UNIT-3

ELECTRICAL INSTALATION

• COMPONENTS OF SWITCHGEAR-
• Definition of Switchgear: The apparatus used for switching, controlling and
protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is known as switchgear.
• The term ‘switchgear’ is a generic term that includes a wide range of switching devices
like circuit breakers, switches, switch fuse units, off-load isolators, HRC fuses,
contactors, miniature circuit breakers, ELCBs, GFCIs etc.
• It also includes the combination of these switching devices with associated control,
measuring, protecting and regulating equipment. The switchgear devices and their
assemblies are used in connection with the generation, transmission, distribution, and
conversion of electrical energy.
• The function of a Switchgear
• Switchgear has to perform the functions of carrying, making and breaking the normal
load current like a switch.
• In addition, it has to perform the function of clearing the fault current for which sensing
devices like current transformers, potential transformers and various types of relays,
depending on the application, are employed.
• There also has to be provision for metering, controlling and data, wherein innumerable
devices are used for achieving the switching function.
• Thus switchgear can include circuit Current transformer potential transformers,
protective relays, measuring instruments, switches, fuses, MCBs, surge arrestors,
isolators, and various associated types of equipment. (Related components can be found
at electronic component distributor)
• Now let’s look into the components of switchgear in detail.
• Components of Switchgear
• Switchgear essentially consists of switching and protecting devices such as switches,
fuses , isolators, circuit breakers, protective relays, control panels, lightening arrestors,
current transformers, potential transformers, auto reclosures , and various
associated equipment.
• (For more details, visit a complete list on components of switchgear)
• Some types of equipment are designed to operate under both normal and abnormal
conditions. Some equipment is meant for switching and not sensing the fault.
• During normal operation, switchgear permits to switch on or off generators,
transmission lines, distributors and other electrical equipment. On the other hand, when
a failure (e.g. short circuit) occurs on any part of the power system, a heavy current
flows through the equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption of
service to the customers.
• However, the switchgear detects the fault and disconnects the unhealthy section
from the system. (For more details visit working of a circuit breaker and protective
relays.)
• Similarly, switching and current interrupting devices play a significant role in the
modern electrical network, right from generating stations, transmission substation at
different voltages, distribution substations, and load centers . The switching device here
is called a circuit breaker.
 • The circuit breaker, along with associated devices for protection, metering, and control
regulation, is called switchgear.
• Read in detail about components of switchgear.

Switchgear Equipment
Switchgear covers a wide range of equipment concerned with switching and interrupting
currents under both normal and abnormal conditions. It includes switches, fuses, circuit
breakers, relays, current transformer, and other equipment.
Read switchgear in substaions for more details.
A brief account of these devices is given below.
1. Switches
A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient way.
It can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault currents.
When the contacts of a switch are opened, an arc is produced in the air between the contacts.
This is particularly true for circuits of high voltage and large current capacity.
The switches may be classified into
1. air switches
2. oil switches
The contacts of the former are opened in the air and that of the latter is opened in oil.
i. Air-break switch – It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit under load. In
order to quench the arc that occurs on opening such a switch, special arcing horns are
provided. Read different types of air break switch.
ii. Isolator or disconnecting switch – It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to
open a circuit under no load.
iii. Oil switches – As the name implies, the contacts of such switches are opened under
oil, usually transformer oil.

Air Break Switch

2. Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows through
it for sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected.
When a short circuit or overload occurs, the current through the fuse element increases beyond
its rated capacity. This raises the temperature and the fuse element melts (or blows out),
disconnecting the circuit protected by it.
 Electrical Fuses Switchgear
Working of fuse

The element in a fuse is usually a wire or thin metal strip mounted between two terminals. In
a cartridge fuse, it is enclosed in a glass or ceramic cylinder with a contact at each end, or in a
small metallic can. (Old-style, large, high-amperage fuses may be packaged in a paper or
cardboard tube.) The traditional glass cartridge allows the visual inspection to confirm that the
fuse has blown.
A fuse responds only to current, not to voltage. When choosing a fuse that will be reliable in
conditions of steady current consumption, a safe rule is to figure the maximum amperage when
all components are functioning and add 50%. However, if current surges or spikes are likely,
their duration will be relevant.
f I is the current surge in amps and t is its duration in seconds, the surge sensitivity of a fuse—
which is often referred to verbally or in printed format as I2t—is given by the formula:
I2t = I² * t
Some semiconductors also have an I2t rating and should be protected with a similarly rated
fuse.
Any fuse will present some resistance to the current flowing through it. Otherwise, the current
would not generate the heat that blows the fuse.

3. Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under all conditions viz.
no-load, full load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by
remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions. For the latter
operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker.
Low Voltage Circuit Breakers: miniature circuit braker, Moulded case Circuit breaker,
Residual current circuit breaker, ground fault circuit breaker

MCB
MCB or Miniature Circuit Breaker is an electromechanical device that protects an electric
circuit from an overcurrent. The overcurrent in an electrical circuit may result from short
circuit, overload or faulty design.
In short, MCB is a device for overload and short circuit protection. They are used in residential
& commercial areas. Just like we spend the time to make a thorough check before buying
appliances like washing machines or refrigerators, we must also research about Miniature
Circuit Breakers.
An MCB is a better alternative to a fuse since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected. Unlike a fuse, an MCB can be easily operated and thus offers improved
operational safety and greater convenience without incurring a large operating cost. They are
used to protect lower current circuits and have the following specifications
• Current rating – Amperes
• Short Circuit Rating – Kilo Amperes (kA)
• Operating Characteristics – B, C, D, Z or K Curves
A Miniature Circuit Breaker is a switch gear which is usually available in the range
of 0.5A to 100A. Its Short circuit rating is given in Kiloamps (kA), and this indicates the
level of its ability to work.
For example, a domestic MCB would normally have a 6kA fault level, whereas one used in
an industrial application may need a unit with a 10kA fault capability.
Working Principle of Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
MCB’s are protective devices that are made to break the circuit in case of overload circuit
breaker.
The working of a miniature circuit breaker in case of overload and short circuit fault is,
• For Overload protection, they have a Bi-metallic strip which causes the circuit
to open.
• For Short circuit protection, it has an electromagnetic kind of thing.

Inside a Miniature Circuit Breaker

There is two arrangement of operation of a miniature circuit breaker.
1. Due to the thermal effect of over electric current
2. Due to the electromagnetic effect of overcurrent.
The thermal operation of the miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic
strip. Whenever continuous over electric current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is
heated and deflects by bending.
This deflection of bimetallic strip releases the mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is
attached with the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit
breaker contacts.
But during short circuit condition, the sudden rising of electric currents causes
electromechanical displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB.
The plunger strikes the trip lever causing an immediate release of latch mechanism
consequently open the circuit breaker contacts. This was a simple explanation of a miniature
circuit breaker working principle.
Tripping Mechanism in Miniature Circuit Breaker
As explained in the above section, an MCB has two types of tripping mechanism.
1. Thermal Tripping
2. Magnetic Tripping
These are explained in the next section.
1. Thermal Trip Unit
The thermal trip unit protects against overload currents.
The thermal unit is based on a bimetal element located behind the circuit breaker trip bar and
is part of the breaker’s current-carrying path.
When there is an overload, the increased current flow heats the bimetal causing it to bend. As
the bimetal bends it pulls the trip bar which opens the breaker’s contacts.
The time required for the bimetal to bend and trip the breaker varies inversely with the
current.

Magnetic Trip Unit

The magnetic trip unit protects against a short circuit. The magnetic trip unit is comprised of
an electromagnet and an armature.
When there is a short circuit, a high magnitude of current passes through the coils creating a
magnetic field that attracts the movable armature towards the fixed armature.
The hammer trip is pushed against the movable contact and the contacts are opened.
Magnetic trip unit
Types of MCB based on Tripping Characteristics
MCBs are classified into different types according to tripping over the range of fault current.
The important MCB types are as follows:
1. Type B MCB
2. Type C MCB
3. Type D MCB
4. Type K MCB
5. Type Z MCB
The tripping current and operating time of each of the above MCB types are given in the
table below.

Type Tripping current

Type-B 3 To 5 times the full load current
TYPE-C 5 to10 times of full load current
TYPE-D 10 to 20 times of full load current
TYPE-K 8-to 12 times of full load current
TYPE-Z 2-3 times of full load current

MCCB
• The Molded Case Circuit Breaker is a specific type of circuit breaker.NEMA defines
Molded Case Circuit Breaker as devices designed to open or close a circuit by
nonautomatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined
overcurrent without damage to itself when properly applied within its rating.
• The term “molded case” simply refers to the construction of the circuit breaker and
refers to the fact that the circuit breaker is an assembled unit in a supporting housing of
insulating material.
A Moulded case circuit breaker generally have
• A thermal element for overcurrent and
• A magnetic element for short circuit release which has to operate faster.
• MCCBs are manufactured such that end user will not have access to internal workings
of the over-current protection device.
• Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically insulated plastic, these
two halves are riveted together to form the whole. Inside the plastic shell is a series of
thermal elements and a spring-loaded trigger.
• When the thermal element gets too warm, from an overcurrent situation, the spring
trips, which in turn will shut off the electrical circuit.
The major components of MCCB include
• a mechanism which makes and breaks a contact through a toggle link
mechanism having a spring which can store tripping force,
• an overcurrent trip device which reacts with overcurrent and short circuit current
and trips MCCB,
• an Arc extinguishing device which extinguishes the arc generated upon current
interruption,
• terminals for connecting wires and conductors,
• contacts which open and close the circuit and
• a moulded case in which these components are integrated and compactly
contained.
RCCB-
A Residual Current Device (RCCB, ELCB, RCBO etc.) is a device that is designed to
provide protection against electrocution or electrical fires by cutting off the flow of electric
automatically when it senses a ‘leakage’ of electric current from a circuit.
Residual Current Devices have the following Specifications
• Sensitivity – milli Amperes (mA)
• Current Rating – Amperes (A)
• Short Circuit Rating – Kilo Amperes (kA)
• Poles – 2 Pole or 4 Pole
Difference between RCD, RCCB & RCBO
Residual current protective devices are classified according to their various versions.
• RCD is the generic term for all types of residual current protective device.
• RCCBs are residual current operated circuit-breakers without integral overcurrent
protection known in Germany as Fehler strom-Schutzschalter (FI-Schutzschalter).
• RCBOs are devices which feature an integrated overcurrent protection unit for
overload and short-circuit protection in addition to protection against residual
currents.
Operating Principle of a Residual Current Device
The basic operating principle of a residual current device (RCCB, ELCB, RCBO etc.) is given
in the figure below.

When the load is connected to the supply through the Residual Current Device (RCD), the
line and neutral conductors are connected through primary windings on a toroidal transformer.
In this arrangement, the secondary winding is used as a sensing coil and is electrically
connected to a sensitive relay or solid state switching device, the operation of which triggers
the tripping mechanism.
When the line and neutral currents are balanced, as in a healthy circuit, they produce equal and
opposite magnetic fluxes in the transformer core with the result that there is no current
generated in the sensing coil. (For this reason, the transformer is also known as a ‘core balance
transformer‘).
When the line and neutral currents are not balanced they create an out-of-balance flux. This
will induce a current in the secondary winding which is used to operate the tripping mechanism.
It is important to note that both the line and neutral conductors pass through the toroid.

This is how RCD protects from electrocution.

• A common cause of unwanted tripping is the failure to connect the neutral through
the RCD, RCDs work equally well on single phase, three phase or three phase and
neutral circuits, but when the neutral is distributed it is essential that it passes through
the toroid.
Test Circuit in RCD
• A test circuit is always incorporated in the RCD. Typically the operation of the test
button connects a resistive load between the line conductor on the load-side of
the RCD and the supply neutral. The test circuit is designed to pass current in excess
of the tripping current of the RCD to simulate an out-of-balance condition.
• Operation of the test button verifies that the RCD is operational. It is important to note,
therefore, that the test circuit does not check the circuit protective conductor or the
condition of the earth electrode.On all RCDs a label instructs the user to check the
function of the RCD at regular intervals and to observe that the RCD trips instantly.
Protective Relays
Protective relays are vital parts of the switchgear equipment.
A relay is a device which detects the fault and supplies information to the breaker for circuit
interruption.
The function of a protective relay is to initiate a signal to circuit breakers for disconnecting the
elements of the power system when it develops a fault.
When a fault occurs the relay contacts are closed and the trip coil of the circuit breaker is
energized to open the contacts of the circuit breaker.
There have been rapid developments in relaying technology during the last two decades. The
most important advancement has been due to the advent of computer technology which has
helped in the development of numerical relays.

• Instrument Transformers
• Instrument transformers (current transformer and voltage transformer) are used in
switchgear installations for the measurement of electrical parameters for protection and
metering purposes.
• An instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially proportional
to the primary current and differs in phase from it by approximately zero degrees is
called a current transformer (CT).
• A voltage transformer (VT) is an instrument transformer in which the secondary
voltage is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it
by approximately zero degrees.
Surge Arresters
• Surge Suppressors or Surge Arrestors are very important components of switchgear
and substation installations.
• These are used to protect the substation equipment from temporary over-voltages,
switching impulses, and lightning impulses, and to a certain extent, very fast transient
over-voltages.
• Historically, spark gaps with air insulation were used as surge suppressors. Lightening
arrester, surge capacitors, surge suppressing reactors, and thyrite resistors with series
gaps were used in the past for this purpose.
• Innovation in this field has resulted in the advent of two commonly used types, viz. the
metal oxide-based (ZnO) type and C-R type of surge arrestors/ suppressors.
Auto Reclosures and sectionalisers
• Autoreclousers and sectionalisers are used in the distribution networks of medium
voltage switchgear up to 33 kV class.
• These equipment are useful for the fast automatic restoration of supply following
transient faults in the system. The faults may be due to frequent lightning surges and in
areas where power lines run through forests and trees.
• These types of equipment are extensively used in the continents of America and
Australia due to their distinct advantages over conventional switchgear.
Disconnect Switch / Isolator
• Disconnectors (Isolators) are devices which are generally operated off-load to provide
isolation of main plant items for maintenance, on to isolate faulted equipment from
other live equipment.
• Air Insulated or open terminal disconnectors are available in several forms for different
applications.
• At the lower voltages, single break types are usual with either ‘rocker’ type or single
end rotating post types being predominant.
• At higher voltages, rotating center post, double end rotating post, vertical break, and
pantograph type disconnectors are more common. Air break switches are used in lower
voltage to disconnect on load.
CABLES AND WIRES
Electrical cable and wires are considered as a same thing. In fact they are quite different. A
wire is made of a single electrical conductor while a cable is a group or bundle of multiple
wires inside a common sheathing. Both of them are used for carrying electrical current.
Nowadays due to the advancement in technology, almost everything is powered by electricity.
Be it indoor or outdoor, we need supply of smooth, uninterrupted electricity which is achieved
by using suitable type of wires and cables.
Residential Wiring Cables
The residential wiring from the utility pole to the appliances or devices inside the home is
divided into mainly five types.
Service Drop Cable:
It is the cable between the utility pole and the consumer’s premises or building. The service
drop cable is an overhead electrical line from the pole to the service weatherhead of a house.
The service drop cable can be of many types given below:
Duplex Cable: The duplex service drop cable is a two core conductor i.e. it has two conductors;
an insulated conductor for phase line and a bare conductor for neutral line. It is used for
supplying a single phase power to the building.

Triplex Cable: The Triplex service drop cable is a three core conductor. It has two insulated
conductors for phase line and a bare conductor for neutral line.
Quadruplex Cable: The Quadruplex service drop cable is a quad or four core conductors. It
has 4 conductors; three of them are insulated conductors for phase lines and a bare conductor
for neutral line. It is used for supplying a 3 phase power supply from the utility pole to the
building.
The phase conductor is an AAC cable while the neutral conductor is available
in AAC/AAAC/ACSR. The insulation used on these cables is XLPE that protects these
conductors from moisture, heat etc.
Main Feeder Wires:
• The main feeders supply the power from the service weatherhead to the building. The
cables used for this purpose are 600v THHN, solid or stranded with the rating of 25%
more than the maximum required load.
Panel Feed Wires:
• The panel feed wires supply power to the main distribution junction box. It is usually
black insulted THHN cables with rating of 25% more than maximum load current
Non-Metallic Sheathed Wires:
• The non-metallic or NM sheathed wires are used for in-house wiring. It may consist of
2 or more than 2 insulated conductors with an insulated or bare ground conductor. There
is another layer of plastic XLPE sheathing for more protection. The latest version NM
type-B is currently used by electricians for interior installation. The conductors could
be solid or stranded. The stranded conductors are easier to route through conduits.

Single Conductor Wire

• Single Conductor wire is the most popular choice for electrical layout inside a home. It
is available in multiple gauges, color (for phase, neutral and ground identification) and
solid or stranded conductors. A single solid wire provides better connections but single
stranded wires are easier to route through conduits. Both of them are available in THW
and THHN insulation.
Cable constuction

the figure shows the general construction of a three-conductor cable. The various parts are:
1. Cores or Conductors
2. Insulation
3. Metallic sheath
4. Bedding
5. Armoring
6. Serving
Cores or Conductors
• A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor cable shown in the figure
is used for 3-phase service.
• The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and are usually stranded in
order to provide flexibility to the cable. The larger the conductor, the greater the amount
of current can flow through the conductor.
• The aluminium or copper conductor carries the electrical current. Aluminium
conductors are usually used for medium voltage distribution networks requiring long
distances and extensive cabling. Copper cables are used for short links
in substations and industrial installations where smaller cables or higher power
transmitting properties are required.
• The conductor behaviour is characterized by two particularly noteworthy phenomena:
1. the skin effect and
2. the proximity effect.
• The skin effect is the concentration of electric current flow around the periphery of the
conductors. It increases in proportion to the cross-section of the conductor used.
• The short distance separating the phases in the same circuit generates the proximity
effect.
• In practice, the proximity effect is weaker than the skin effect and rapidly diminishes
when the cables are moved away from each other.
 • The proximity effect is negligible when the distance between two cables in the same
circuit or in two adjacent circuits is at least 8 times the outside diameter of the cable
conductor.

Insulation
• Around the conductor, it is necessary to provide insulation to prevent electrical short
circuits.
• Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the
thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable.
• The insulation must be of sufficient thickness to withstand the electric field under
the rated and transient operatingconditions. See the table on insulation thickness .
Metallic sheath
• The main function of the metallic screen is to nullify the electric field outside of the
cable – it acts as a second electrode of the capacitor formed by the cable. The screen
needs to connect to earth at least at one point along the route.
• The second function of the metallic screen is to form a radial barrier to prevent
humidity from penetrating the cable insulation system.
• When humidity and a strong electric field are present together, the insulation
deteriorates by what is called water-treeing, which can eventually cause the insulation
to fail.
Bedding
Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of fibrous material like
jute or hessian tape.
The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical
injury due to armoring.
Armoring
Over the bedding, armoring is provided which consist of one or two layers of galvanized steel
wire or steel tape.
Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injuries while laying it or handling it.
Armoring may not be done in the case of some cables.
Serving
In order to protect armoring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material like jute
similar to bedding is provided over the armoring. This is known as serving.
Armoring and serving are only applied to the cables for the protection of conductor insulation
and to protect metallic sheath from mechanical injury.
• In practice, different types of Underground cables are generally required to deliver 3-
phase power. For the purpose, either three-core cable or three single core cables may
be used.

For voltages upto 66 kV, 3-core underground cable (i.e.multicore is preferred due to economic
reasons. However, for voltages beyond 66 kV, 3-core-cables are not preferred because it
become too large and unwieldy. So generally for for voltages beyond 66 kV single-core cables
are used.

The following types of cables are generally used for 3-phase service :
1. Belted cables — upto 11 kV
2. Screened cables — from 22 kV to 66 kV
3. Pressure cables — beyond 66 kV.
 • Belted Cables
• These cables are used for voltages upto 11kV but in extraordinary cases, their use may
be extended upto 22kV.
• The figure shows the constructional details of a 3-core belted cable.

• The cores are insulated from each other by layers of impregnated paper.
Another layer of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound round the grouped
insulated cores. The gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating
material (jute etc.) so as to give circular cross-section to the cable.
• The cores are generally stranded and may be of a non circular shape to make better use
of available space.
• The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the cable against ingress of moisture and
mechanical injury. The lead sheath is covered with one or more layers of armoring with
an outer serving (not shown in the figure).

Application of Belted Cables

• The belted type construction is suitable only for low and medium voltages as the
electrostatic stresses developed in the cables for these voltages are more or less radial
i.e., across the insulation. However, for high voltages (beyond 22 kV), the tangential
stresses also become important. These stresses act along the layers of paper insulation.
• As the insulation resistance of paper is quite small along the layers, therefore, tangential
stresses set up leakage current along the layers of paper insulation (It is infact a leakage
current but should not be confused with the capacitance current).
The leakage current causes local heating, resulting in the risk of breakdown of
insulation at any moment. In order to overcome this difficulty, screened cables are used
where leakage currents are conducted to earth through metallic screens.

Screened Cables
• These cables are meant for use upto 33 kV, but in particular cases their use may be
extended to operating voltages upto 66 kV. Two principal types of screened cables are
 1. H type cables
2. S.L. type cables.

BATTERY
Battery classification-
• An electric battery consists of a number of electrochemical cells, connected either in
series or parallel.
• A cell, which is the basic unit of a battery, may be defined as a power generating
device, which is capable of converting stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
• If the stored energy is inherently present in the chemical substances, it is called a
primary cell or a non-rechargeable cell.
• Accordingly, the battery made of these cells is called primary battery. The examples of
primary cells are Leclanche cell, zinc-chlorine cell, alkaline-manganese cell and metal
air cells etc.
• If, on the other hand, energy is induced in the chemical substances by applying an
external source, it is called a secondary cell or rechargeable cell.
• A battery made out of these cells is called a secondary battery or storage battery or
rechargeable battery.
• Examples of secondary cells are leadacid cell, nickel-cadmium cell, nickel-iron cell,
nickel-zinc cell, nickel-hydrogen cell, silver-zinc cell and high temperature cells like
lithium-chlorine cell, lithium-sulphur cell, sodium-sulphur cell etc.

Battey classification according to their use-

Various types of secondary batteries can be grouped in to the following categories as per their
use :
1. Automotive Batteries or SLI Batteries or Portable Batteries
• These are used for starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) in internal-combustion-engine
vehicles. Examples are; lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries etc.
2. Vehicle Traction Batteries or Motive Power Batteries or Industrial Batteries
• These are used as a motive power source for a wide variety of vehicles. Lead-acid
batteries, nickel-iron batteries, silver-zinc batteries have been used for this purpose.
• A number of advance batteries including high-temperature batteries are under
development for electric vehicle (EV) use.
• These high-temperature batteries like sodium-sulphur and lithium-iron sulphide have
energy densities in the range of 100-120 Wh/kg.
3. Stationary Batteries.
• These fall into two groups
• (a) standby power system which is used intermittently and
 • (b) load levelling system which stores energy when demand is low and, later on, uses
it to meet peak demand.

PARTS OF LEAD-ACID BATTERY-

A battery consists of a number of cells and each cell of the battery-consists of

(a) positive and negative plants (b) separators and (c) electrolyte, all contained in one of
the many compartments of the battery container.
Different parts of a lead-acid battery are as under :
(i) Plates.
• A plate consists of a lattice type of grid of cast antimonial lead alloy which is
covered with active material.
• The grid not only serves as a support for the fragile active material but also
conducts electric current. Grid for the positive and negative plates are often of
the same design although negative plate grids are made somewhat lighter.
• Positive plates are usually Plante plates whereas negative plates are generally of
Faure or pasted type.
(ii) Separators.
• These are thin sheets of a porous material placed between the positive and negative
plates for preventing contact between them and thus avoiding internal short-
circuiting of the battery.
• A separator must, however, be sufficiently porous to allow diffusion or circulation
of electrolyte between the plates.
• These are made of especially-treated cedar wood, glass wool mat, microporous
rubber (mipor), microporous plastics (plastipore, miplast) and perforated p.v.c. .
• In addition to good porosity, a separator must possess high electrical resistance
and mechanical strength.
(iii) Electrolyte.
It is dilute sulphuric acid which fills the cell compartment to immerse the plates
completely.
(iv) Container.
• It may be made of vulcanised rubber or moulded hard rubber (ebonite), moulded plastic,
ceramics, glass or celluloid.
• The vulcanised rubber containers are used for car service, while glass containers are
superior for lighting plants and wireless sets.
• Celluloid containers are mostly used for portable wireless set batteries.
• A single monoblock type container with 6 compartments generally used for starting
batteries is shown in Fig. Full details of a Russian 12-CAM-28 lead-acid battery parts
are shown in Fig.
Details of some of these parts are as follows
Bottom grooved support blocks.Bottom. These are raised ribs, either fitted in the bottom of the
container or made with the container itself.
Their function is to support the plates and hold them in position and at the same time protect
them from short-circuits that would otherwise occur as a result of fall of the active material
from the plates onto the bottom of the container.
(b) Connecting Bar. It is the lead alloy link which joins the cells together in series connecting
the positive pillar of one cell to the negative pillar of the next one.
(c) Terminal Post or Pillar. It is the upward extension from each connecting bar which passes
through the cell cover for cable connections to the outside circuits. For easy identification, the
negative terminal post is smaller in diameter than the positive terminal post. (
d) Vent Plugs or Filler Caps. These are made of polystyrene or rubber and are usually screwed
in the cover. Their function is to prevent escape of electrolyte but allow the free exit of the gas.
These can be easily removed for topping up or taking hydrometer readings.
(e) External Connecting Straps. These are the antimonial lead alloy flat bars which connect the
positive terminal post of one cell to the negative of the next across the top of the cover.
These are of very solid construction especially in starting batteries because they have to carry
very heavy currents.
Active materials of a Lead-acid Cell
Those substances of the cell which take active part in chemical combination and hence absorb
or porduce electricity during charging or discharging, are known as active materials of the cell.
The active materials of a lead-acid cell are :
1. Lead peroxide (PbO2) for + ve plate
2. Sponge Lead (Pb) for − ve plate
3. Dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) as electrolyte.
1. Lead Peroxide It is a combination of lead and oxygen, is dark chocolate brown in colour
and is quite hard but brittle substance. It is made up of one atom of lead (Pb) and two atoms of
oxygen (O2) and its chemical formula is PbO2. As said earlier, it forms the positive active
material.
2. Sponge Lead It is pure lead in soft sponge or porous condition. Its chemical formula is Pb
and forms the negative active material.
3. Dilute Sulphuric Acid
It is approximately 3 parts water and one part sulphuric acid. The chemical formula of the acid
is H2SO4. The positive and negative plates are immersed in this solution which is known as
electrolyte.
It is this medium through which the current produces chemical changes. Hence, the lead-acid
cell depends for its action on the presence of two plates covered with PbO2 and Pb in a solution
of dilute H2SO4 of specific gravity 1.21 or near about.
Lead in the form of PbO2 or sponge Pb has very little mechanical strength, hence it is
supported by plates of pure lead.
Those plates covered with or otherwise supporting PbO2 are known as + ve plates and those
supporting sponge lead are called −ve plates. The + ve and −ve plates are arranged alternately
and are connected to two common +ve and −ve terminals. These plates are assembled in a
suitable jar or container to make a complete cell
Working of lead-acid battery
Chemical changes
(i) DISCHARGING (Fig) When the cell is fully charge, its positive plate or anode is
PbO2 (dark chocolate brown) and the negative plate or cathode is Pb (slate grey).
When the cell discharges i.e. it sends current through the external load, then H2SO4
is dissociated into positive H2 and negative SO4 ions.
As the current within the cell is flowing from cathode to anode, H2 ions move to
anode and SO4 ions move to the cathode.
At anode (PbO2), H2 combines with the oxygen of PbO2 and H2SO4 attacks lead
to form PbSO4. PbO2 + H2 + H2SO4 ⎯→PbSO4 + 2H2O
At the cathode (Pb), SO4 combines with it to form PbSO4 Pb + SO4 ⎯→ PbSO4
 It will be noted that during discharging:
(i)Both anode and cathode become PbSO4 which is somewhat whitish in colour.
(ii) Due to formation of water, specific gravity of the acid decreases.
(iii)Voltage of the cell decreases.
(v) The cell gives out energy.
(ii) CHARGING (Fig.)
When the cell is recharged, the H2 ions move to cathode and SO4 ions go to anode
and the following changes take plac :
At Cathode
PbSO4 + H2 ⎯⎯→ Pb + H2SO4
At Anode PbSO4 + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ PbO2 + 2H2SO4
Hence, the anode and cathode again become PbO2 and Pb respectively.
(i) The anode becomes dark chocolate brown in colour (PbO2) and cathode
becomes grey metallic lead (Pb).
(ii) Due to consumption of water, specific gravity of H2SO4 is increased.
(iii) There is a rise in voltage.
(iv) Energy is absorbed by the cell. The charging and discharging of the cell can
be represented by a single reversible equation given below :

Charge For discharge, the equation should be read from left to right and for
charge from right to left.
The indications of a fully-charged cell are :
(i) gassing
(ii) voltage
(iii) specific gravity
(iv) colour of the plates.
(i) Gassing :-When the cell is fully charged, it freely gives off hydrogen at cathode and
oxygen at the anode, the process being known as “Gassing”. Gassing at both plates
indicates that the current is no longer doing any useful work and hence should be
stopped. Moreover, when the cell is fully charged, the electrolyte assumes a milky
appearance.
(ii) Voltage:- The voltage ceases to rise when the cell becomes fully-charged. The value
of the voltage of a fully-charged cell is a variable quantity being affected by the rate of
charging, the temperature and specific gravity of the electrolyte etc. The approximate
value of the e.m.f. is 2.1 V or so.
(iii) Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte
• A third indication of the state of charge of a battery is given by the specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
• We have seen from the chemical equations, that during discharging, the density of
electrolyte decreases due to other production of water, whereas it increases during
charging due to the absorption of water.
• The value of density when the cell is fully charged is 1.21 and 1.18 when discharged
up to 1.8 V.
• Specific gravity can be measured with a suitable hydrometer which consists of a float,
a chamber for the electrolyte and a squeeze bulb.
(iv) Colour :-
• The colour plates, on full charge is deep chocolate brown for positive plate and clear
slate gray for negative plate and the cell looks quite brisk and alive.

References
 Open Source material: www.nptel.ac.in
 www.leprous.com
 www.circuitstoday.com
 www.electrical4u.com
 DC Kulshrestha, “Basic electrical Engineering”, MC Graw hill Publication,
2005