistency across the sample.

10 Methodology and Sources
Map 2.1 Countries Covered by Interviews
IBRD 42606 | November 2016
Table 2.1 Interview Sample Overview

Region n Sample job titles/descriptions
Europe 10 CEO of a logistics market intelligence agency
Global VP of HR of a multi-national 3PL
Professor of Logistics
South-East Asia 7 Former Country CEO of a multi-national 3PL
Professor of SCM & Logistics
Head of sales at a multi-national 3PL
The Americas 7 People development manager of a multi-national 3PL
Human resource director LATAM at a multinational 3PL
Economic Affairs Officer for South America
Sub-Saharan Africa 5 Professor of logistics
Chairman of a large national 3PL
President of a logistics training agency
Central Asia 5 CEO of a logistics recruitment agency
CEO of a large Indian 3PL
Certified CILT Trainer
Middle East/North Africa 2 CEO of a logistics recruitment agency
Logistics consultant for a large transportation firm
Global View 2 Managers of globally operating NGOs
Total 38

Methodology and Sources 11
Survey: An online questionnaire was used to survey opinions more widely

across all stakeholder groups, particularly those of logistics providers and indus-
try associations. Invitations were circulated to participate in the survey via
multiple channels: the CILT UK and CILT International membership lists, the
HLA LinkedIn and Twitter followers, the ELA network and their sister country
organizations (e.g., BVL, AILOG, CEL and PTL), and personal networks of
interviewees or KLU affiliates. In total, 219 complete responses were received
from around the world.
Table 2.2 shows the composition of the survey sample. The majority
of responses came from Sub-Saharan Africa (47.5 percent), Europe
(26.9 percent) and South-East Asia (10.5 percent). Third-party-logistics (3PL)
Table 2.2 Descriptive Statistics of Survey Sample

n % n %
Region Function
Sub-Saharan Africa 105 47.9 Supply chain management 73 33.3
Europe 59 26.9 Logistics 72 32.9
South-East Asia 23 10.5 General management 32 14.6
Middle East/North Africa 17 7.8 Human resources/training & 11 5.0
development
Central Asia 9 4.1 Procurement 10 4.6
Other 6 2.8 Other 21 9.6
Total 219 100
Company revenue (in US$)
Top 10 countries Below 10 m 8 2.9
Zimbabwe 15 6.8 10–250 m 39 14.3
Nigeria 12 5.5 >250 m–1 b 38 13.9
Ghana 11 5.0 >1–10 b 90 33.0
Pakistan 11 5.0 Above 10 b 98 35.9
Romania 11 5.0
Zambia 10 4.6 Business experience (in years)
Greece 9 4.1 Less than 2 13 5.9
Uganda 9 4.1 2–5 12 5.5
Ukraine 9 4.1 >5–10 61 27.9
India 8 3.7 >10–25 100 45.7
More than 25 33 15.1
Industry
3PL (Transportation + 71 32.4 Hierarchical level
Warehousing)
Logistics association 30 13.7 Board level 19 8.7
Consulting/IT service 29 13.2 Senior management 81 37.0
Academia 27 12.3 Middle management 83 37.9
Transportation only 22 10.0 Lower management 21 9.6
Manufacturing 19 8.7 Non-managerial role 10 4.6
Retail/wholesale 15 6.8 Other 5 2.3
Warehousing only 6 2.7

12 Methodology and Sources
providers—the main target industry of this study—represented the largest

group by a wide margin (32.4 percent). Overall, respondents were very expe-
rienced SCM and logistics managers (61 percent of whom had over 10 years
business experience, and 84 percent were from middle, senior and C-level
management), indicating high reliability and validity of the data. Respondents
were asked to answer questions on the following topics:
1. Competence and skills shortages

2. Training and skills development
3. Recruitment, retention, and other HRM-related challenges
The results are presented in tables and figures both in the main report and
Appendices. Frequently, “developing” and “developed” or high income regions are
distinguished. The sub-sample from developing regions is based on 149 responses
from Sub-Saharan Africa (68 percent), South-East Asia (15 percent), Middle
East/North Africa (11 percent), and a few responses from Central Asia and Latin
America (6 percent). The developed regions sub-sample comprised 64 responses
from Europe (92 percent), Australia (6 percent) and North America (2 percent).
Focus group discussion: A focus group discussion was organized during the
CILT International Convention, which took place in Dubai towards the end of
this research project. This discussion helped validate the results of the inter-
view and questionnaire surveys. Additional insights were acquired during the
discussion. Forty-two delegates from 20 different countries participated in the
90-minute session. The countries represented included Zimbabwe, Nigeria,
Tanzania, South Africa, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China, Australia,
Ukraine and the United Kingdom.
Literature review: The report builds on a comprehensive review of the skills
and training literature in logistics and SCM. 70 relevant academic papers, reports
and studies, are referred to at relevant points throughout the report to comple-
ment its own empirical findings. For further reading, a table of selected literature
related to logistics skills, competence, and training is attached to this report
(appendix A).

CHAPTER 3
The Quest for Logistics

Competence: Survey Evidence
This chapter presents the findings of the global survey carried out in the report;
the methodology of which has been described above
Previous Findings on Logistics Skills

According to Barnes and Liao (2012) “competencies are considered to be
composed of the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are associated with high
performance on the job at an individual level.” Knowledge can be defined as
“organized sets of principles and facts.” Abilities are “enduring attributes
of individuals that influence performance,” and skills can be described as
“developed capacities that facilitate learning or the further acquisition of
knowledge” according to the O*NET Online initiative of the US Department
of Labor (O*NET Online 2015). Several studies have investigated the role
of individual competence in the logistics and SCM context, and have identi-
fied and classified essential competencies. For instance, Gammelgaard
and Larson (2001) conducted surveys and case studies to identify core skills.
They distinguish between quantitative/technological skills, SCM core skills,
and interpersonal/managerial skills.
Harvey and Richey (2001) studied skills in a global setting, and found that
supply chain managers need to possess managerial and transformation-based
skills to compete in a global marketplace. Richey et al. (2006) suggest a high
verbal IQ, strong achievement-orientation and high adaptability as the core
SCM competencies for managers. Murphy and Poist (1991) developed a fre-
quently used framework that distinguishes between business, logistics, and
managerial (BLM) skill categories and includes a large number of precise
skills.
Many companies around the world are finding it increasingly difficult to
recruit enough skilled labor. Numerous researchers concur that HRM issues,

14 The Quest for Logistics Competence: Survey Evidence
especially concerning skills and competencies, are of critical importance to

logistics and SCM (Cottrill & Rice Jr. 2012; Ellinger & Ellinger 2014; Fisher
et al. 2010, and more). Despite the general agreement on their importance,
between 2001 and 2005 only 4.5 percent of the articles in the three leading
logistics journals addressed HRM issues (Murphy & Poist 2006).1 More recently,
Hohenstein, Feisel, and Hartmann (2014) could find only 109 HRM-related
articles in 12 SCM and logistics journals from 1998 to 2014—just 0.57 papers
per journal per annum. According to their systematic literature review,
87 percent of these articles addressed the issue of logistics competencies.
The interviews confirmed earlier literature (Hoberg et al. 2014) that logistics
employees must possess a cross-functional understanding of various business
fields, strategic decision-making, communication, leadership and inter-cultural
skills and well developed analytical and IT skills in order to manage the manifold
tasks they face on a daily basis. Logistics employees on all levels need to acquire
the ability to think and work on a process basis. They need to look beyond their
own functional and occupational silos and understand how their jobs connect to
the entire process. Logistics has long been described as a “boundary-spanning”
activity. The people working in this sector must be aware of the implications of
their actions for the wider supply chain.
Besides these over-arching competencies, some requirements are highly
dependent on the job type and hierarchical level. Employee groups need, there-
fore, to be split into different categories to review competence requirements, skill
and employee shortages separately. Many classifications of logistics jobs have
been developed and are in use today. The UK logistics skills council, Skills for
Logistics, differentiated 10 levels in its “professional development stairway for
logistics” (see chapter 6). A mature logistics job market would have an adequate
supply of staff on each of these levels. The Chartered Institute of Logistics and
Transport (CILT) uses a comprehensive “Professional Sector Map” in which they
distinguish between different logistics sub-domains and personnel qualification
stages (CILT 2015b).
Four Levels of Logistics Employment

The report investigates logistics competencies and training on a global scale.
It compares logistics competence, training and the availability of staff across
countries that are at different logistics maturity levels and subject to varying
economic conditions. For this reason, the report distinguishes only four differ-
ent occupations supply chain management. This is widely a simplification,
considering the variety of jobs in each category, identified in the national pro-
fessional guidelines (above) especially in Europe, such as the former UK Skills
for Logistics.2 A broad classification ensures that survey respondents and
interviewees from both developing and developed regions are able to recognize
the distinctions despite huge differences in sector maturity and individual job
descriptions.

The Quest for Logistics Competence: Survey Evidence 15
1. Operative logistics/blue-collar staff

This group includes all logistics employees who carry out basic operational
tasks and do not have any staff responsibility. Classic examples are truck driv-
ers, forklift drivers and warehouse pickers.
2. Administrative logistics staff
This level includes traffic planners, expediters, warehouse clerks, customs
clearance officers and customer service employees. Staff at this level perform
information-processing tasks and have limited supervisory or managerial
responsibilities.
3. Logistics supervisors
Supervisors have frontline responsibility, controlling logistics operations on
the ground rather than in the office. Examples are shift leaders in warehouses
or team leaders in a traffic department.
4. Logistics managers
This category includes managerial staff, with higher-level decision-making
responsibility. The extent of these responsibilities can range from junior
through middle management roles to board level responsibility for logistics
and supply chain strategy.
Widely Perceived Logistics Skills Shortages

Participants in the online survey were asked to rate the availability of suitably
qualified personnel in their country at each of the four occupational levels.
They used a discrete 5-point Likert scale (1 = very low, 5 = very high). As shown
in figure 3.1, around 35–39 percent of respondents considering the availability at
the operative, administrative and supervisory levels to be low or very low.
Figure 3.1 Availability of Suitably Qualified Logistics Staff (All Regions)
35
30
25
20
Percent
15
10
0
Blue-collar workers Administrative staff Supervisors Managers
35% 36% 39% 50%

Very low Low Neutral High Very high

It was at the managerial level where the shortage was most acute with half the
sample judging the availability of personnel with the right qualifications to be
low or very low.
A geographical disaggregation of the survey results reveals a marked differ-
ence between developing and developed regions (figure 3.2). In the former, the
main shortage of suitable personnel is at the managerial level, with over half the
Figure 3.2 Availability of Suitably Qualified Logistics Staff in Emerging (Developing) and
Developed Regions
a. Emerging regions
35
30
25
20
Percent
15
10
0
35% 36% 39% 50%
b. Developed regions
40
35
30
25
Percent
20
15
10
0
45% 33% 34% 39%

Very low Low Neutral High Very high

respondents rating availability as low or very low, while in developed countries

the results are skewed in the opposite direction, indicating that the main prob-
lem is finding enough staff at the operational level. The availability of supervisory
staff is also significantly lower in developing markets.
The survey also shed light on the importance and availability of particular
competencies at each of the four occupational levels. These competencies were
divided into six categories and rated using the same 5-point scale (figure 3.3).
The four graphs show that virtually all competence categories are deemed to
be of high importance (average around 4/5). Employees on all levels need
to perform these tasks effectively, be communicative, possess technical and
personal skills and be able to learn and acquire further knowledge on a regular
basis. Supervisors and managers complement the basic skill sets with leadership
skills. The high importance attached to all the competence categories confirms
the results of previous research, which showed that logisticians must possess very
diverse skills sets to master all the challenges they routinely face.
A comparison of the importance and availability scores suggests that there is
a serious skills shortage in all groups and across all competence categories.
While respondents assign a high importance (an average of approximately 4) to
almost all competence categories, they rated availability considerably lower
(typically 2.8–2.9). It is perhaps surprising that there is little variability around
these average scores. It reflects a general view that all six competencies are
equally important and in similarly short supply.
Figure 3.3 Importance and Availability Rating of Logistics Competencies at Occupational Levels
a. Operational blue-collar staff b. Administrative staff

Effectively perform operational tasks
Knowledge and Learning
Communication
Technical skills
Personal skills
Administrative knowledge
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
c. Logistics supervisors d. Logistics managers
Effective supervision and management task

Knowledge and Learning
Communication
Technical skills
Personal skills
Administrative knowledge
Leadership skills
1 = Very low 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
5 = Very high Importance Availability

Interviewees shed further light on this skill availability issue. They argued that
the problem is two-fold. On the one hand, positions are often simply vacant
because insufficient staff are available in the job market with the right skills and
qualifications. The skills shortage has another important dimension. This is the
skill deficiency across the existing logistics workforce, much of which has not
kept up-to-date with technical innovations, operating procedures and changing
market dynamics. Several specific skills shortages were frequently highlighted by
the interviewees.
Logistics blue-collar workers often lack the attitude or discipline to perform
well in their job. In particular, older workers may have limited enthusiasm for
training partly because they believe that their extensive experience renders it
unnecessary or because they are nearing the end of their careers. Sometimes they
are also afraid and skeptical of new technologies, while younger workers more
easily adapt to new IT. Furthermore, blue-collar and administrative staff can have
limited awareness of their role in the supply chain and cannot ascertain
the impact of their actions. This “silo thinking” often leads to glitches that could
be avoided if more logistics employees had a better appreciation of their role
within the wider supply system.
As indicated by the survey results, leadership and communication skills are
essential for supervisors and managers. Unfortunately, these are the skills they
most often lack. Leaders can climb the career ladder due mainly to their
technical skills and knowledge. Often they are put in charge of a whole
department without having had any previous exposure to leadership roles or
leadership-related training. They often struggle to make strategic decisions
or perform long-term planning, since these qualifications were not required
in their previous positions.
Many interviewees noted that supervisors are often unable to make data-driven
decisions because they do not understand what the cost drivers are or which
performance indicators are crucial for financial success.
Demand for skilled logisticians is likely to continue to grow rapidly as the level
of logistical activity rises and the technical sophistication of the function
increases. The growth of other sectors will also depend indirectly on the ability
of logistics to cope with expanding freight and trade volumes. Logistics will only
be able to do this if it is adequately staffed with skilled employees.
Most logistics-related activity is now outsourced to the 3PL sector.
The large 3PL companies with multi-national coverage need to “customize”
their workforce to the logistical characteristics of the countries in which they
operate, reflecting the freight modal split, the industry and product mix, the
level of technology, the structure of the logistics market and cultural
attributes.
The perception of jobs in the logistics industry needs to change. Employees
should be treated with more respect and encouraged to feel proud of the work
they do. As discussed in greater detail in a later section, more positive images can
be presented of logistics work, showing the vital role it plays in the functioning
of an economy and society.

Shortage of qualified personnel on all levels facilitates a “war for talent”—not

only between competing companies in the logistics sector but also across indus-
tries. Since many workers in logistics jobs are paid low wages compared to other
industries, for example, manufacturing or health care, it is hardly surprising that
logistics companies struggle to find enough recruits during periods of high
employment.
A recruitment shortfall has several consequences. Firstly, if positions stay
vacant for a period of time, colleagues need to work extra hours to compensate.
That usually leads to a loss in service quality. Secondly, high labor turnover
and/or an over-reliance on a temporary agency staff can adversely affect produc-
tivity and quality. The new employees’ need to adjust to the tasks and working
environment and to seek assistance from colleagues often drags down the output
of entire departments.
Thirdly, a company is less likely to invest in training employees if there is a
high probability of them leaving. An interviewee asked “Why should I train my
employees and make them ready to join a competitor?” Another stated that
“logistics training can be like putting water in a leaking sieve. A whole market
approach was needed to deal with the problem of skills shortages.” This mindset
is a serious threat to the logistics community and was highlighted as a dilemma
that logistics managers frequently face when they make decisions on training and
training-related budgets.
A recent multi-national survey by Cap Gemini et al. (2016, p. 37) of the users
and providers of logistics services has confirmed that there is a serious and worsen-
ing skills shortage in the logistics sector. Just over half of the shippers using these
services felt that they could rely on their service providers “to address the labor
shortage’s effect on their business”. Their confidence may be misplaced, however,
as 79 percent of the service providers consulted felt that “they are unprepared for
the labor shortage’s impact on their supply chain”. The same survey also enquired
about the impact of the logistics labor/skills shortage on the businesses affected.
Respectively 61 percent, 52 percent, and 48 percent of the respondents considered
it to be adversely affecting product or service quality, impairing productivity and
causing wage inflation. Around third of the companies consulted felt it was causing
them to “settle into a low-skill equilibrium” or to change their business model.
Respondents to the online survey were also asked what they considered to be
the main HR challenges likely to face the logistics sector over the next five years
(figure 3.4). There was general agreement between those in developed and
developing regions about the relative importance of these challenges, though
some notable differences emerged. Challenges deemed to be “major” received
significantly higher percentages from respondents in developing markets, sug-
gesting that overall they will face greater difficult in recruiting, retaining and
training logistics staff than their counterparts in developed countries. Across both
regions, however, recruiting at the managerial level, keeping logistics salaries
competitive and succession planning were at or near the top of the list of future
HR challenges. Responses from the developed world prioritized the need to
develop leadership skills. At the other end of the spectrum, recruiting operational

Figure 3.4 Future HRM Challenges in Logistics in Developed and Emerging (Developing) Regions
a. Emerging regions
Recruitment at the managerial level

Keeping salaries/benefits competitive
Succession planning
Providing adequate training
Developing leadership skills
Maintaining a defined career path
Employee retention
Requirement to provide 24/7 coverage
Recruitment at the supervisory level
Labour relations
Recruitment at the operational level
Recruitment for administrative posts
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Percent
b. Developed regions
Recruitment at the managerial level
Keeping salaries/benefits competitive

Succession planning
Providing adequate training
Developing leadership skills
Maintaining a defined career path
Employee retention
Requirement to provide 24/7 coverage
Recruitment at the supervisory level
Labour relations
Recruitment at the operational level
Recruitment for administrative posts
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Percent
Major challenge Minor challenge No challenge at al I do not know
and administrative personnel were regarded as predominantly “minor challenges”

by contributors from developing markets. Almost half of those in developed
countries, however, felt that recruiting staff for operational roles in logistics
would be a major challenge.
A lack of senior executives with the necessary capabilities to manage complex
global supply chains could have a negative effect on the growth of international

trade. In recent years there have been numerous initiatives to promote trade
facilitation by “expediting the movement, release and clearance of goods” mainly
through the streamlining of customs and other administrative procedures at
international borders. Trade can also be facilitated by ensuring that businesses
engaging in international trade have enough managers equipped with the skills
needed to design, implement and control international logistics systems.
This aspect of trade facilitation is seldom mentioned, but one which will merit
greater attention if, as our survey suggests, companies experience increasing dif-
ficulty in finding the next generation of top-level supply chain managers.
Its adverse effect on international trade and economic development is only
one of several externalities arising from the logistics skills gap. There is also likely
to be an environmental externality, as under-trained operators of freight vehicles
drive less fuel-efficiently and hence are responsible for higher levels of exhaust
emissions per kilometer travelled. In addition, they drive less safely and have a
higher level of involvement in traffic accidents. Accident rates in warehouses and
freight terminals are also higher where staff are not properly trained. The result-
ing social and health costs represent a further set of externalities.
Reasons for Shortages

There are numerous reasons for the skills shortages observed at all employee
levels, across different regions and between countries within the same region. The
interviews and online survey results highlighted shortages at the blue-collar level,
even in emerging economies with large, young populations. Operative logistics
positions, such as those of long-haul truck drivers, warehouse pickers and forklift
drivers, appear unappealing and are linked to low social status and poor wages.
The nature of these tasks often involve long working hours, night shifts and, in
the case of truck drivers, long periods away from home. These conditions make it
difficult to recruit people and fill vacant positions. Many low-level operational
logistics jobs are uninteresting to large sections of the population, for example,
in India (truck driving regarded as low skill job) or Thailand (logistics jobs filled
by migrants from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic or Myanmar).
In many countries—both developing and developed—logistics activity has
become clustered in major hubs. As Sheffi (2013) discusses in detail, there are
major agglomeration benefits in concentrating logistical facilities in strategic
locations. One of the shortcomings of clustering is that it intensifies the compe-
tition for logistics labor in small areas. Recruitment becomes even more difficult
where the logistics hub is located away from major population centers. For
instance, Magna Park near Lutterworth is one of the largest warehouse and logis-
tics parks in the United Kingdom. It is centrally located but has a limited
employment pool in the immediate vicinity.
Locations are often attractive because they are central, have lower prices and
sometimes offer favorable tax regimes, but they are less than ideal from an HR
standpoint. While lower costs are an upside of remote locations, a limited supply
of labor is certainly a major downside. Firms struggle to find enough people,

let alone qualified ones. In low income countries where levels of personal mobil-
ity are low, recruitment is typically confined to smaller catchment areas than in
developed countries. There can also be HR issues particular to certain localities.
An interviewee from Russia highlighted the problem of alcoholism in remote
areas that leads to high levels of absenteeism, low productivity levels and,
ultimately, safety issues. Worker satisfaction also tends to be lower in remote
areas, since many employees are forced to commute long distances from home
to work.
This labor availability problem also exists at the urban scale, where the
decentralization of warehousing from inner-urban zones to sub-urban and
out-of-town locations has significantly increased journey-to-work distances.
Given high levels of traffic congestion, particularly in mega-cities in emerging
economies, and the high commuting costs relative to the modest wage rates
prevalent in the logistics sector, this geographical shift in warehousing capacity
is reckoned to have exacerbated the shortage on logistics labor.
In wealthier countries the pursuit of white-collar office jobs, offering higher
social status, more convenient and comfortable office work and better career
opportunities, leaves many operational positions vacant. The problem appears to
be less acute in Germany, where a structured dual-education/apprenticeship
scheme has been in place for decades to provide technical and operative work-
forces. The collaboration between vocational schools and logistics companies
creates a theoretically- and practically-educated workforce for a range of (at least
initially) non-managerial positions. Due to the high level of education in the
vocational schools, a career in technical and operational roles is well respected
socially.
Changes in the nature of order-picking operations have made warehouse
employment less appealing in several sectors. Jobs have become more routine,
more tightly controlled and monitored, more monotonous and often more
stressful. The growth of online retailing has created a huge new demand for
labor in item-level picking, often in huge, impersonal fulfillment centers.
The working conditions, salaries and career prospects there often fall short of
the expectations of potential recruits. In more traditional warehouses,
advances in IT and materials handling have often resulted in deskilling and
demotivation of the workforce. On the other hand, by making the work less
manually-demanding, new technology can extend the range of possible
recruits by age and gender. By improving productivity it can also reduce the
total demand for labor.
There is a cultural dimension to companies’ difficulties in finding enough
logistics employees with the right skills and aptitudes. Cultural norms rather than
a lack of competencies can impair their ability to perform logistics jobs ade-
quately. Hofstede investigated this topic. His well-known cultural dimensions
theory explains cross-cultural communication in terms of six underlying dimen-
sions: power-distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity,
long-term orientation, and indulgence (Hofstede 1980). As mentioned earlier,
global logistics businesses employ a large number of people with diverse cultural

backgrounds and must be aware of cross-cultural differences and characteristics.

The following country example from a senior logistics manager working for a
multi-national 3PL in Indonesia illustrates the role of culture in managing a mul-
ticultural workforce.
Hofstede’s power-distance index measures the extent to which less powerful
members of organizations and institutions accept their situation and expect
power to be distributed unequally. He also distinguishes between individualism
and collectivism, the latter being the degree to which individuals are integrated
into groups. Some societies are strongly collectivist, where people are integrated
into strong, cohesive in-groups at birth and can count on their protection in
exchange for unquestioning loyalty (Hofstede 1980). Indonesia ranks high on
the power-distance index, low on the individualism index and is essentially col-
lectivist. Indonesian employees typically perceive their superiors as being
powerful, distant and of high social status. On the other hand, peers and col-
leagues are almost as close as family members. They thrive in an atmosphere of
harmony.
This cultural trait can lead to problems at the logistics workplace, as
highlighted by the expert interviewee. His subordinates are “afraid” of him
and very reluctant to report disruptions or admit mistakes, even if doing so
would minimize the chances of problems escalating. Even worse, they do not
inform colleagues on the same hierarchical level of mistakes, since they do
not want to hurt “family members.” Even Indonesian logistics professionals
with strong educational backgrounds and extensive logistics experience and
knowledge can under-perform for these cultural reasons. Overall, it took the
interviewee a year to achieve a shift in the mindset of his locally recruited
team. By highlighting the importance of constructive criticism and regularly
providing feedback, he was able to foster open and honest horizontal and
vertical communication. This goes beyond traditional competence-based
training, presenting an important HR challenge for logistics companies oper-
ating in different cultural settings.
Notes
1. Journal of Business Logistics, International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics
Management, Transportation Journal.
2. Skills for Logistics, the former UK sector skills council for logistics, was closed in
January 2015.
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Science+Business Media.

CHAPTER 4
Sector Case Studies
This chapter comprises two case studies which illustrate in greater detail the
nature of the logistics skills shortage in sectors that have attracted a high deal
of attention in recent years: trucking and humanitarian logistics. The shortage
of truck drivers is currently the highest profile logistics skills issue in terms of
company concerns, political lobbying and media coverage. Although it has not
gained as much publicity, the lack of logistics expertise in organizations provid-
ing emergency relief and humanitarian support, mainly in low income coun-
tries, is believed to be constraining the efficiency and effectiveness of their
operations.
Truck Drivers
The driver shortage problem mainly afflicts the more developed countries,
though is also acute in several emerging markets, such as India (Dash
2011), South Africa (Anon 2014a) and Brazil (2014b). It is not a new prob-
lem. As Sheffi (2015) has recently acknowledged “a shortage of truck driv-
ers has bedeviled the logistics industry for so long that it’s difficult to image
a time when filling driver vacancies was not a problem.” For example, back
in 1998 the American Trucking Association Foundation commissioned a
study of the truck driver shortage problem. A subsequent study by Global
Insights (2005) for the American Trucking Associations in 2005 projected
that the shortage of “heavy duty truck drivers” in the US would swell from
22,000 in 2004 to 111,000 by 2014. This latter figure proved an over-
estimate as the shortage is currently around 35,000–40,000 (Sheffi 2015).
In absolute terms, however, this is still a very large number and one which
is creating difficulties for many US businesses. Some commentators have
suggested that the US driver shortage is having a macro-economic impact
through the inflationary pressures exerted by rising labor costs in the road
freight sector.

26 Sector Case Studies
The “shortage of qualified personnel in road freight transport” in the EU in

2008 was deemed serious enough to justify an inquiry by the Transport and
Tourism Committee of the European Parliament. This concluded that the EU
needed an additional 74,480 truck drivers that year. Expressed as a percentage
of the total trucking driving workforce, the shortage was greatest in the Czech
Republic, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. One survey in 2012 suggested
that 84 percent of European road haulage companies were having difficulty
recruiting drivers (Rauwald and Schmidt 2012). Currently, it appears that
Germany and the United Kingdom have the most serious problems among the
EU member states. It is estimated that over the next 10–15 years around
40 percent of German truck drivers will retire, which will create a shortfall of
150,000 drivers (Weiss 2013). In the United Kingdom, the Road Haulage
Association and Freight Transport Association assess the “national driver short-
age” to be around 45,000 and 52,000 respectively, with another 35,000 drivers
likely to retire in the next two years who will be extremely difficult to replace.
The expectation in Europe, as in North America, is that the driver shortage will
escalate over the next 5–10 years.
There is also evidence of the problem seriously affecting the trucking
industries of emerging markets. The Transport Corporation of India (TCI
2015), the country’s largest logistics provider, has declared that “while the
West is already facing an acute shortage of truck drivers, Indian industry,
which was comfortably placed, suddenly finds itself staring at a problem
which could have been avoided with greater resourcefulness and to which,
regrettably, there are no easy and quick fix solutions.” It has been suggested
that around 10 percent of the Indian truck fleet is unused because of a lack
of drivers, “in a country with high unemployment and a bountiful supply of
labor.”
Reports suggest that there is shortfall of around 100,000 qualified drivers in
Brazil and that Brazilian carriers are having to recruit drivers from Colombia
(Anon 2014b). It is estimated that South Africa needs an extra 15,000 truck
drivers each year but in recent years the supply has fallen well short of this target
(Magutu 2015).
In recognition of the serious and widespread occurrence of the truck driver
shortage, the International Road Transport Union (IRU) adopted in 2010 a “reso-
lution on driver shortages and strategies for better recruitment and retention”
which provided advice to governments, national road transport associations and
companies on how to deal with the problem. It was based on the premise that
“increased transport demand” will be “increasingly constrained and disrupted by
driver shortages across the world’s economies.”
In countries where the enforcement of employment and transport regula-
tions is often lax and open to corruption, a lack of qualified drivers can result
in trucks being driven by untrained and unlicensed personnel to the detri-
ment of operational productivity, road safety and the environment. This can
undermine efforts to upgrade the professional status of logistics in these
countries.

Sector Case Studies 27
Reasons for the Driver Shortage

The shortage is the result of numerous, inter-related factors and this is partly why
it is proving so difficult to correct. Some of these factors are generic, others spe-
cific to individual countries. The main factors are as follows:
Growth in the demand for road freight transport: Road is by far the dominant
freight transport mode and in many countries the growth in road ton-kms is
closely coupled to economic growth. Although labor productivity in road haul-
age has been increasing, it has been outpaced by the growth in freight traffic.
Relative unattractiveness of the occupation: Various aspects of truck driving
make it unappealing to potential recruits:
Low wage rates: In a sense, the truck driver shortage is evidence of a market
failure. In a free market economy, wage rates should be bid up to a level at which
enough workers enter the profession. As Sheffi (2015) argues, “shippers, while
complaining about driver shortages, are still not willing to pay more for high
quality truck transportation. In other words, the situation is not ‘bad enough’,
despite the publicity.” As a result most carriers lack the resources to substantially
increase the level of driver remuneration, which typically represents 30–40 percent
of total operating costs. Some of the larger US carriers are now paying “signing
bonuses” of between $500 and $12,000, mainly to poach drivers from other car-
riers (Cary 2014). For the majority of smaller trucking businesses that cannot
afford such bonuses, this merely exacerbates the problem. Very low rates of pay,
coupled with the need to pay bribes, have been highlighted as a major cause of
the Indian driver shortage (TCI 2015).
Working conditions: Truck drivers often have to put up with unsocial hours,
poor amenities, stress and, according to Kemp et al. (2013), “emotional exhaus-
tion.” These conditions have deteriorated with the move to 24/7 delivery, tight-
ening just-in-time schedules and more rigid timing of inbound deliveries.
The driver shortage is most acute in the long haul sector of the road freight
market where time spent away from home is greatest. This has been one of the
fastest growing sectors of the market as centralisation and wider sourcing have
been extending supply lines. In the meantime, the life-style expectations of
employees have been rising. With adequate financial compensation more work-
ers would accept the adversities of a truck driver’s life, but not at the prevailing
wage levels. The working conditions of European or American truck drivers,
although much criticized, are still far superior to those of their counterparts in
low and middle income economies. In India, for example, drivers can be away
from home for weeks at a time, spend many hours waiting at check points, often
drive on very poor roads in badly maintained, uncomfortable vehicles with no
access to roadside amenities, and can be forced to work excessive hours to earn
a basic income.
Changing nature of the job: It has been argued that truck driving now offers less
job satisfaction because driving performance is constantly monitored by onboard
devices and the work much more “codified” and structured than before
(European Parliament 2009). It has been argued that “the romance of the role of

truck driver—the lone hero, his rig, the adventure of the wide, open road—has
vanished, if it ever existed” (Anon 2015). One can advance a counter argument,
however, that technology has made the job easier and safer. The need to master
all the technology on a modern truck has also led to some “upskilling” and diver-
sification of the average driver’s skill set.
Image: The public image of the trucking industry is often poor and the social
status of drivers considered low.
Increased regulation: The Working Time Directive (WTD) in the EU and
tightening controls on drivers hours in many countries have increased the num-
ber of drivers required to perform a given road freight task, particularly in the
long-haul sector. On the other hand, these regulations, which have been moti-
vated mainly by safety concerns, have helped improve working conditions for
drivers. According to the 2009 European Parliament study the net effect of these
regulations has been neutral. Yet it has been suggested that the United States
have aggravated the driver shortage problem (Morris 2015).
Demographics: The age structure of the truck driver population in the US and
Europe is a major cause for concern. The average age of a US truck driver is 47
(Soergel 2015). In the United Kingdom it is 53, with 62 percent of drivers over
45 and only 2 percent under 25. The sector has not been attracting sufficient
young people into the profession to replace the older generations soon to retire.
As discussed above, this is partly due to truck driving becoming less appealing
relative to other competing occupations and not being seen as a “career of
choice.” Other factors have also constrained the influx of younger recruits. In the
United Kingdom and United States, for example, high insurance costs make it
expensive for carriers to employ drivers under 25 and this insurance penalty has
been increasing. The ending of compulsory military service in several European
countries is also reckoned to have had a detrimental effect on recruitment as
many young people formerly qualified as truck drivers during their period of
conscription.
Qualification requirements: It has been claimed that some potential recruits
are being deterred by the higher levels of qualification and certification now
required to become a truck driver and the higher cost of obtaining them,
which in many cases has to be borne by the applicant. In the EU, for example,
it has become mandatory for drivers to have a “certificate of professional
competence” (CPC) in addition to their heavy goods vehicle (HGV) driving
licence. In the US, more thorough checks on the past conduct of applicants
tend to exclude people who in the past would have been employed in the
trucking industry. In South Africa, only around 5–10 percent of applicants
for truck driving jobs are “deemed suitable for training” (Anon 2014a). If it is
true that increased certification and tougher checks are inhibiting recruit-
ment, they may be temporarily exacerbating the problem, but in the longer
term they should upgrade professional standards and address the image/status
problem mentioned earlier. The dampening effect on recruitment may also be
exaggerated. Obtaining a driver CPC, for example, requires only 35 hours of
training over five years.

Industry structure: In all countries the trucking industry is highly fragmented.

Typically around 80 percent of carriers have fewer than five vehicles and around
40–50 percent of businesses have a single vehicle run by an “owner-driver.” This
high proportion of sole-employee businesses means that the driver needs to have
entrepreneurial skills as well as competence as a driver. They must see the truck-
ing industry as an attractive commercial prospect as well as a source of employment.
The driver shortage is generally portrayed in the media as trucking companies
failing to recruit enough “employee drivers,” but this overlooks the fact that
much of a country’s freight is moved in trucks owned by the driver as a sole
trader.
In recent years, many owner drivers have been leaving the business because of
low margins, poor returns and retirement. Those retiring have found it increas-
ingly difficult to pass on the business to the next generation because, for the
reasons listed above, trucking is perceived as a down-market activity. Inadequate
business formation and survival rates at the owner-driver end of the trucking
industry is another aspect of the market failure outlined earlier. In some coun-
tries, owner-drivers get some or all of their capital from family members, who
must also be convinced that trucking represents a good medium- to long-term
investment. Entry barriers to the road freight sector are not solely financial.
In regulated trucking markets it can be difficult for owner-drivers to obtain
licenses, while in some countries new entrants are deterred by the efforts of
incumbents to maintain a “closed shop” for road haulage services often by illegal
means.
Solutions to the Problem

It is generally accepted that there is no single solution to the driver shortage
problem. Several initiatives could help to ease the current problem and keep the
future shortfall of drivers within manageable limits:
Increase wage levels: This is the market solution. If shippers are unable to move
their freight by road or to use an alternative transport mode, freight rates will
have to rise to incentivize more people to come into the industry and drive the
trucks. In most countries, carriers’ margins are so thin that they have little slack
to pay drivers more and so most of the financial burden will fall on shippers.
The fact that the driver shortage problem persists even in countries such as the
US and Switzerland where drivers are relatively well paid suggests that improv-
ing remuneration is unlikely to be enough.
Improve working conditions: Some companies have shown how it is possible to
change shift patterns and delivery schedules to minimize unsocial hours (Kilcarr
2015). This often adds cost, but can still be a cheaper option than employing
“agency drivers” at short notice or risk losing business. In Brazil, the National
Confederation of Transport (CNT) has established a network of centers around
the country at which truck drivers can access a range of welfare, medical and
recreational services while they are away from home. This is significantly improv-
ing working conditions in the Brazilian trucking industry.

Improving the image of truck driving: As the European Parliament report

explains this can be done by “by promoting campaigns on the key role played by
the transport sector in the economy, as well as providing information on employ-
ment prospects to schools, employment services and the media.” Such campaigns
can be run by trade bodies, professional associations, government agencies and
larger logistics providers. This should not simply be seen in presentational and
perceptual terms. The overall professional status of truck driving needs to be
enhanced, through better training, apprenticeships and improved career
development.
Changing nature of the job: Although sometimes presented as a negative factor,
particularly in encouraging the premature departure of older drivers, there are
many positive developments that should be attractive to younger recruits.
These include the increased technological sophistication of trucks, greater appli-
cation of IT, sleeker vehicle designs and the closer integration of truck driving
into the logistics management process.
Increasing the participation of women and ethnic minorities: In Europe and North
America truck driving is predominantly a job for white males. It is estimated that
only around 6 percent of US truck drivers are female (Hsu 2016). It is a sector
than needs to have a more open and inclusive recruitment policy and to do more
to attract women and members of ethnic minorities.
Immigration: Truck driver shortages in the past have been partly relieved by
migration. For example following the enlargement of the EU in 2003 many
Eastern European drivers migrated to the United Kingdom to fill haulage indus-
try vacancies. Among the recent influx of migrants to the EU may be aspiring
truck drivers. The International Road Transport Union (IRU) is trying to achieve
greater international harmonization and recognition of truck driver qualifications
to increase the mobility of employees in this sector. There is a danger, however,
that countries will poach each other’s drivers, shifting the problem and not fun-
damentally correcting it.
Government intervention: Given the current scarcity of truck drivers and
potentially damaging effect on national economic performance, it may be
necessary for governments to intervene. In the United Kingdom, for example,
the government has decided to “review the speed with which heavy goods
vehicle (HGV) driving tests and driver medical assessments currently take
place and will consider options to accelerate both in order to help address
the shortage of qualified HGV drivers” (Cassidy 2015). The UK Road
Haulage Association wants it to go further and provide grants of up to
£3,000 to prospective drivers to cover the cost of their training. Government
can also play a useful role in upgrading road-side facilities for truck drivers.
In low and middle income countries, governments can help to make driving
a truck more palatable by reducing related bureaucratic checks, curbing cor-
ruption, providing more medical support etc, though all this involves tack-
ling systemic problems within the country.
Improvements in productivity: It is possible to decouple labor requirements
from the growth of road freight volumes by increasing productivity. This is

particularly important in developing countries where labor productivity in the

road freight sector is relatively low. Productivity can be improved in various ways:
Increasing the maximum size and weight of trucks: This permits the consoli-
dation of freight in fewer vehicles. High capacity vehicles are widely used in
Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands, South Africa and
some US states, though their legalization is a highly controversial issue at the EU
level in Europe and the federal level in the US.
Promoting horizontal collaboration in supply chains: This involves companies
sharing vehicle capacity to maximize load factors.
Improved load matching: Greater use of online freight exchanges and pro-
curement platforms helps companies find backloads and can eliminate many
empty return journeys.
Platooning and automation: These innovations have been suggested as offering
a technical fix to the driver shortage problem. The use of so-called “electronic
tow-bars” to link a convoy of trucks would allow the “platoon” to be driven by a
single driver. The other vehicles would have drivers in the cab, but, as they would
not be driving, they could be on their rest breaks. The same situation would
apply to automated trucks which could move independently. The US State of
Nevada has recently approved trials of “self-driving” trucks on public roads
(Thielman 2015). Both technologies would represent an injection of capital into
the road freight sector to reduce its dependence on labor. They could ease the
driver shortage problem, partly by circumventing drivers’ hours restrictions,
though they will have minimal, if any, impact on the problem in the short to
medium term.
Humanitarian Logistics
The increasing frequency and intensity of both natural and man-made disasters,
mainly in low and middle income countries, is creating a growing demand for
specialists in so-called “humanitarian logistics.” They generally work for the
relief agencies, such as the World Food Program, Oxfam and Médecins sans
Frontières, which must mobilize a broad range of resources at short notice to
rescue populations afflicted by disasters. Van Wassenhove (2006) estimated
that 80 percent of humanitarian activities, and the related costs, are associated
with logistics. This is therefore a sector with a high demand for logistics exper-
tise. The available literature and our discussions with representatives of this
sector suggest that this expertise is currently lacking. Kovács, Tatham, and
Larson (2012) for example refer to “the simultaneous shortage of humanitarian
logisticians, high work-force rotation (up to 80 percent per annum) and the
challenge of retaining personnel.”
Acquiring and retaining the necessary logistics skills in this sector are dif-
ficult for several reasons. First, the skills themselves differ from those required
by logisticians working in a commercial environment. Local conditions are by
definition quite different. Typically, supply chains will have been severely
fractured, infrastructure damaged, communication networks disrupted and

social and adminstrative services placed under serious strain if not completely
eradicated. Yet, despite all this adversity, large, and often traumatized, popula-
tions have to be urgently supplied with the basic essentials. This can be logis-
tics at its most challenging. Second, much of the relief agencies’ work is
concentrated in low and middle income countries where, as discussed earlier,
there is already of shortage of logistics skills in the local population. Third,
given the resource constraints in this sector, salary levels are often not com-
petitive with those in the business world. Fourth, the risks and rigors of work-
ing in disaster zones deters many logistics specialists from switching from the
commercial to the humanitarian sector.
In recent years, several studies have examined competency requirements in
humanitarian logistics. One central question they have addressed is the extent to
which the competencies of the humanitarian logistician differ from the standard
range expected of other logistics specialists. Efforts have been made, by Kovács,
Tatham, and Larson (2012), Heaslip et al. (2015) and others, to list and classify
the humanitarian competencies and try to map them onto the standard compe-
tency lists of the major professional associations of logistics. Kovács, Tatham, and
Larson (2012), analyzed large samples of job adverts for humanitarian logistics
posts to determine what skills and aptitudes the main employers in this sector
were looking for. The prevailing view is that most logistics competencies are
common to both sectors, though disaster relief operations require specialist train-
ing to gain both “contextual” skills and the ability to respond rapidly to unfore-
seen events. This creates the need for specialist training programs in humanitarian
logistics for staff working at different levels in this sector. At the upper manage-
rial level, university programs now exist in several universities such as Lugano,
Georgia Tech in Atlanta and Dar-es-Salaam. Charitable foundations, such as the
Kuehne Foundation and Fritz Institute, are also active in the development and
delivery of training programs in this field.
Within the broader humanitarian logistics world, the HR aspects of the
delivery of medical supplies have attracted particular attention. Several initia-
tives are currently underway to upskill those working in health supply chains
in low and middle income countries. An initiative called People that Deliver
(PtD) was established in 2011 to “build global and national capacity to imple-
ment evidence-based approaches to plan, finance, develop, support and retain the
national workforces needed for the effective, efficient and sustainable management
of health supply chains” (www.peoplethatdeliver.org). PtD has developed a
three-level training model for healthcare logistics, defining domains, compe-
tence areas and behavioral competencies, to assist the development of train-
ing programs. It has also created an online platform, called Laptop, where
those working in health supply chains can find relevant training material and
courses (http://www.rhsupplies.org/activities-resources/tools/laptop/). Other
organizations active in this sector are GAVI, the global vaccine and immuni-
zations alliance, and the International Association of Healthcare Professionals.
GAVI is currently working with the Gates Foundation, UNICEF and UPS
to pilot a new training program in Rwanda for those engaged in the delivery

of vaccines. This joint initiative is discussed in “Examples of Best Practices in

Competence Development” section in chapter 5 as an example of good prac-
tice in competence development.
As humanitarian logistics activities are concentrated in parts of the world
where logistics skills are generally in short supply and as momentum is building
in the humanitarian sector to upgrade these skills, there are potential synergies to
be exploited. The formation of multi-stakeholder groups to address the logistics
skills shortage in low and middle income countries should include the various
organizations currently working to increase the supply of qualified staff for
humanitarian and health supply chains. Logistics training is discussed more fully
in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER 5
Training and Skills Development
Nature and Scale of Logistics Training

Where skills are lacking in the existing workforce, the obvious answer is to
increase the level of training. The survey responses indicate that the majority of
firms across all regions rely on a mixture of internal and external training
(figure 5.1). There is one particular difference between regions, though.
Companies in developing countries rely twice as heavily on internal training
(17 percent vs. 9 percent) compared to their counterparts in the developed
world. Often, however, this internal training is simple “on-the-job-training,”
meaning that new employees receive quick, superficial advice from more expe-
rienced peers. Certainly, the supply of external trainers and agencies is greater in
the developed world than in developing markets. Nevertheless, there are a sig-
nificant and expanding training capabilities in less developed countries. CILT has
a strong presence and membership network in Sub-Saharan Africa and South-
East Asia. CSCMP has been active in Latin America for decades. Even smaller,
Western-based training agencies have expanded into low and middle income
countries. MGCM for example, a French training agency, designs training courses
specifically for Tunisia.
While many companies engage in logistics training activities, survey partici-
pants and interviewees from developing regions emphasized that they are dis-
satisfied with the hours allocated and the quality and the variety of logistics
training courses offered by employers (figures 5.2 and 5.3). Almost twice as
many respondents from developed countries agreed that they receive a sufficient
amount of training time (25 percent vs. 14 percent) and that the training topics
vary sufficiently (25 percent vs. 12 percent). Surveyed statistics rely on personal
perception and the word “sufficient” is, therefore, quite subjective. However, the
numerical data was backed up by the comments of the interviewed experts.
According to several anecdotes, “training hours” for warehouse staff in developing
countries sometimes consist of simple instructions by the supervisor on how to
drive a forklift or where to store and retrieve goods.

36 Training and Skills Development
Figure 5.1 Sources of Training
Internal only
External provider/trainers only
Mix of internal and external
Unknown
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percent
Figure 5.2 Time Allocation to Training
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Percent
Our consultations revealed a serious gap between developed and developing

markets in the provision of logistics training at all occupational levels.
Interviewees argued that the quality and quantity of training are strongly
related to firm size and resources, and therefore implicitly to the market structure
of the regional logistics sector. In many countries, both higher and lower income
ones, a large proportion of trucking operations are sub-contracted by the larger
logistics companies to owner-drivers or small carriers with two to five trucks.
These logistical small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) cannot afford to
design training schemes or sacrifice potential working hours to train their staff.

Training and Skills Development 37
Figure 5.3 Variety of Logistics Training
Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Percent
Figure 5.4 Impact of Training on Performance
Major improvement
Strong improvement
Moderate improvement
Weak improvement
No improvement at all
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Percent
On the other hand, the large 3PLs, though much better resourced, are naturally
reluctant to train their sub-contractors’ employees, despite the fact that they
indirectly suffer from under-skilling of the subcontract workforce.
There has been a tendency for some companies to see training as a cost rather
than investment, partly because they have difficulty in quantifying the returns.
The survey results show that investment in training capacity is regarded as being
both managerially and economically beneficial (figure 5.4). The vast majority of

respondents answered that training activities ultimately lead to moderate-to-strong

improvements in their company’s logistics and SCM performance. A larger
proportion of respondents in emerging (developing) regions (19 percent) believe
that training can lead to major performance improvement. The bunching of
responses in the moderate category may reflect reservations about the quality
and relevance of some of the logistics training.
Stakeholders in Training and Skills Development

Numerous stakeholders are involved in the development, monitoring and
certification of logistics skills. The majority of the interviewees highlighted
the importance of joint efforts by stakeholder groups. Companies, govern-
ments, logistics associations and academia must collaborate to identify and
exchange best practice in skill development. In less mature logistics markets,
they must work together to develop a logistics training capability that
can equip the employees on the different occupational levels with the neces-
sary range of skills. Each stakeholder group can perform a different—but
complementary—role.
Companies: Our expert panels agreed that the main responsibility for training
and developing logistics staff lies in the hands of employers. Companies—both
multi-national and local—should have an intrinsic motivation to develop their
workforce at all levels. Well-educated, trained employees will pay back the
investment in the form of higher levels of productivity and performance.
Academic studies have found evidence that high levels of SCM competence and
knowledge lead to sustained competitive advantage (Hult et al. 2006; Ellinger
et al. 2012).
Companies must decide which employees need to be enrolled in training
programs, particularly those designed for logistics staff at the operational, admin-
istrative and supervisory levels. Figure 5.5 indicates the relative importance of
subject areas for training as rated by respondents to the online survey from devel-
oped and developing economies. Almost all the topics received significantly
greater support from developing country respondents. While this is a positive
finding, it requires careful interpretation.
One possible reason for the lower average percentages assigned to core logis-
tics subjects, such as inventory management, transportation, and warehouse
management, by respondents from developed regions is that they expect many
of their graduate-level recruits from specialist logistics degree courses to be famil-
iar with these topics. It is also possibly due to a higher degree of specialization in
developed countries, resulting in respondents prioritizing training in the core
activity of their business, such as transport or warehousing. In developing mar-
kets, there is greater variation in the average importance ratings of the subject
areas: softer skills like foreign languages, legal issues and supply chain security
receive very low scores. The responses from developed countries were much
more balanced, suggesting greater recognition of the contribution that these
softer skills can make.

Figure 5.5 Training Content
Inventory mgmt
Transportation
Warehouse/Fulfillment
Demand planning
Purchasing
Customer service
General mgmt.
Compliance
Supervisory skills
Packaging/materials handling
IT usage
Supply chain security
Hazardous materials
International processes
Soft skills
Legal issues
Foreign language
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percent
If companies in developing regions want to keep up with international stan-

dards, they must complement the current emphasis on the core logistics skills in
inventory, warehousing and transport management with training in the broader
range of competencies needed to manage complex supply chains with high levels
of digitalization and customer expectation. The administrative staff must develop
their communication skills, and logistics supervisors and managers must acquire
more leadership skills.
Multi-national vs. local firms. Training program maturity is highly correlated
with company size. Well-resourced multi-national 3PLs like DHL, DB Schenker
and Kühne+Nagel use integrated corporate training programs that combine

centralized programs for senior management with regional and local training
activities for lower-tier employees. Their per capita training budgets are generous
by comparison with those of local businesses, particularly in the trucking and
warehousing sectors. Several interviewees claimed that the logistics staff in small
companies—especially in operational roles—are expected to generate revenues
from day one of their employment. Competition is so intense in the highly frag-
mented road haulage industries of developing countries that truck drivers must
be on the road every day. Thus many haulage businesses lack the necessary
budget and/or expertise to instigate training programs.
Concerns were also raised about the quality and utility of the training
programs currently in place. Many small companies in the logistics sector do not
undertake a proper needs assessment of the employees to be trained and simply
use pre-existing training materials, regardless of whether or not they are relevant.
These smaller companies, typically with fewer than five vehicles, form the back-
bone of a country’s logistics operations and can collectively be responsible for a
much higher share of freight movement than the larger players. Companies like
these require the professional support of external organizations. In order to raise
their competence level, multi-national companies could be incentivized to sup-
port industry-wide training initiatives for logistics SMEs. Since the larger 3PLs
sub-contract much of their haulage to these smaller operators, they would indi-
rectly benefit from this wider up-skilling.
Logistics associations: Many countries now have professional associa-
tions for logistics. The three largest ones, CILT (United Kingdom), CSCMP
(United States) and BVL (Germany), have a multi-national presence and a
critical role to play in the development, assessment and certification of
professional standards in logistics and SCM worldwide. In Europe, many of
the national associations, including CILT and BVL, are affiliated to the
European Logistics Association (ELA), which co-ordinates professional
development efforts on a continental level and represents logistics in gov-
ernmental and industry forums. International and national logistics associa-
tions offer training programs and qualifications that they deliver through
multiple channels. The major associations have a large, diverse membership
base which is kept updated on developments in the field and training initia-
tives through conferences, webinars and newsletters.
Several lower-income countries such as Oman, Jordan, Argentina, Peru and
Uruguay have national logistics associations.1 Efforts have been made by the
World Bank and International Finance Corporation to set up a Logistics
Association in the Arab Republic of Egypt, a country in which there is no
established locus for institutional responsibility for logistics. Among other
activities, this association would have organized logistics training courses.
Unfortunately the initiative was unsuccessful due to a lack of funding.
Many associations offer a variety of training materials, training programs and
professional trainers. Their programs range from comprehensive logistics degrees
that require several years of study to short workshops and independent online
courses. Logistics companies can benefit from logistics association membership

in several ways. Attendance at meetings and conferences allows members to

accumulate continuing professional development (CPD) credits. CILT defines
CPD as the “systematic maintenance and improvement of knowledge, skills and
competence throughout a professional’s working life.” Members of the associa-
tion are encouraged to develop CPD plans and to accumulate CPD credits,
which are used to assess their suitability for higher levels of membership.
Appendix B contains an example of a CPD plan.
Professional associations relieve individual companies of the need to design
and facilitate their own training courses and materials. They also provide stan-
dardized assessment and certification of the skills acquired through training.
In addition, they maintain high levels of quality in the courses they deliver them-
selves and the ones offered by the other agencies and institutions that they
accredit. The qualifications and certificates they award to successful students and
companies are highly reputable and recognized globally.
The vast majority of survey respondents believe that professional logistics
associations have essential/important roles and responsibilities in promoting
careers in logistics and SCM (figure 5.6). A significantly higher share of the
respondents in developing regions deemed the role of the associations to be
essential. These survey findings were in line with the interview comments
received. Western-based associations have been responding to the strong
demand for professionalized logistics in developing economies. CILT
International, for instance, has a large footprint in Africa—as reflected by the
large number of member countries and companies. The collaboration between
national and international logistics associations facilitates the transfer of state-
of-the-art logistics knowledge from developed countries to developing ones
and the standardization of logistics competencies worldwide. There is also col-
laboration between professional associations: for example, between CILT and
APICS. While CILT has greater expertise and more extensive networking in the
transport sector, APICS is an SCM-oriented association. Depending on the
clients’ needs, the associations can jointly provide training, dividing their input
Figure 5.6 Role of Logistics Associations
Essential role
Important role
I’m not sure
Unimportant role
No role at all
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percent

in line with their core competencies. The activities of the large professional
logistics associations are outlined in greater detail in “Examples of Best Practices
in Competence Development” section in chapter 5.
Higher education: Colleges, universities and vocational schools provide the
foundation for future logistics leadership. These institutions are responsible for
the education of logistics managers at the upper end of the educational hierarchy.
Over the last few decades, many universities have launched specialist bachelor
and master programs in logistics and SCM and/or incorporated logistics/SCM
modules into other, more general management-focused curricula. Some of this
university and college level provision has been funded by governments in recog-
nition of logistics’ role as an essential enabler of economic growth and wealth
(Korn 2013). However, as indicated by our survey results, higher educational
programs across all regions have not been producing enough young logistics pro-
fessionals to meet market demand. According to our interviewees, this is not the
only concern. They have suggested that, particularly in developing regions, not
only the quantity but also the quality of the academic logistics education is
sub-optimal. The interviewees emphasized that in some countries, such as
Thailand and Brazil, the number of people holding a logistics degree is adequate
on paper, but unfortunately, graduates do not possess the skills or the knowledge
required in practice. As a consequence, positions are held by unqualified staff or
left vacant despite the large number of applicants.
Holcomb, Krul, and Thomas (2015) and many interviewees argued that
academia and industry must collaborate more closely to ensure that the next
generation of logistics/SCM graduates is equipped with the skill sets required by
practice. Unfortunately, the content taught in colleges and universities in devel-
oping economies is often outdated. Interviewees noted that some regional col-
leges in China and Thailand still use teaching materials from the 1980s in their
lectures today. The lecturing styles in these countries were also criticized for
often relying solely on traditional lecture-style instruction. More modern didactic
approaches are required to imbue students with important practical skills such
as communication, teamwork, presentation, project management and negotia-
tion. The criticism of course content and delivery was not confined to developing
economies, however. A recent survey of supply chain professionals—mainly in
the developed world—revealed that they also find it difficult to recruit graduates
from universities who have the skill sets required in practice (Logistics
Management 2011). The 2014 SCM World Survey of chief supply chain officers
concluded that:
Since 2011, when we first started surveying supply chain practitioners on talent
management, the pressure has ramped up steadily. Despite rising interest in supply
chains among universities and significant investments by professional associations such
as APICS, the ISM and the CSCMP, business leaders seem to be facing harder times
building and managing their teams than ever before. In fact, 43% of supply chain prac-
titioners say that this task has become harder in the past two years—nearly double the
rate in 2011 and up notably over last year. (O’Marah et al. 2014, p. 30)

The specialists interviewed for the present study suggested several remedies:
Firstly, universities in developing economies should partner with
well-established institutions in developed countries to initiate a knowledge
transfer and obtain advice on how to adopt up-to-date teaching methods.
Examples are presented in “Examples of Best Practices in Competence
Development” section in chapter 5. Secondly, Western universities could
expand their intake of students from developing countries into logistics/SCM
programs. This usually gives them access to state-of-the-art education and
equips them with knowledge and skills to take back to their home countries.
There is always the risk, of course, that these students find employment
locally and do not return to their home countries. The United Kingdom, the
United States, Australia and, to a lesser extent, Germany, the Netherlands and
Sweden, already attract many students from developing markets to their
logistics programs, despite relatively high tuition and living costs. The current
financial barrier to studying at Western universities could be eased for the
most promising candidates if the hosting universities, the home country’s
government or third parties awarded more scholarships. Finally, American
and European professors could possibly do more to support the development
of logistics and SCM courses in emerging markets. At an institutional level,
MIT has successfully established logistics institutes in Colombia and Malaysia,
as discussed in greater detail in “Examples of Best Practices in Competence
Development” section in chapter 5.
Our consultations suggest that universities in developed countries are better at
improving students’ soft skills, particularly in the areas of leadership, communica-
tion and cross-cultural management, where, according to our surveys. There are
currently competence deficits. As discussed earlier, sometimes the reasons for
deficiencies in communication and leadership have cultural roots.
While universities and colleges educate future managers and senior adminis-
trative staff, vocational schools play a key role in preparing staff for operational
and supervisory jobs and helping them climb the career ladder. In contrast to
academic institutions (universities and colleges), vocational schools or private
academies focus on teaching practical, applicable skills rather than theoretical
concepts. Their training programs typically have more practical content and
give students more hands-on experience through internships and work assign-
ments. This requires close collaboration between companies and vocational
schools/academies. The collaboration with industry is well exemplified by the
dual-education approach that is long-established in Germany. This is one of the
many examples of best practice in logistics competence development discussed
in the next section.
Examples of Best Practices in Competence Development

Numerous examples of best practice in logistics training and competence devel-
opment were identified. This section examines a selection that appears to be
working well in practice.

Associations of logistics professionals: Our review of the training, accreditation

and certification activities of the larger associations revealed examples of best
practice that smaller, nationally-based associations would do well to emulate.
Survey respondents felt that professional associations should play an essential
role in promoting logistics and upgrading logistics skills.
Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT): CILT’s training programs
give transport and logistics practitioners a strong foundation for their career
development. With five levels of qualification available from school-leaver to
graduate level, learning with CILT can take place flexibly and at the candidate’s
own pace. The qualifications are recognized globally and enable students to
advance their careers as they work their way through the various levels. The full
range of CILT courses can be accessed through classroom teaching, distance
learning and e-learning formats. Many of them have a modular structure.
For employers, this is a promising way to ensure that the staff are well trained in
the basics of supply chain management, logistics and transport, using the course
options that best match the needs of the business. The course content and quali-
fications have been tailored to the needs of logistics and transport businesses
around the world. Each qualification is assessed against lists of key knowledge
areas and competencies that are regularly reviewed by teams of academics and
practitioners (CILT 2015a).
European Logistics Association (ELA): ELA is a federation of thirty
national logistics organizations covering almost all of Europe. The ELA
Standards of Logistics Competence were developed with and agreed by the
logistics industry. The ELA Standards are outcome-based and form the basis
of the assessment, which is independent of any learning program. ELA cer-
tification is widely recognized throughout Europe and beyond. This offers
flexibility to certified logistics employees seeking employment in different
European countries. Assessment is available from the ELA National
Certification Boards established in more than 20 countries. An ELA certifi-
cate recognizes competencies and validates logisticians’ experience at dif-
ferent levels (ELA 2015).
APICS—The Association for Operations Management: APICS is a professional
association for supply chain and operations management and a provider of
research, education and certification programs that “aim to elevate supply chain
excellence, innovation and resilience.” APICS has 43,000 members and more
than 30 international partners. It offers three main certificates and an endorse-
ment: certificate in production and inventory management (CPIM), certified
supply chain professional (CSCP), certified fellow in production and inventory
management (CFPIM) and SCOR professional endorsement (SCOR-P).
For example, someone with a CSCP qualification would be expected to have the
knowledge and organizational skills needed to manage supply chain operations.
It is the most widely recognized international educational program for operations
and supply chain management professionals. Since its launch in 2006, more than
17,000 professionals in 82 countries have earned the APICS CSCP designation.
(APICS 2015).

In addition to the main logistics associations operating at a global scale, there

are many established associations at the country level: for example, BVL in
Germany, AILOG in Italy, or CEL in Spain. Many of them exhibit best practice
in the derivation, marketing and implementation of professional standards.
Industry Associations
International Road Transport Union (IRU): IRU is the trade organization which
represents the interests of commercial road transport businesses worldwide,
including those operating freight vehicles. Its “training arm,” the IRU Academy,
offers a “portfolio of training programs to road transport professionals through its
global network of Accredited Training Institutes (ATIs)” in over 50 countries. It is
committed to raising professional standards in the road freight sector and gaining
professional recognition for those working in the industry. The organization’s
programs “integrate best practices and guarantee compliance with applicable
international, EU and national regulations in order to meet the objective of har-
monizing training standards at a global level.” In addition to providing training
materials for delivery by the ATIs to the road freight workforce, the IRU also
helps to enhance the capability of the ATIs by running “Train the Trainer”
sessions. This helps to ensure the quality of the training provided. The IRU’s
general courses lead to the award of certificates of professional competence
(CPC) at both managerial and driver levels and are supplemented by specialist
courses, inter alia, on the transport of dangerous goods, cargo security and eco-
driving. ATIs receive packages comprising lesson plans, presentations, simulations,
videos, glossaries and as well as assessment material.
The Advisory Committee of the IRU Academy is composed of representatives
of the World Bank, the International Transport Forum, the UN, the European
Commission and the European Transport Workers Federation. It has a separate
Accreditation Committee responsible for the maintenance of professional stan-
dards across its training network.
FIATA Logistics Academy: FIATA is the International Federation of Freight
Forwarding Associations which represents “an industry covering approximately
40,000 forwarding and logistics firms employing around 8–10 million people in
150 countries.” It set up its Logistics Academy in 2014 to “add value to FIATA
members by positioning training, development and research in freight logistics as
a priority to provide a sustainable, quality management facility for professional
training to FIATA members (…) to promote collaboration and mutual recognition
with international, national and regional bodies and to enhance access to careers
in supply chain management.” Its training is geared towards the managerial level.
The Academy works with a group of partner universities and relies heavily on
online delivery of training modules to employees in the freight forwarding sector,
drawing where possible on existing material. It has arranged for a suite of manage-
ment MOOCs2 prepared by edX at Harvard Business School to be available
managers in the freight forwarding sector, but is also in the process of developing
new modules in specific aspects of forwarding, such as the safety and security of

goods in transit. The Logistics Academy supplements FIATA’s long established

training schemes for apprentices in the freight forwarding sector.
International branch campuses: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) has established a Center for Latin American Logistics Innovation (CLI) in
Bogota, Colombia. The SCALE Latin America flagship student program, the
most extensive of its type in Latin America, leads to the award of the Graduate
Certificate in Logistics and Supply Chain Management (GCLOG). The GCLOG
program started in July 2009. Presented by the MIT Center for Transportation
and Logistics (CTL) faculty, the program’s goal is to train aspiring logistics and
supply chain professionals in the region. MIT CTL and CLI have cultivated close
relationships with 27 Latin American universities. The SCALE Network is used
to provide opportunities for academics in the region to improve the teaching
methods and program content in the supply chain field at their local universities.
They achieve this through a series of English-language academic workshops that
take place annually at various venues across Latin America. An integral part of
CLI activities in the region is collaboration with corporate partners. To date, CLI
has 12 strategic corporate partners (MIT 2015). More recently MIT has extended
its SCALE network into East Asia with the establishment of the Malaysia
Institute for Supply Chain Innovation (MISI).
Georgia Tech has founded a logistics innovation and research center in
Panama. It is the latest addition to the Georgia Tech Supply Chain & Logistics
Institute (SCL). Under an agreement negotiated with Panama’s National
Secretariat of Science, Technology and Innovation, SCL undertakes research and
education in logistics and trade. The center’s strategic objectives are to improve
the logistics performance of the country and help develop its logistics and trade
capabilities, thus enabling Panama to become the trade hub of the Americas
(Georgia Tech University 2015).
The renowned German university RWTH Aachen has opened a campus in
Oman: the German University of Technology (GUtech). A focus group participant
from Oman noted that this initiative is well received by Oman companies and its
graduates are the first choice for filling entry-level positions. The BSc in Logistics
combines an education in business and general management with an introduction
to the fields of logistics and supply chain management. It provides solid, in-depth
knowledge of logistics, supply chain management and transportation management.
The program is tailored to the requirements of the Sultanate of Oman and the
region, but draws on the state-of-the-art expertise accumulated at RWTH Aachen.
The program puts a strong emphasis on the employability of GUtech gradu-
ates. For this reason, many of the program’s elements are taught in cooperation
with local and international industry partners. Generic skills such as critical think-
ing, creativity, life-long learning, intercultural communication and teamwork are
considered essential and are thus integrated into the curriculum. A faculty based
in Muscat and visiting professors from RWTH Aachen and other renowned uni-
versities teach the courses. The language of instruction is English, including writ-
ten and oral tests, seminar papers and the bachelor’s thesis. Students are also
expected to develop communication skills in German (GUtech 2015).

Another example of best-practice in education and multi-stakeholder

facilitation is The Logistics Institute—Asia Pacific (TLI—Asia Pacific) in
Singapore. Established in 1998 under the Global School House Program,
TLI—Asia Pacific is a collaboration between National University of Singapore
and Georgia Tech for research and educational programs in global logistics.
The Institute provides postgraduate and executive education in logistics and
SCM. Since its inception, it has served as the training ground for aspiring
logisticians, equipping them with analytical tools to meet supply chain
challenges. A particularly important function is to bring together govern-
ment, universities and industry in logistics in Singapore. The Institute hosts a
regular series of so-called THINK forums that bring thought-leaders in
research and industry together to discuss contemporary SCM issues, chal-
lenges and solutions.
Dual education and apprenticeship programs: Germany, Austria and
Switzerland have embraced the industry-linked vocational school system for
several hundred years. Its apprenticeship system has been recognized as one of
the key sources of Germany’s economic strength and world leadership in engi-
neering and other technical sectors, including logistics. Italy and Spain have
recently adopted the German dual education system and it has also been recom-
mended for adoption by the UK logistics sector (Skills for Logistics 2014a). Due
to the combination of theoretical lessons in vocational schools and practical
education on the company side, the gap between theory and practice is bridged
quickly and efficiently. Apprenticeships foster job-related skills that can be rap-
idly put into action when the candidate takes up a full-time post. As shown in
figure 5.7, countries with a high percentage of vocational education tend to have
lower youth unemployment rates than countries with a low level of vocational
education. Furthermore, apprentices are often educated so comprehensively that
they are not only prepared for their entry-level job, but also for future leadership
positions higher on the career ladder.
As one part of the dual education system, the employing company trains stu-
dents three to five days a week. The companies are responsible for ensuring that
students receive a minimum quality and quantity of training. Students also
attend vocational schools (German: “Berufsschule”) for approximately 60 days a
year, often organized in blocks of one or two weeks distributed over the year.
The program is usually completed in 2.5–3 years by passing mandatory exams.
Since apprenticeship systems require companies to invest significant sums in
young employees, in Germany businesses commonly agree to refrain from
poaching current or recently graduated apprentices from competitors. In an
effort to reduce the upfront investment in apprenticeship systems, developing
countries could try to reduce their duration from two years to six months for
certain tasks that require lower levels of training and experience.
The BiS-Henderson Academy is a good best practice example of a private
apprenticeship system developed in cooperation with companies. It offers a job
in an SCM and logistics skills development program designed by the employing
company itself. This provides a “framework” containing a number of separately

Figure 5.7 Dual Education and Youth Unemployment
50
Greece Spain
40
Portugal
Youth unemployment rate, %
Italy Slovak Rep.

30 Poland
Ireland
Hungary Sweden
Estonia France Finland
20 United Kingdom Belgium
Czech Rep.
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Denmark
10
Germany Austria
Netherlands
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Vocational education, %
Sources: OECD 2008, Education at a Glance 2008; Eurostat. Adapted from Hanushek 2012.
certified qualifications and courses that cover the skills, competencies and basic
knowledge required for this specific job (BiS-Henderson Academy 2015).
Joint university/industry development of a logistics bachelors program: The
Novus program at the University of Huddersfield in the United Kingdom shows
how industry can take a proactive role in the development of a bachelor-level
logistics course (University of Huddersfield 2015). In recognition of the need to
increase the flow of well-qualified logistics/SCM graduates, a group of UK-based
companies coordinated by BIS-Henderson approached several UK universities
with a proposal to support the development of a degree program. The University
of Huddersfield, which was the first university in the United Kingdom to enter
the undergraduate market in logistics education back in the 1980s, was selected
and the Novus program was born. The program has proved very popular with
students. It has several distinguishing features:
• All students graduating with at least an upper second class degree are guaran-
teed a graduate-level supply chain/logistics job with one of the sponsoring
companies.
• The program has been designed in partnership with these companies.
• During the program, students complete paid internships with the companies
over the summer months and have a full year internship during the third year
of the program.

• Company managers lead seminars and host site visits.

• Each student has a company mentor for the duration of the program.
Hands-on learning experience: Despite the fact that a sound theoretical

education is essential to understanding business processes, logistics employees
acquire much of the required knowledge and skill set through practical applica-
tion. While this happens automatically on the job, experiential learning
approaches such as business games are useful tools for teaching and simulating
logistics processes without being exposed to the risk of making costly mistakes in
a real company.
The McKinsey & Company Model Warehouse is a good example of how simu-
lation can be used in a simple, affordable and hands-on way. It shows how ware-
house operations can be designed and managed. The experiential learning approach
enables logistics staff from all levels to experience warehouse processes and
improvement levers in one- to several-day workshops (figure 5.8). By using scaled
Figure 5.8 Hands-On Learning Experience: McKinsey & Company Model Warehouse
Performance management Actual picking
Hands-on packing Discussing observtions
Source: © McKinsey & Company. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. http://capability-center
.mckinsey.com/lean-warehousing.
Note: The McKinsey Model Warehouse is a great example for a simple and affordable way to simulate typical warehouse
operations hands-on. The experiential learning approach enables logistics staff from all levels to experience warehouse
processes and improvement levers in one to several day workshops. By using scaled down warehouse equipment and items,
a standard warehouse environment is modeled on a few square meters of space. The equipment can be fitted into a small
container and shipped around the globe easily to teach logistics staff at any location. Capabilities developed in a hands-on
experiential learning environment such as the model warehouse are retained much longer than knowledge that is obtained
by reading, seeing and hearing only (McKinsey & Company 2015).

Figure 5.9 Hands-On Logistics and SCM Business Games
Source: © Kai Hoberg and Christoph Flöthmann / Kühne Logistics University (photographer: Susann Linke). Used with
permission; further permission required for reuse.
down warehouse equipment and items, a standard warehouse environment is

modeled in a few square meters of space. The equipment can be easily packed in
a small container and shipped around the globe to teach logistics staff at any loca-
tion. The capabilities developed in using a model like this are retained much longer
than knowledge that is obtained purely by reading, listening or observing.
Hoberg and Flöthmann (2012) developed a simple, hands-on business game
that has been used extensively to teach the “postponement” principle in sup-
ply chains to university students, humanitarian logisticians, non-logistics
professionals and strategy consultants. Their “Prom Dress Game” simulates a
fashion manufacturer. The participants are in charge of the management, plan-
ning and production of two different prom dresses, using colored sheets of
paper, scissors and staplers (figure 5.9). The cost of material for around
30 people to play the game are less than $100. The game provides a valuable,
convincing learning experience that is easy to grasp even without much previ-
ous SCM knowledge (teaching slides, etc. are available free of charge
at: https://www.the-klu.org/experiential-scm-learning/).
Probably the most widely used business game in this field is the Beer Game.
For several decades, it has illustrated the “bullwhip effect” to students and
managers (Lau 2015). If uncorrected, the effect can destabilize supply chains
and seriously inflate inventory levels and costs. It is vitally important that
supply chain managers understand the phenomenon and know how to deal
with it.
Blended learning approach: Deutsche Bahn (DB International) is currently
developing a comprehensive educational system for railway companies in Saudi
Arabia, the UAE and Qatar to transfer its extensive railroad knowledge to
countries that are at an earlier stage of railroad development. The teaching
approach will rest on three pillars: theory, practice and eLearning. The theoretical
pillar consists of traditional classroom sessions to outline the theoretical back-
ground for railroad workers. The practical pillar consists of a school for train

driving, train maintenance and other related tasks. The third and most innovative
pillar consists of an eLearning platform that students can access via their personal
smartphones. The eLearning modules and assignments are designed to last
20 minutes, enabling students to work on assignments during short breaks in
their daily routines.
Adjustment of curricula, materials and teaching styles to regional needs:
In addition to the large logistics associations, there are many smaller recruit-
ing and training agencies that offer continuing education on a commercial
basis. Their quality and relevance are difficult to assess, although some of
them clearly have a long history of training in this field. For instance, the
French-based MGCM has trained 15,000 students from over 2,500 compa-
nies over the last 25 years (MGCM 2015). MGCM offers its French-language
courses in France and Tunisia. Since blue-collar workers in these countries
often lack proficiency in English, offering courses in their native language is
certainly a major advantage. As a relatively small organization, MGCM claims
that it can be flexible in adjusting curricula to client needs. The company not
only offers training in French, but also adjusts the teaching styles to the cul-
tural and local milieu of their clients. For instance, they have found that in
India, case studies and practical exercises should be given greater priority
than theoretical learning and exams.
Public-private-partnerships (PPP) for joint training programs: The Global
Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI) is a public-private global
health partnership committed to increasing access to immunization in poor
countries (Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization 2015). A landscape
analysis completed last year revealed gaps in both technical and general man-
agement competencies among health supply chain leaders. The same analysis
discovered that, while sufficient technical competency training is available,
there is a lack of training in general leadership—a finding that our survey and
interview data confirm. Recognizing that the private sector is a valuable
source of guidance on leadership development, GAVI has entered into an
innovative public-private relationship with the logistics company UPS to pro-
duce a leadership development program that provides health SCM profession-
als and decision-makers with core leadership and management skills (People
that Deliver 2015).
This so-called STEP (Strategic Training Executive Program) program
blends instructor-led classroom sessions, distance learning assignments and
activity and mentorship opportunities (figure 5.10). It provides instruction in
people management, problem solving, communication, project management
and professional development. The distance-learning phase is delivered via
DVD or online over a 3–6-month period. The instructor-led courses are com-
pressed into a workshop of only 3–4 days that delivers people-management
and communication skills. A private sector expert on the subject matter
supervises the distance-learning phase and serves as a mentor for the partici-
pants’ work on practical aspects of the course.

Figure 5.10 GAVI STEP Framework: HR Leadership for Supply Chain Managers
Activity and Mentorship

Running concurrently with
the Distance Learning
phase, participants will be
paired with a private
sector subject matter
Instructor-led expert mentor. The mentor
will be responsible for
Target audience—Health overseeing the DL
Supply Chain Leaders who progress of the participant
determine strategy, set policy and will provide
and oversee immunization consultation and
supply chain networks guidance.
Distance learning Competency focus areas
Computer based training during this phase of the The participant will be
delivered by DVD or programme will be people rewuired to work on an
internet Management and activity during this phase
Communication of the programme. The
Competency focus areas
activity should relate to
during this phase of the Duration 3–4 days
their daily job and be
programme will be
focused on iumprovement
problem solving and
of an area of their job.
project management
The mentor will oversee
Duration 3–6 months this process.
Source: © GAVI. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse.
Notes
1. Oman Logistics and Supply Chain Association, Jordanian Logistics Association,
Asociación Argentina de logística empresaria, Asociación peruana de profesionales de
logística, INALOG (Instituto Nacional de Logística) (Uruguay).
2. A MOOC is a Massive Online Open Course.
References
APICS. 2015. “APICS Certification” (accessed September 17, 2015), http://www.apics
.org/careers-education-professional-development/certification.
BiS-Henderson Academy. 2015. “BiS-Henderson Academy” (accessed September 18, 2015),
http://www.bis-hendersonacademy.com/the-academy/.
CILT. 2015a. “CILT Certification” (accessed September 17, 2015), http://www.ciltinter
national.org/education-development/why-learn-with-us/.
ELA. 2015. “Concept of the ELA Certification” (accessed September 17, 2015), http://
www.elalog.eu/concept-ela-certification.
Ellinger, A. E., H. Shin, W. M. Northington, F. G. Adams, D. Hofman, and K. O’Marah.
2012. “The Influence of Supply Chain Management Competency on Customer
Satisfaction and Shareholder Value.” Supply Chain Management: An International
Journal 17 (3): 249–62.

Georgia Tech University. 2015. Georgia Tech Panama Logistics Innovation & Research
Center (accessed September 17, 2015), http://www.gatech.pa/en/.
Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization. 2015. “About Gavi” (accessed September
12, 2015), http://www.gavi.org/about/.
GUtech. 2015. “GUtech BSc in Logistics” (accessed September 18, 2015), http://www
.gutech.edu.om/academic/business-economics/logistics/.
Hanushek, E. A. 2012. “Dual Education : Europe’s Secret Recipe?” CESifo Forum 3: 29–34.
Hoberg, K., and C. Flöthmann. 2012. “Experiential Learning for Humanitarian Logistics.”
In Humanitarian Logistics in Asia-Pacific: Challenges, Opportunities and Perspectives,
edited by R. de Souza and J. Stumpf, Kühne Foundation Book Series on Logistics 19.
Haupt Publisher.
Holcomb, M., A. Krul, and D. Thomas. 2015. “Supply Chain Talent Squeeze: How
Business and Universities Are Collaborating to Fill the Gap.” Supply Chain Management
Review (July/August): 10–19.
Hult, G.T.M., D. J. Ketchen Jr., S. T. Cavusgil, and R. J. Calantone. 2006. “Knowledge as a
Strategic Resource in Supply Chains.” Journal of Operations Management 24: 458–75.
Korn, M. 2013. “The Hot New M.B.A.: Supply-Chain Management” (accessed November
11, 2015), http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142412788732442390457852359179
2789054.
Lau, A. 2015. “Teaching Supply Chain Management using a Modified Beer Game: An
Action Learning Approach.” International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications
18 (1): 62–81.
Logistics Management. 2011. “Logistics Management.” 27th Annual Salary Survey: Ready
to Move Up (accessed September 11, 2015), http://www.logisticsmgmt.com
/article/27th_annual_salary_survey_ready_to_move_up/.
MGCM. 2015. “MGCM” (Accessed September 21, 2015), http://www.mgcm.com/en
/welcome.
MIT. 2015. “MIT Global SCALE Network” (Accessed September 18, 2015), http://scale
.mit.edu/centers/center-latin-american-logistics-innovation.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2008. Education
at a Glance 2008. Paris: OECD.
O’Marah, K., G. John, B. Blake, and P. Manenti. 2014. The Chief Supply Chain Officer
Report 2014. SCM World, ed., London.
People that Deliver. 2015. “Health Supply Chain Competency Framework for Managers
& Leaders.” http://www.peoplethatdeliver.org/.
Skills for Logistics. 2014a. “Apprenticeships” (accessed October 20, 2015), http://www
.skillsforlogistics.org/qualifications-training/apprenticeships/.
University of Huddersfield. 2015. “Novus” (accessed October 19, 2015), https://www
.hud.ac.uk/uhbs/novus.

CHAPTER 6
Recruitment and Retention
Recruitment
The global shortage of qualified personnel is putting additional pressure on
recruitment processes and strategies. Companies have been fighting the “war for
talent” for years. The aging population in the Western world and more specifi-
cally, the retirement of the baby-boom generation, will widen the gap between
labor supply and demand across the logistics sector in the near future. Logistics
companies are not only competing with each other but also with other sectors to
attract young professionals into the industry. The strong growth of international
trade and the increasing complexity of global supply chains are making a skilled
work force essential for survival. Therefore, companies need effective recruit-
ment strategies for logistics/SCM.
The survey respondents were asked to indicate what they thought were the
most appealing aspects of logistics employment to present to potential recruits
(figure 6.1). This revealed that many facets of a logistician’s job are likely to have
a positive impact on recruitment. Moreover, survey participants from developing
and developed regions broadly agreed on the ratings regarding relative
importance.
Common aspects such as work satisfaction, pay/benefits and job security
ranked high on the list, but a “transparent career path to senior management” was
considered the key aspect to promote. This point was also frequently mentioned
in the interviews, which reflects the fact that young recruits are increasingly
demanding clearer guidance from employers on their future career path.
The recognition of logistics as a profession coupled with a raising of profession
standards will also strengthen its appeal to potential applicants.
Emphasizing the importance of logistics to the economy is also felt to be a
good way of attracting more people into the logistics sector, in particular to
blue-collar jobs. As mentioned in the trucking case study, the status of truck driv-
ing could be elevated by highlighting its major contribution to the economy and
social well-being. This can help to overcome the relatively low rating assigned to
“prestige” in the survey. More could also be done to stress the importance of

56 Recruitment and Retention
Figure 6.1 Key Aspects for Recruitment
Potential for progression to senior management
Importance of logistics to the economy
Personal/professional accomplishment/satisfaction
Pay/benefits
Nature of the skills/knowledge required
Job security
Practicality/technical nature of the work
Range of positions/specialisms
Nature of the job
Emphasis on teamwork
Prestige
1 = Not important at all 1 2 3 4 5

5 = Very important Emerging regions Developed regions
teamwork, job diversity and cross-functional perspectives in “selling” a career in

logistics/SCM to the next generation of potential recruits.
“Employer branding” has also been advocated as a means of reinforcing
recruitment. Cap Gemini et al. (2016) argue that “companies that invest as much
time and resources into the employer brand as they do into their customer-facing
brand create a competitive advantage when labor is scarce” (p. 39). The ability to
recruit high caliber staff in a tight job market, such as that of logistics in many
parts of the world, can become a competitive differentiator.
Recruitment channels: Interviewees from all regions broadly agreed on what
the main recruitment channels for logistics positions should be. In fact, there
were no differences between developing and developed countries on this issue.
Online job platforms, advertisements in newspapers and magazines and social
media are the most-used recruitment channels for white-collar jobs. The online
channel is now an established, easy-to-access medium even in less developed
countries. In addition, to these marketing instruments, referrals and word-of-mouth
offer a valuable means of reaching out to potential employees. In developing
countries where blue-collar workers are recruited locally from the surrounding
communities, personal recommendations are crucial.
For top management positions, headhunting agencies are usually the first choice.
In the past, potential recruits were usually headhunted from direct competitors.
Due to the ongoing talent shortage in logistics, nowadays it has become common
practice to lure logistics staff away from manufacturing and retail companies.

Recruitment and Retention 57
An efficient strategy for filling managerial entry-level positions is to recruit univer-

sity students right after graduation. Logistics companies can establish initial con-
nections with potential candidates even before graduation through guest lectures,
internships or support with thesis projects. More proactive companies are identify-
ing universities whose curricula and student intake match their logistics employ-
ment requirements.
Retention
The interviewees and survey respondents considered staff retention to be a key
HR issue in logistics. Retention challenges are closely related to recruitment chal-
lenges: retaining employees in the company can be as important and as difficult
as finding them in the open market. Consequently, many recruitment strategies
also contribute to retaining people in the logistics sector as a whole and within
specific firms. Providing high-caliber employees and promising candidates with
clear career paths supports recruitment and retention simultaneously. The same
holds true for pay, benefits and job security.
The online survey data presented in figure 6.2 show that retention of staff at
the managerial level is a serious challenge in developing countries. The employees
at this level are the ones who drive the adoption and implementation of new
supply chain concepts, technologies and practices. The loss of key managers to
other functions or sectors can have a debilitating effect on the development of
logistics in developing markets. Companies in developed regions appear to fare
much better in the retention of logistics managers.
These survey results must be qualified, however, as the majority of respon-
dents from developed regions work for multi-national 3PLs. These businesses
have competitive advantages over smaller players in the retention of senior man-
agers, since they typically offer higher salaries, smoother career progression and
Figure 6.2 Employee Retention Ability
Managers
Supervisors
Administrative staff
Blue-collar workers
1 = Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
5 = Strongly agree Emerging regions Developed regions

access to an international working environment. Nevertheless, the interviewees

argued that companies in the logistics sector should benchmark their salary levels
to the market annually, to ensure that they are paying fair, competitive salaries.
The retention of employees at lower tiers in the logistics job hierarchy appears
to be less of an issue and of similar importance in developed and emerging
(developing) markets.
Based on the interviews, the following guidelines for employee retention were
derived:
Given their relatively slim profit margins and fierce competition, it is challenging
for many 3PLs to compete on salary levels with other sectors such as manufactur-
ing, marketing and finance. Therefore, interviewees suggested that 3PLs must apply
retention strategies that also emphasize factors other than salary. This could be in
the form of providing a clear, transparent career path for high-potential workers—at all
levels. Blue-collar workers should be made aware of the opportunity to become a
supervisor or shift supervisor in the future, meaning higher salary and greater
responsibility. Administrative staff should be able to advance to office manager
within the company, and junior managers to senior management.
Clearer logistics career paths need to be established and publicized.
The Professional Development Stairway developed by Skills for Logistics in the
United Kingdom illustrates a potential 10-step career path for workers in this
sector, ascending from being unskilled new recruit to a logistics director (Skills
for Logistics 2015) (figure 6.3). New entrants to the sector can, of course, join
Figure 6.3 Professional Development Stairway
Logistics
director
Divisional director
Management level II
Management level I
Supervisor
Senior operative
Established operative
Operative
Trainee operative
Unskilled labour
New recruit
Source: Skills for Logistics 2015.

Recruitment and Retention 59
at any level and achieve differing levels of promotion during their careers. The
stairway merely attempts to show at an industry-level the steps that an aspiring
logistics employee might take. It differs from the hierarchy adopted by the
present study not only in the number of grades but also in the exclusion of
lower-level administrative roles.
A 2013 survey by Skills for Logistics in the United Kingdom indicated that staff
retention was not a major issue, since staff turnover in logistics and SCM was rated,
low, very low or non-existent (84 percent and 85 percent respectively) by a large
sample of companies. The same survey also assessed the relative importance of a
range of staff retention factors (table 6.1). The research suggests that the relatively
low staff turnover rate in the United Kingdom may be partly due to companies
effectively structuring their retention policies around this ranking of factors.
Two reasons for the relative unattractiveness of many logistics jobs is that the
work environment is unpleasant and the work is often physically demanding.
In order to make these jobs more appealing and comfortable for workers,
employers can create better working conditions and invest in more materials
handling equipment. Potential actions could include installing air conditioning
systems in warehouses in tropical or sub-tropical regions, providing break-out
areas, opening a canteen, planning more frequent breaks, etc. The additional cost
of such upgrades must be balanced against the productivity benefits that accrue
from having a stable, contented and well-motivated workforce.
Having the opportunity to grow and learn can be a tremendous motivator to
stay in a company. Hand-in-hand with a transparent career path, investment in
training and mentoring programs can yield healthy returns in the form of
improved staff retention.
Easy but efficient ways of improving employee satisfaction and employer
branding include celebrating the achievement of high performers, creating a
great team atmosphere and company culture and acknowledging loyalty.
For instance, firms can establish an “employee of the month” award in each
warehouse, give small presents at anniversaries and organize annual company outings.
Table 6.1 Staff Retention Factors

Staff retention factors Supply chain (%) Logistics sector (%)
Terms and conditions (incl. pay and working hours) 45 34
Working environment 20 18
Limited opportunities elsewhere 19 17
Job satisfaction 18 23
How staff are treated (incl. receive recognition/are valued) 15 17
Job security 14 14
Company reputation 13 11
Training opportunities 9 6
Family-run business (incl. family members as staff) 5 7
Staff loyalty 5 9
Others 16 42
Source: Skills for Logistics 2014b.

These actions take limited effort to implement but often have a great impact.
Supervisors and managers should be sensitive to employees’ concerns.
Team-based incentives are a smart way of fostering close teamwork and bond-
ing. If employees feel connected, they are less likely to switch employers, since
they will not want to abandon their team. Furthermore, team-based incentives
increase overall performance and productivity. Of course much of this is simply
good management practice, applicable across all functions and sectors and not
limited to logistics/SCM.
References
Cap Gemini, PennState Smeal College of Business, Penske, and Korn Ferry. 2016. “Third-
Party Logistics Study: The State of Logistics Outsourcing.” www.3plstudy.com.
Skills for Logistics. 2014b. Industry Skills Survey: Supply Chain. http://www
.skillsforlogistics.org/media/24803/supply-chain-2014.docx, (accessed October 13,
2015).
———. 2015. The Professional Development Stairway. http://www.skillsforlogistics.org
/products-services/the-professional-development-stairway/, (accessed October 11,
2015).

CHAPTER 7
The Role of the Public Sector in

Enhancing Logistics Competence
Many of the specialists consulted during the study agreed that governments can
play a useful role in the upgrading of logistics skills. Education and labor force
planning are core functions of government, while logistics is central to eco-
nomic development and social welfare, so it should not be difficult to justify
government involvement in efforts to raise skill levels in the logistics sector.
For governments aiming to improve their countries’ logistics prospects, the case
for supporting these efforts is particularly strong. Government support can take
various forms.
Facilitator and Regulator

Facilitation of multi-stakeholder collaboration: It is generally acknowledged
that solving the logistics skills problem will require the coordinated effort of
numerous organizations, including businesses that provide and use logistics
services, professional institutes, industry associations, training providers and
labor unions. In some countries with mature logistics markets, collaborative
initiatives can be industry-led. Often, however, governments must act as cata-
lysts, bringing interested parties together and providing incentives for them to
work on joint skill development strategies. In the United Kingdom, for exam-
ple, the national government established a sector skills council specifically for
logistics (called Skills for Logistics) comprising representatives of companies,
labor unions and professional bodies India’s government facilitated the
National Skills Development Corporation (NSDC). It is a public-private part-
nership that aims to promote skill development by catalyzing the creation of
large, high quality, for-profit vocational institutions. The NSDC has a dedicated
logistics sector skills council.
Governments in Singapore, Dubai and Saudi Arabia have all organized profes-
sional logistics conferences on training, certification and recruitment that
assembled all the main stakeholders. Organizing events like these is a relatively

62 The Role of the Public Sector in Enhancing Logistics Competence
inexpensive way to facilitate fruitful collaboration. Government-sponsored

multi-stakeholder collaborative initiatives can take various forms. They can, for
example, commission research into the changing nature of logistics skill require-
ments, provide guidance to training providers, and run advisory programs for
logistics businesses.
Setting and harmonization of competence standards: In countries with more
mature logistics markets, professional institutes have played a lead role in defin-
ing and classifying logistics competencies and linking them to different levels of
training. This systematic approach makes the skill development process much
easier to manage and ensures the industry-wide recognition of qualifications.
In countries with less-developed logistics markets in which professional institutes
have little or no presence, governments may need to intervene to work with busi-
ness in the setting of competence standards.
Rather than attempting to develop indigenous standards from scratch, it is
usually preferable for governments to invite one of the major international logis-
tics/SCM professional bodies (CILT, CSCMP or BVL) to introduce their stan-
dards, normally by establishing a local branch or chapter. For example, in
association with the Chinese Communication and Transport Association, the
Chinese government worked with CILT to promote the adoption of its certifica-
tion programs in China. Under the standardization heading, governments can
also promote the harmonization of certification schemes. The schemes used by
major professional bodies and smaller nationally-based organizations are not fully
aligned and would benefit from greater harmonization.
Regulatory policy: At one extreme, governments could legislate to force
logistics companies to give employees a certain number of training hours per
year. In most countries, a policy like this would be considered too interven-
tionist, too dictatorial and not justified by the severity of the problem.
There are very few examples of governments using regulatory controls to
upgrade skill levels in any field, let alone logistics. As discussed above, govern-
ments can get involved in setting competence standards for staff working in
particular fields, but this is different from imposing regulations. Survey
respondents identified ways in which the relaxation of regulations could sup-
port logistics skill development. For example, in some countries quotas on the
number of visas allocated to particular companies can restrict the number of
logistics trainers admitted, inhibiting the international transfer of logistics
know-how and skills.
Regulatory policies designed to improve safety and outlaw exploitative
business practices can also indirectly make employment in the logistics sector
more attractive, or at least less unattractive. For example, tightening and more
effectively enforcing the restrictions and regulations on speeding, drivers’ hours,
vehicle overloading and maintenance standards can make the working environ-
ment safer and less stressful for truck drivers. For example, the Australian govern-
ment has issued a “chain of responsibility” regulation as part of its national heavy
vehicle regulator (NHVR) initiative. This applies to speeding, driver fatigue,
vehicle mass, loading and dimensions.

The Role of the Public Sector in Enhancing Logistics Competence 63
The NHVR recognizes that apparently unlawful behavior by truck drivers is

often influenced/controlled by the actions of other parties. Transport laws have
often focused on the actions of drivers while failing to sufficiently recognize
and regulate the behavior of carrier management and shippers. Chain of
responsibility laws seek to guarantee that these other parties cannot encourage
or compel drivers to undertake unlawful actions. These other parties are now
legally liable for breaches of the Heavy Vehicle National Law (National Heavy
Vehicle Regulator 2015).
Raising awareness about the crucial role of logistics skills and training:
Government departments and agencies can be a useful source of information and
promotional activity in the field of logistics. They already perform this role in
many countries with regard to topics such as safety, energy efficiency and envi-
ronmental sustainability. They could extend the range of advice they offer to
logistics businesses to include training and skills development. This could be done
in collaboration with industry associations and professional institutes.
State-sponsored “logistics observatories” are being established in several emerging
markets, particularly in Latin America. They can become an effective conduit for
channeling information and advice on skills development to the industry in their
countries. They can also act as repositories for much of the data required by the
people delivering industrial training and higher-level courses at colleges and
universities.
Where a logistics observatory is acting as a clearing house for information
about international trends, innovations and best practice, it can support the
global diffusion of logistics know-how. It is understood that a new logistics obser-
vatory being established in Morocco will gather information on human resource
issues. Interconnecting national logistics observatories can facilitate the dissemi-
nation of information about logistics skills and training. For example, the
Inter-American Development Bank is establishing a logistics observatory for
Latin America which will interface the national observatories being set up in
countries such as Chile and Mexico.
Education policy/curriculum development: Most governments exert an
influence on the curricula taught in schools and, in some cases, institutions of
higher education. They can encourage educational establishments to make more
reference to logistics in their curricula, particularly at the secondary school level.
This can take various forms: for example, logistics projects and case studies can
be incorporated into the lesson plans of disciplines such as math, economics,
business studies and geography. Education ministries can encourage schools, col-
leges and universities to include industrial field excursions in their curricula.
They can include logistics facilities such as air freight hubs, ports and automated
high-rack warehouses, exposing students to logistics infrastructure and operations
that they would otherwise never see. This can raise the status and prestige of the
logistics sector in the eyes of the younger generation. The main goal is to raise
the level of awareness of logistics as a possible career choice and show how the
technical knowledge acquired in core subjects can find practical applications in
logistics.

Direct Support and Intervention

Financial support for training initiatives:
(a) Direct: This involves investment in government-controlled training programs.

A government can either run them itself or outsource them to specialized
agencies. The UK government’s SAFED program, which to date has trained
around 10,000 truck and van drivers in “safe and fuel efficient driving
techniques,” is an example of direct financial support. In this type of initia-
tive, government assumes a “hands-on” role in building logistics training
capability. Another example is the Thai Industrial Ministry, which subsidizes
training sessions held by certified training agencies (e.g., APICS trainers).
Employers that send their logistics employees to these training sessions can
be reimbursed for 50 percent of the accumulated expenses.
(b) Indirect: With this type of support, governments incentivize other organiza-
tions to increase the level of logistics skill/competence. This raises several
issues:
(i) Which organizations should be eligible? A narrow definition of logis-
tics would confine financial support to organizations whose main
activity is freight transport, warehousing, materials handling, etc.,
although this would exclude the producers, wholesalers and retailers
that undertake logistical tasks on an in-house and ancillary basis.
Seedcorn funding can be made available for start-up enterprises to
encourage existing educational/training organizations to diversify into
logistics/SCM or to promote collaborative initiatives involving several
stakeholders. Financial support can also be channeled through training
providers such as colleges or professional institutes, as is currently hap-
pening in the United States as part of the US Department of Labor’s
LINCS (Leveraging, Integrating, Networking, Coordinating Supplies)
Program for supply chain management education and certification
(Blasgen 2015). A consortium of 9 colleges and 3 universities is admin-
istering this $24.5 million program.
The South African Ministry of Labor established the Transport
Education and Training Authority (TETA), which is responsible for
education, training and skills development in the transport sector.
TETA is part of the country-wide Skills Education Training Authorities
(SETA) Initiative. Companies pay a small premium on salary taxes for
education and training. If they send their employees to TETA/SETA
training courses, they can receive reimbursements for the extra tax pay-
ments. These employers are financially incentivized to train their work-
forces. This could be one of the factors explaining why South Africa’s
LPI Logistics Competence score outperforms its GDP per capita.
(ii) What type of financial support should be provided? A standard range of
fiscal incentives could be deployed, including:

The Role of the Public Sector in Enhancing Logistics Competence 65
• Per capita allowance for each person receiving training, possibly grad-
uated by skill level
• Tax rebates for corporate expenditure on training/skills development
• Block grants for setting up training units/businesses
(iii) How can governments ensure that the money is used appropriately?
In countries where corruption is rife, there is a danger that much of the
money allocated for logistics training will be misappropriated. The risk
of this happening in the logistics sector is probably greater than in others
because of the relatively high levels of illegality in the trucking industry.
There can be tighter monitoring of training programs in which the pub-
lic funds are paid to training providers and where it is linked to an insti-
tutionally-recognized examination and certification system.
Raising skill levels in state-owned logistics businesses: Governments have a
major stake in logistics businesses around the world. Many rail freight companies,
postal systems and port authorities are state-owned, often giving governments a
significant influence over the way they are managed. These nationalized logistics
enterprises can be used to set a good example in training and skills development
to other private companies. Since they collectively employ a large proportion of
a country’s total logistics workforce, they can also play a key role in building a
national training capability and become a source of skilled labor for other sectors
of the logistics market.
Using public procurement to gain leverage on logistics skill levels:
Governments are major buyers of transport and logistics services, handing them
some influence over businesses tendering for this work. Levels of skill develop-
ment and staff training could be included as a selection criterion in the award of
contracts to logistics providers. This would not only incentivize these providers
to invest more in training; it should also improve the quality and efficiency of the
outsourced services.
Supplementing infrastructure development with investment in human
capital: It has become quite common for investment in transport infrastructure
to be accompanied by funds for capacity building, particularly when the funding
comes from international organizations such as the World Bank. Capacity build-
ing often includes financial support for training/skills development in the design,
management and operation of the new infrastructure. Its scope could be broad-
ened to include upskilling the logistics/SCM workforce to ensure that businesses
make effective use of the new transport infrastructure. For example, the
Indonesian Port Authority is currently undertaking a major port investment pro-
gram and to support this initiative, has enrolled a large group of its senior manag-
ers in an Executive MBA program with a strong logistics focus in the Kühne
Logistics University.
Attaching greater weight to labor availability on spatial planning: Our study
has highlighted the geographical dimension to logistics labor shortages at both
regional and urban levels. Agencies responsible for land-use planning at these

various levels could play a role in prioritizing labor availability as a locational

criterion when granting planning permission for logistics-related development.
The actual mix of public policy initiatives and the emphasis they are given will
reflect socio-economic conditions and political preferences within the country.
In terms of a public policy response to the logistics skills shortage, there is no
“one-size-fits-all” proposal.
Implementing the initiatives listed above can also involve several government
ministries. Logistics typically falls into a gap between the responsibilities of dif-
ferent ministries, such as transport, trade and industry, while logistics training
should be a concern of the ministry of education. Getting all these ministries to
make a coordinated response to the logistics skills shortage can be difficult.
Governments addressing this issue for the first time can also benefit from the
experience of countries with more mature logistics markets which already have
advanced training and certification programs in place. They could also benefit
from forming partnerships/alliances with other neighboring governments that
are themselves at an early stage of developing their logistics competence and
logistics training capability. Organizations such as the World Bank and the UN
support the formation of multi-national partnerships and have demonstrated
their effectiveness in fields such transport and urban development. The World
Bank also operates an e-communities website for the exchange of advice and good
practice between countries in a range of fields, including transport. This online
forum could be used to stimulate interest in logistics skills/training initiatives and
share experiences among national governments.
References
Blasgen, R. 2015. “Announcing the Next Generation of Supply Chain Career Programs.”
CSCMP’s Supply Chain Quarterly 2.
National Heavy Vehicle Regulator. 2015. Safety, Accreditation & Compliance. https://www
.nhvr.gov.au/safety-accreditation-compliance/chain-of-responsibility, (accessed
September 15, 2015).

CHAPTER 8
Logistics Competence Maturity

Matrix
During the course of this study it became obvious that countries differ
substantially in their logistics competence maturity. These differences are
multi-dimensional. Developing and developed countries differ in the level of
logistics competence, the availability of skilled labor at all occupational levels,
access to educational institutions specializing in logistics, company involve-
ment in training and development programs, and the ability to retain
highly-skilled employees. In order to give governments more specific guid-
ance, a logistics competence maturity matrix was constructed on the basis of
the survey results, interviews, as well as literature and focus group discussions.
This matrix classifies countries in terms of current levels of logistics compe-
tence and recommends an appropriate list of action points. Assessment of
their current logistics competence levels is based on the logistics quality and
competence scores presented in the 2014 LPI report. On a scale of 1.00–5.00,
three maturity classes were differentiated:
• Basic logistics competence maturity (competence score: 1.00–2.74)

• Intermediate logistics competence maturity (2.75–3.33)
• Advanced logistics competence maturity (3.34–5.00)
Figure 8.1 summarizes the general recommendations for logistics competence

development in these three categories of countries. It lists action points for each
of the four main stakeholder groups: government, companies, as well as educa-
tional institutions and logistics associations. Many of these points apply to all four
levels in the employment hierarchy.
As general advice, this report encourages countries to learn from the
experience of those at higher maturity levels. The process of identifying
national role models should take account of economic development (in terms
of GDP per capita), population size, economic structure, key industries, geog-
raphy, climate and infrastructure.

68 Logistics Competence Maturity Matrix
Figure 8.1 Logistics Competence Maturity Matrix
Stakeholder Guideline for Logistics Competence Development

Based on LPI 2014 “Logistics Quality & Competence” Score
Country logistics
Basic Intermediate Advanced
competence maturity
(1.00–2.74) (2.75–3.33) (3.34–5.00)
(Scale: 1 to 5)
Sample countries Belarus, Uruguay, Kenya, Greece, Chile, Brazil, Indonesia, Germany, Singapore, United States,
Somalia Egypt China
Recommended Governments: Governments: Governments:
stakeholder actions Invest in basic school education Provide direct and indirect support Consider additional funding for world-
(regardless of logistics) for training initiatives class logistics education
Supplement infrastructure Raise skills levels in state-owed
investments with logistics capability logistics business Companies:
investment Support knowledge transfer from Consider further development of soft
Issue laws & regulations that support mature regions with laws & and leadership skills since logistics skills
logistics competence development regulations knowledge is already advanced
Facilitate multi-stakeholder
collaboration Companies: Educational institutions:
Encourage and advice to promote Design standardized training Set-up joint-logistics and SCM
logistics programs with external input programs with universities abroad
(associations and training agencies) (double degrees)
Companies: Consider branch campuses in
Educational institutions: emerging countries to support
Implement regular in-house
training on all hierarchical levels by Facilitate collaboration with local logistics education
internal experts companies and international Keep curricula updated to reflect the
universities latest trends and innovations
Educational institutions: Design up-to-date logistics
Offer logistics courses & degrees curriculum and adapt teaching Logistics associations:
Collaborate with developed styles Collaborate closely with industry to
institutions abroad Design logistics student exchange keep training curricula up-to-date
Leverage logistics associations and programs
public-private-partnerships
Logistics associations:
Logistics associations: Setup branch offices
Offer training at discounted rates Provide train-the-trainer education
Consult governments Organize frequent trainings for all
levels of certification
In this respect, it is interesting to compare the provision of logistics train-

ing in country that is aspiring to become a logistics hub with one which has
already gained this status. Jamaica is planning to be a major logistics center
for the Caribbean, but recognizes that to achieve this status the country will
have to raise its level of logistics expertise, partly building on the logistics
training currently offered by the University of the Caribbean and the
Caribbean Maritime institute. In contrast, in the UAE there around 90 logis-
tics courses, ranging from short (40 hour) diploma courses to graduate
degrees are offered by a variety of academic and professional institutes
including local branches of some US and European universities. This high level
of training provision is consistent with the UAE’s status as a well-established global
logistics hub.
The recommendations in the matrix are cumulative and incremental.
Obviously, intermediate countries should follow recommendations for basic
countries, but advanced countries should not overlook suggestions for coun-
tries at the basic and intermediate levels.

Logistics Competence Maturity Matrix 69
Logistics Competence Maturity Self-Assessment Tool

A questionnaire-based tool has been devised to allow countries to assess the
maturity of their logistics market in terms of skills and training. This is intended
to provide only a rough guide to a country’s maturity and involves a significant
amount of subjective judgment. Respondents have to answer fifteen questions
classified into three categories relating to the educational system, logistics com-
petencies and the provision of training (appendix D).
They indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with fifteen statements
using a 5-point Likert-scale. The cells can be selected and the corresponding
number of points entered in the circles on the right. After completion, the num-
bers of points in the circles are summed to give an overall numerical index.
Depending on where this index falls within the numerical ranges at the bottom
of the table, a country’s maturity level can be rated as advanced, intermediate or
basic. This maturity rating can be related to the guidance offered to the various
stakeholder groups within the country by consulting the matrix in figure 8.1.

CHAPTER 9
Conclusion
The main aim of this study has been to assess the extent to which logistics com-
petencies, skills, and training are currently lacking and to analyze the nature of
this deficiency. The study has attempted to diagnose the main causes of the
logistics skills shortage and, hence, this market failure. They include: low salary
levels compared to other sectors, relatively poor working conditions (particularly
in low and middle income countries), the low prestige and status of logistics
occupations in many cultures and societies, the demographic structure of the
logistics work-force in developed countries, the limited supply of labor in remote
areas where logistics hubs are frequently located, a lack of vocational school
preparation for logistics careers various cultural constraints and the increasing
technical complexity of the logistics function.
The report highlights the need for a major expansion in logistics training and
skills development. Developing regions are lagging behind developed countries
in terms of training budgets and capability, the range and quality of training
provision and the adoption of professional standards. Often, training is limited
to short-term, on-the-job induction provided by colleagues during daily
operations.
Alleviating the logistics skill problem will demand a multi-stakeholder
approach. The report describes the roles of the various stakeholder groups
involved in the training, assessment, certification, recruitment and retention of
logistics staff. These stakeholders, including companies, logistics associations,
higher educational institutes, external training agencies and governments, have
a mutual interest in this effort. The report suggests different ways in which
working individually and in collaboration, these stakeholders can tackle labor
shortages and facilitate the upskilling of logistics labor through training and
development.
The report has identified a range of best practices in the promotion of
competence development that are particularly relevant for developing markets.
Training initiatives are proposed that could be implemented even on tight
budgets and in places where the educational system and logistics sector are
at a relatively low level of maturity. They include multiple stakeholder

72 Conclusion
collaboration in the provision of dual education and apprenticeships, expe-

riential and blended learning approaches and the updating of college curri-
cula on logistics and SCM.
As for recruitment and retention strategies: The advantages of a career in
logistics (internationality, working in inter-cultural teams, stimulating working
environment, mobility, key contribution to the economy and general wellbeing,
involvement in technological innovation, etc.) need to be underlined more
strongly. In some countries and sectors of the logistics market, the pay and condi-
tions will need to be improved to attract a sufficient number of high-caliber
recruits. As far as recruitment and retention are concerned, the prescriptions are
similar for countries of all income levels. They are also very similar to those for
other business activities (e.g., transparent career paths, appealing working envi-
ronments, investment in the development of the workforce and building a
greater sense of belonging to the team and company) and represent what is
considered good management practice today. The concept of employer branding
also needs to be grasped by firms in the logistics sector.
The study examines the possible role of government in helping to close the
logistics competence gap. There are eleven ways in which governments can try to
enhance competence levels across their countries’ logistics workforce:
• Facilitate multiple stakeholder collaboration

• Set and harmonize competence standards
• Use regulatory policy both directly and indirectly
• Raising awareness about the crucial role of logistics skills and training
• Prioritize logistics in education policy and/or curriculum development
• Provide financial support for training initiatives
• Raise skill levels in state-owned logistics enterprises
• Using public procurement to gain leverage on logistics skill levels
• Supplement infrastructure development with investment in human capital
• Attaching greater weight to labor availability in spatial planning.
Finally, the report presents a logistics competence maturity matrix that

classifies countries into three categories in terms of their 2014 LPI competence
index (basic, intermediate and advanced). A simple questionnaire can be used
to differentiate countries into these three maturity levels (see appendix D).
The matrix provides guidance on how countries at each level can upgrade their
logistics skill levels. Advice is given for each of the stakeholder groups in a
country, assuming that they will be working together to address what is
unquestionably one of the major challenges currently facing the logistics indus-
try worldwide. In the longer term, increased mechanization and automation
may reduce the labor intensity of the logistics sector providing a technological
response to this HR challenge. For the foreseeable future, however, it will have
to be addressed by more conventional means.

APPENDIX A
Selected Literature Related to

Logistics Skills, Competence,
and Training
Country Year
Author Title Publisher published published
Alliance of Sectors Skills Freight Logistics and Warehousing UK Sector Skills Councils Scotland 2011
Council, Scotland Industry: Scottish Sector (SSCs) Scotland
(Alliance Scotland) Profile 2011
APICS 2009 Future APICS Supply Chain Manager APICS The Association for United 2011
Leaders Competency Model Operations Management States
Bodegraven, Art Van; Mastering the skills required for Supply Chain 247 United 2013
Ackerman, Kenneth B. Today’s “New Basics” of Supply States
Chain Management
Bölsche, Dorit; Specific Competencies in Journal of Humanitarian Germany 2013
Klumpp, Matthias; Humanitarian Logistics Logistics and Supply
Abidi, Hella Education Chain Management.
Vol. 3, No. 2
Chaudhuri, Abhijit; Skills Set Challenges for the Pharma Supply Chain Management India 2013
Bindlish, Rishabh; Supply Chain Professional. Vol. 1, No. 6
Rao CV, Narayan;
Deshpande, Prasad;
Deshpande,
Dayanand
Dazmin, Daud Logistics Educational Needs of Academic Research Malaysia 2012
Malaysia: A Conceptual Study International, Vol. 3, No. 3
Dittmann, J. Paul Skills and Competencies that Supply Chain Management United 2012
Supply Chain Managers will Review States
need
Ellinger, Alexander; Leveraging human resource European Journal of Training United 2014
Ellinger, Andrea D. development expertise to and Development. Vol. 38, States
improve supply chain managers’ No. 1/2, Pg. 118–135
skills and competencies
table continues next page

74 Selected Literature Related to Logistics Skills, Competence, and Training
Country Year
Ellinger, Alexander; Logistics Managers’ Learning Journal of Business Logistics. United 2002
Ellinger, Andrea D.; Environment and Firm Vol. 23, No. 1 States
Keller, Scott B. Performance
Gammelgaard, Britta Logistics skills and competencies Journal of Business Logistics. United 2001
Larson, Paul D. for supply chain management Vol. 22, No. 2, Pg. 27–50 States
Goffnett, Sean P.; Understanding satisfaction with The International Journal of United 2012
Cook, Robert L.; Supply Chain Management Logistics Management. States
Williams Zachary; Careers: An exploratory Study Vol. 23, No. 1, Pg. 135–158
Gibson, Brian J.
Gravier, Michael J.; An analysis of logistics pedagogical The International Journal of United 2008
Farris, M. Theodore literature: Past and future trends Logistics Management. States
in curriculum, content, and Vol. 19, No. 2, Pg. 233–253
pedagogy
Handfield, Robert B. Key Trends, Skills, and Knowledge Supply Chain Redesign United 2011
Required for the Supply Chain States
Manager of the Future
Handfield, Robert; Trends and Strategies in Logistics DVV Media Group GmbH Germany 2013
Straube, Frank; and Supply Chain Management:
Pfohl, Hans-Christian; Embracing Global Logistics
Wieland, Andreas Complexity to drive Market
Advantage
Heyns, Gert; The Skills set required for Supply Carpathian Logistics South Africa 2012
Carstens, Stephen Chain Management in Southern Congress (CLC)
Africa
Heyns, Gert; Skills required in the Supply Chain Journal of Transport and South Africa 2012
Rose, Luke Industry in South Africa Supply Chain
Management
Hoberg, Kai; Experiential Learning for Kühne Foundation Book Germany 2012
Flöthmann, Christoph Humanitarian Logistics, Series on Logistics 19.
in: Humanitarian Logistics in Haupt Publisher
Asia-Pacific.
Hohenstein, Nils-Ole; Human Resources Management International Journal of Germany 2014
Feisel, Edda; Issues in Supply Chain Physical Distribution and
Hartmann, Evi Management Research: A Logistics Management.
systematic Literature Review Vol. 44, No. 6, Pg. 434–463
from 1998 to 2014
Hsieh, Li-Yang; With Blended Learning Information The 2nd International Netherlands, 2014
Lu, Yang-Jui; Operational System Design in Workshop on Learning Taiwan,
Lin, Hsiang-Sheng; Response to Globalized Logistics Technology for Education China
Lee, Yao-Hsien Talent Training in Cloud. Pg. 61–71
Hung Lau, Kwok; Section 9—Service Supply Chains School of Business IT and Australia 2012
Gu, Meihua and Emerging Markets: “From Logistics
Cheap Labor to Logistics
Competency: The Next Move for
China?”
ICRA Managing Human Resource and Skill National Skill Development India 2009
Consulting Services Requirements in the Corporation (NSDC)
Limited Transportation, Logistics,
Warehousing and Packaging
Sector

Selected Literature Related to Logistics Skills, Competence, and Training 75
Country Year
Kam, Booi H.; Profiles of Postgraduate Supply School of Business IT and Australia 2012
Chan, Caroline; Chain and Logistics Programs Logistics; College of
Paul, Bageswari Raju Business
Kisperska-Moron, Changing Requirements for University of Economics in Poland 2010
Danuta Managerial Skills and Katowice
Competencies in Contemporary
Supply Chains
Kisperska-Moron, Evolution of Competencies of Electronic Scientific Journal Poland 2010
Danuta Logistics and Supply Chain of Logistics. Vol. 6, Iss. 3,
Managers No. 3, Pg. 21–31
Kovacs, G, Tatham, P. and What skills are needed to be a Journal of Business Logistics, United 2012
Larson, P.D. (2012) humanitarian logistician? 33 (3), Pg. 245–258. States
Lim, Yu Pei; Perceptions of logistics students on Canadian Social Science. Canada 2012
Dazmin Daud; internship program: the case of Vol. 8, No. 4, Pg. 1–7
Kholyn Ruran, Jonathan private higher institution in
Malaysia
Murphy, Paul; Skills Requirements of Senior-Level Supply Chain Management: United 2007
Poist, Richard F. Logisticians: A Longitudinal An International Journal, States
Assessment Vol. 12, No. 6, Pg .423–431
Murphy, Paul; Skill Requirements of Transportation Journal. United 2006
Poist, Richard F. Contemporary Senior- and Vol. 45, No. 3, Pg. 46–60 States
Entry-Level Logistics Managers:
A Comparative Analysis
Niine, Tarvo; Logistics Management versus Logistics and Sustainable Estonia 2013
Lend, Enno Supply Chain Management—the Transport, Vol. 4, No. 1
Crystallization of Debate for
Academic and Practical Clarity
Ozment, John; The Future of Logistics Education Transportation Journal. United 2011
Keller, Scott B. Vol. 50, No. 1, Pg. 65–83 States
Pahim, K.M.; A conceptual paper for human Business, Engineering and Malaysia 2011
Jemali, H.S.; capital in the logistics industry in Industrial Applications
Mohamad, S.J.A.N.S. Malaysia (ISBEIA). Pg. 357–362
Porasmaa, Minna; Development of Logistics Thinking Faculty of Business Studies Finland 2011
Kotonen, Ulla and the Requirements It Sets on
Logistics Skills and Competences
Ruske, Klaus-Dieter; Global Transportation and Logistics PricewaterhouseCoopers Germany 2012
Kauschke, Peter; 2030—Volume 5: Winning the International Limited
Von der Gracht, Heiko Talent Race (PwCIL)
Southwest Skills for Life Southwest Skills for Life Briefing in Skills for Logistics (SfL) United 2007
Unit the Logistics Sector Kingdom
Thomas, Anisya; Logistics Training: Necessity or Forced Migration Review United 2005
Mizushima, Mitsuko Luxury? (FRM). Vol. 22, Pg. 60–61 States
Trunick, Perry A. Supply Chain Graduates: Now Inbound Logistics Magazine. United 2011
What? Pg. 78–82 States
Vokurka, Robert J. Supply Chain Manager SAM Advanced United 2011
Competencies Management Journal. States
Vol. 76, No. 2 .Pg. 23–28

76 Selected Literature Related to Logistics Skills, Competence, and Training
Country Year
Winters, Gwenn; Logistics Employer Skills Survey Skills for Logistics United 2014
Skelton, Adam; 2013 Kingdom
Begum, Shahima;
Parkes, Shabana
Wu, Yen-Chu Jim Contemporary Logistics Education: International Journal of Taiwan, 2007
An international Perspective Physical Distribution and China
Logistics Management.
Vol. 37, No.7, Pg. 504–528
Wu, Yen-Chu Jim Skills Requirements for Logistics Supply Chain Management: Taiwan, 2006
Licensing in Taiwan, China An International Journal, China
Vol. 11, No. 5, Pg. 415–424
Zhong, Xiao Jun; Research on Cultivation Model for Advanced Materials Switzerland 2013
Li, Ping; Logistics Talents of Universities Research. Vol. 734–737,
Yin, Jie in Ningbo: A Case Study of Pg. 3356–3361
Zhejiang Wangli University
Zhu, Minjie; Research on the Cultivation of Elsevier Ltd China 2011
Zhang, Jianwei; Logistics Engineering
Bao, Shenghua Application Talents By the
Diversification School-enterprise
Cooperation

APPENDIX B
Example of Continuing Professional

Development (CPD) for Logistics
SAMPLE CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) PLAN

It is The Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport’s policy that applications
for Chartered Fellow, Chartered Member and Member are accompanied by a
CPD Plan covering the forthcoming 2 years. This form is designed to help you
summarise your CPD Plan, if you already have a CPD Plan of your own or e.g. a
Career Development Plan, this may be submitted instead on the condition it
meets our requirements.
Measurement – What
Objectives – what do I Action – What will What resources/support will my success Target dates for
want / need to learn? I do to achieve this? do I need criteria be? review/completion
Attain certificate of Attend a suitable An approved centre such Passing the course/ October 2016
professional training course as CILT accreditation
competence (CPC) for a practitioner CILT Knowledge
Centre access
Keeping industry/ Read and Research Technical Periodicals such Increased awareness Ongoing on a
sector knowledge as Logistics & Transport and knowledge monthly basis
up-to-date Focus
Relevant web sites and
CILT Knowledge Centre
Increase knowledge of: Attend at least 4 Support required by Increase in business Ongoing – Review
the impact of CILT relevant employer in terms of levels and customer on annual basis
E-commerce on the events per year time commitments feedback due to to ensure events
supply chain or, increased knowledge have been
Transport regulations and best practices attended
and legislation
To learn French Private lessons/ Will power Using second language August 2016
College course to converse with
company clients

APPENDIX C
Supplementary Survey Results
a. My organization provides high quality b. My organization provides regularly evaluates

training courses the training needs of their employees
25 25
20 20
Percent
Percent
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
ee
ee
ee
ee
e
ra
ra
re
re
re
re
gr
gr
gr
gr
ut
ut
Ag
ag
Ag
ag
sa
sa
sa
sa
Ne
Ne
ly
ly
di
Di
di
Di
ng
ng
ly
ly
ro
ro
ng
ng
St
St
ro
ro
St
St
c. My organization provides a sufficient d. How is the turnover rate of your logistics talent
budget for training courses in the past 12 months compared to the average
in your organization?
35
30 2.0 = the same
25
Percent
20 Managers
15
10 Supervisors
5
0 Admin
ee
ee
Blue-collar
ra
re
re
gr
gr
ut
Ag
ag
sa
sa
Ne
ly
di
Di
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

ng
ly
ro
ng
St
ro
St
Emerging regions
Developed regions
figure continues next page

80 Supplementary Survey Results
e. How effective are the employee development methods (if any) used by your organization?
On the job training

Annual performance review
University continuing education or certificate courses
Company training courses in logistics/SCM
Certification of competencies/qualifications by professional body
Company training courses in managerial skills
Mentoring program
Cross-functional training
Job rotation program
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

1 = very ineffective Emerging regions
5 = very effective Developed regions
Demographics
Emerging regions
n % n %
Region Industry
Sub-Saharan Africa 105 67.7 3PL (Transportation + Warehousing) 57 36.8
South-East Asia 23 14.8 Consulting/IT Service 22 14.2
Middle East / North Africa 17 11.0 Logistics association 21 13.5
Central Asia 9 5.8 Academia 18 11.6
Latin America 1 0.6 Transportation only 16 10.3
Total 219 100% Manufacturing 9 5.8
Retail/Wholesale 6 3.9
Warehousing only 6 3.9
Revenue (in Euro)

Top 10 Countries (optional) below 10mn 50 32.3
Zimbabwe 15 9.7 10–250mn 50 32.3
Nigeria 12 7.7 >250mn–1bn 24 15.5
Ghana 11 7.1 >1–10bn 10 6.5
Pakistan 11 7.1 above 10bn 14 9.0
Zambia 10 6.5
Uganda 9 5.8 Business experience (in years)
India 8 5.2 less than 2 12 7.7
Ethiopia 7 4.5 2–5 9 5.8
Sudan 4 2.6 >5–10 47 30.3
Tanzania 4 2.6 >10–25 68 43.9
more than 25 19 12.3

Supplementary Survey Results 81
Emerging Regions
n % n %
Function Hierarchical level
Supply Chain Management 61 39.4 Board level 8 5.2
Logistics 50 32.3 Senior management 55 35.5
General management 14 9.0 Middle management 65 41.9
Procurement 10 6.5 Lower management 15 9.7
Human resources/ Training & Non-managerial
development 7 4.5 role 7 4.5
Other 6 3.9 Other (please specify) 5 3.2
Production 2 1.3
Marketing/Sales 2 1.3
Controlling/Finance 2 1.3
Quality 1 0.6
Developed Regions
n % n %
Region Industry
Europe 59 92.2 3PL (Transportation + Warehousing) 14 21.9
Australia / Oceania 4 6.3 Manufacturing 10 15.6
North America 1 1.6 Retail/Wholesale 9 14.1
Total 64 100% Academia 9 14.1
Logistics association 9 14.1
Consulting/IT Service 7 10.9
Countries (optional) Transportation only 6 9.4
Romania 11 17.2 Warehousing only 0 0.0
Greece 9 14.1
Ukraine 9 14.1 Revenue (in Euro)
Poland 7 10.9 below 10mn 19 29.7
Ireland {Republic} 2 3.1 10-250mn 22 34.4
Australia 1 1.6 >250mn-1bn 12 18.8
Belgium 1 1.6 >1-10bn 4 6.3
Benin 1 1.6 above 10bn 3 4.7
Germany 1 1.6
Hungary 1 1.6 Business experience (in years)
Malta 1 1.6 less than 2 1 1.6
New Zealand 1 1.6 2-5 3 4.7
Norway 1 1.6 >5-10 14 21.9
Russian Federation 1 1.6 >10-25 32 50.0
Slovenia 1 1.6 more than 25 14 21.9
United Kingdom 1 1.6

82 Supplementary Survey Results
Developed Regions
n % n %
Function Hierarchical level
Logistics 22 34.4 Board level 11 17.2
General management 18 28.1 Senior management 26 40.6
Supply Chain Management 12 18.8 Middle management 6 9.4
Other 5 7.8 Lower management 18 28.1
Human resources / Training & Non-managerial
development 4 6.3 role 3 4.7
Marketing/Sales 3 4.7 Other (please specify) 0 0.0
Other 0 0.0

APPENDIX D
Self-Assessment Tool
The questionnaire can serve as a quick tool for assessing a country’s logistics competence
maturity.
Instruction: Answer each question. After completion, make note of the points
scored per question (strongly disagree = 1 point, strongly agree = 5) and calculate
the sum of points. The numerical ranges shown at the bottom of the table will indicate
the country’s maturity level. The corresponding action points for various stakeholder
groups can be found in Figure 24.
Points allocated
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Strongly Points
disagree Disagree Neutral Agree agree scored:
Section 1: Logistics education
Q1.1: Numerous educational institutions in my
country (e.g., colleges, universities) offer
programs specialized in logistics.
Q1.2: Companies collaborate closely with
universities and vocational schools in the
development of logistics courses.
Q1.3: Significant numbers of students take
logistics courses in foreign universities
and return to take up logistics
management posts.
Q1.4: Western educational institutions that offer
logistics programs have established
branch campuses in my country.
Q1.5: Apprenticeships or dual education
programs in logistics are common in my
country.
Section 2: Logistics competence

Q2.1: Certification programs exist for logistics
skills and competencies and are
widely used.

84 Self-Assessment Tool
Points allocated
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Strongly Points
disagree Disagree Neutral Agree agree scored:
Q2.2: Multi-national 3PLs have a substantial share
of the national logistics market.
Q2.3: There is a network of recruitment agencies
specializing in the employment of
logistic staff.
Q2.4: Professional logistics associations have a
strong presence in the country.
Q2.5: A significant proportion of logistics
managers have specialized qualifications
in logistics.
Section 3: Company training & development

Q3.1: Numerous private training providers offer
logistics courses.
Q3.2: It is common for logistics companies to
invest in the training and professional
development of their employees.
Q3.3: The government provides support for the
training of logistics employees.
Q3.4: Logistics is recognized to be a major sector
of the economy and an important source
of employment.
Q3.5 There are well established career paths for
logistics employees within the country.
Maturity level Points
Advanced: 75–51
Intermediate: 50–31
Basic: 30–0
TOTAL

APPENDIX E
Results from the World Bank

Logistics Performance Index Survey
2015/2016
To supplement the World Bank/KLU report on logistics skills and training, the
2016 edition of the Logistics Performance Index survey for the first time
included a question on logistics skills and competencies. Respondents were asked
to indicate the availability (from “very high” to “very low”) of qualified personnel
for four groups of logistics personnel:
1. Operative staff, for example, truck drivers or warehouse pickers

2. Administrative staff, for example, traffic planners, expediters or warehouse
clerks
3. Logistics supervisors, for example, warehouse shift leaders or traffic
controllers
4. Logistics managers, for example, those responsible for transport, warehousing
operations or supply chain management.
Results from the 2016 LPI survey bolster the World Bank/KLU report’s find-
ings that logistics faces a global shortage of qualified staff. Qualified staff is scarce
to varying degrees at all four occupational levels in all countries, but particularly
in the countries that form the bottom quintile in the LPI.1 In those countries, the
shortage of logistics staff in the “mid tiers,” that is, administrative staff and super-
visors, is most acute. A similar picture emerges in the second-lowest LPI quintile,
where the share of low or very low availability was rated at around a third for all
four occupational levels. The problem of skills shortages is less acute but equally
present in the third, fourth and fifth LPI quintile.
When broken down by geographic region, Latin America and the Caribbean
emerges as the region with the highest skills gap across all employee groups.
A full 43 percent of respondents for instance indicated that the availability of
logistics managers, that is, those with the most sophisticated responsibilities, was
either “low” or “very low.” Yet also for each of the three remaining employee

86 Results from the World Bank Logistics Performance Index Survey 2015/2016
Figure E.1 Respondents Indicating “Low” or “Very Low” Availability of Qualified Personnel in the Respective
Employee Groups, by LPI Quintile
60
40
Percent
20
0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
LPI quintile LPI quintile LPI quintile LPI quintile quintile
Operative/blue collar staff, e.g., truck drivers, pickers
Administrative logistics staff, e.g., traffic planners, expediters
Logistics supervisors, e.g., shift leaders, traffic controllers
Logistics managers, e.g., responsible for supply chain management
Employee Groups, by Region
60
40
Percent
20
0
East Asia and South Asia Middle East Sub-Saharan Europe and Latin America North
Pacific and Africa Central Asia and America
North Africa Caribbean
groups (operative, administrative and supervisory), about a third of respondents

indicated low or very low availability of staff.
Comparatively high staff shortages of between 20 percent and 30 percent at
all job levels were reported in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The picture is
more nuanced in East Asia and Pacific, were shortages of administrative and
managerial staff were more acute than those of operative and supervisory staff.
In the Middle East and North Africa, the low level of staff shortage at the mana-
gerial level (11 percent) vs. the other levels (around 20 percent each) stands out.
This could be a favorable outcome of higher education programs (B.Sc. and

Results from the World Bank Logistics Performance Index Survey 2015/2016 87
Employee Groups, by Income Group
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
Low income Lower-middle Upper-middle High income
income income
M.Sc.) in logistics and supply chain management that were introduced in the
region over the past decade. Morocco could serve as an example of a country that
owing to those programs does not see a severe shortage of managerial staff.
However, difficulties in finding workers on lower sophistication levels, for exam-
ple, truck drivers and warehouse pickers, are still pertinent in the country.
An interesting finding is that the severity of skills shortages varies much less
by income group (low, lower middle, upper middle and high income) than by
LPI quintile, where a clear divide can be seen between the first and second quin-
tile on the one hand and the remaining, higher performing ones, on the other
hand. No clear picture emerges when comparing skills shortages by income
group. The shortage of logistics managers for instance is perceived as equally high
in the lowest income group (26 percent) as in the highest one (27 percent).
Larger differences can only be spotted among the availability of administrative
logistics staff, which is fairly abundant in high and lower middle income coun-
tries (with a shortage of only 17–18 percent), and a comparative scarcity in
upper middle income countries (with a shortage of 34 percent).
Note
1. 1st LPI quintile = countries with the lowest overall 2016 LPI score; 5th LPI
quintile = countries with the highest overall 2016 LPI score.

Environmental Benefits Statement
The World Bank Group is committed to reducing its environmental footprint.
In support of this commitment, we leverage electronic publishing options and
print-on-demand technology, which is located in regional hubs worldwide.
Together, these initiatives enable print runs to be lowered and shipping distances
decreased, resulting in reduced paper consumption, chemical use, greenhouse gas
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We follow the recommended standards for paper use set by the Green
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Council (FSC)–certified paper, with nearly all containing 50–100 percent
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or enhanced elemental chlorine–free (EECF) processes.
More information about the Bank’s environmental philosophy can be found
at http://www.worldbank.org/corporateresponsibility.
D espite the spread of automation and new supply chain management paradigms, logistics
remains dependent on a rather specific set of skills and competencies, whether for managerial,
administrative, or blue-collar jobs, such as trucking or warehousing. This dependence implies that the
logistical performance of businesses, industries, and nation states is strongly influenced by the quantity
and quality of the workforce. Insufficient resources of a competent and properly trained workforce in
logistics adversely affect the quality of service, reduce productivity in sectors dependent on logistics,
and ultimately reduce trade competitiveness.
While other interventions that affect logistics performance—such as international infrastructures,
trade corridors, regulations, and services—have already been reviewed extensively, this report is the
first to cover the contributions of human resources and explore how to develop skills and improve
competencies, especially in developing countries. The study proposes a framework for the skills
needed according to the logistics activity (such as transportation or warehousing) or the type and
level of responsibility.
Based on several sources, including recent surveys carried out by the World Bank and the Kühne
Logistics University, the report uncovers where the skills constraints are according to the type of job or
countries. Findings include that logistics is an industry struggling to hire skilled workers, although with
differences between developed countries (where trucker shortages are more acute) and developing
economies (where managerial shortages are more widespread). Typically, blue-collar logistics jobs
have lower status and lower pay than blue-collar jobs in other industries; they are thus less attractive
for skilled workers. In developing countries with a potentially available workforce, lack of vocational
preparation for careers in logistics means that less-skilled workers are not easily re-skilled. Logistics
tasks at the upper end of the occupational hierarchy and those with high information technology
content often require an upskilling of employees to keep pace with new technology. Yet the problem is
not confined to recruitment. The surveys point to limited resources, money, and staff time allocated to
training, especially in developing countries.
Realizing the promise of quality jobs from the growth of logistics worldwide requires a coordinated
effort by logistics companies, professional associations, training providers, and policy makers.
Through a combination of facilitation, regulation, advice, financial instruments, and land use planning,
governments can exert significant influence.
ISBN 978-1-4648-1140-1
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Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training: A Global Overview

Research · August 2017

Alan Mckinnon Christoph Flöthmann

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Alan McKinnon, Christoph Flöthmann, Kai Hoberg, and Christina Busch

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data has been requested.

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

Chapter 2 Methodology and Sources 9

Chapter 3 The Quest for Logistics Competence: Survey Evidence 13

Chapter 4 Sector Case Studies 25

Chapter 5 Training and Skills Development 35

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1 v

Examples of Best Practices in Competence Development 43

Chapter 6 Recruitment and Retention 55

Chapter 7 The Role of the Public Sector in Enhancing Logistics

Chapter 8 Logistics Competence Maturity Matrix 67

Appendix A Selected Literature Related to Logistics Skills,

Appendix B Example of Continuing Professional Development

Appendix C Supplementary Survey Results 79

Appendix D Self-Assessment Tool 83

Appendix E Results from the World Bank Logistics Performance

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

1.3 Availability of Qualified Personnel by Region 4

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1 ix

Alan McKinnon is professor of logistics in the Kühne Logistics University in

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1 xi

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

Efficient supply chains are critical to economic development, trade integration

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1 xiii

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

Figure ES.1 Evidence from the 2016 LPI

Respondents indicating “low” or “very low” availability of qualified

Logistics managers, e.g.,

Logistics supervisors, e.g., shift

Administrative logistics staff,

Operative/blue collar staff,

Source: Arvis et al. 2016.

observes a lack of vocational school preparation for logistics jobs. Logistics

Upskilling and Retaining the Labor Force

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

Figure ES.2 Sources of Training

External provider/trainers only

Mix of internal and external

institutes and vocational training institutions have a mutual interest in this

• International branch campuses of established Western universities with a

Logistics Competencies, Skills, and Training • http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1140-1

• Transparent career paths

In developing countries, support provided by institutions such as the World

The Role of Public Sector Initiatives

• Provision of education or training by public institutions or financial support to