Mechanical Engineering

Department

Fluid Mechanics
(MEng 3112)

Chapter 1
Dimensional Analysis And Similitude

Prepared by: Million Asfaw March, 2022

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 Introduction. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity (without
numerical values), while a unit is a way to assign a number to
that dimension. For example, length is a dimension that is
measured in units such as microns (μm), feet (ft), centimeters
(cm), meters (m), kilometers (km), etc.
 There are seven primary dimensions (also called fundamental or
basic dimensions)—mass, length, time, temperature, electric
current, amount of light, and amount of matter.
 All nonprimary dimensions can be formed by some combination
of the seven primary dimensions.
 For example, force has the same dimensions as mass times
acceleration (by Newton’s second law). Thus, in terms of primary
dimensions,

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 Introduction. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

 Surface tension (σs), has dimensions of force per unit length.

The dimensions of surface tension in terms of primary
dimensions is

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 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
 Law of dimensional homogeneity: Every additive term in an
equation must have the same dimensions.
 Consider, for example, the change in total energy of a simple
compressible closed system from one state and/or time (1) to
another (2), as shown in the figure
 The change in total energy of the
system (∆E) is given by

 where E has three components:

internal energy (U), kinetic energy
(KE), and potential energy (PE).

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 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
 These components can be written in terms of the system mass (m);
measurable quantities and thermodynamic properties at each of the
two states, such as speed (V), elevation (z), and specific internal
energy (u); and the known gravitational acceleration constant (g),

 It is straightforward to verify that the left side of the change in

Energy equation and all three additive terms on the right side have
the same dimensions—energy.

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 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

 In addition to dimensional homogeneity, calculations are valid

only when the units are also homogeneous in each additive term.
 For example, units of energy in the above terms may be J, N·m ,
or kg·m2/s2, all of which are equivalent.
 Suppose, however, that kJ were used in place of J for one of the
terms. This term would be off by a factor of 1000 compared to
the other terms.
 It is wise to write out all units when performing mathematical
calculations in order to avoid such errors.
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 Example 1. Dimensional Homogeneity of the Bernoulli
Equation
 Probably the most well-known equation in fluid mechanics is
the Bernoulli equation . One standard form of the Bernoulli
equation for incompressible irrotational fluid flow is

 (a) Verify that each additive term in the Bernoulli equation

has the same dimensions. (b) What are the dimensions of the
constant C?

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 Example 2 . Dimensional Homogeneity
 In Chap. 4 we discussed the differential equation for conservation
of mass, the continuity equation. In cylindrical coordinates, and for
steady flow,

 Write the primary dimensions of each additive term in the equation,

and verify that the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
 Solution. We are to determine the primary dimensions of each
additive term, and we are to verify that the equation is dimensionally
homogeneous.
 Analysis .The primary dimensions of the velocity components are
length/time. The primary dimensions of coordinates r and z are
length, and the primary dimensions of coordinate θ are unity (it is a
dimensionless angle). Thus each term in the equation can be written
9 in terms of primary dimensions,
 Example 2 . Dimensional Homogeneity

 Indeed, all three additive terms have the same dimensions,

namely {t-1}.

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 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 The law of dimensional
homogeneity guarantees that
every additive term in an
equation has the same
dimensions.
 It follows that if we divide
each term in the equation by a A nondimensionalized form of the
collection of variables and Bernoulli equation is formed by
constants whose product has dividing each additive term by a
those same dimensions, the pressure (here we use ). Each
equation is rendered resulting term is dimensionless
(dimensions of {1}).
nondimensional.
 If, in addition, the nondimensional terms in the equation are of
order unity, the equation is called normalized.
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 Each term in a nondimensional equation is dimensionless.
 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 In the process of nondimensionalizing an equation of motion,
nondimensional parameters often appear—most of which are
named after a notable scientist or engineer (e.g., the Reynolds
number and the Froude number).
 This process is sometimes called inspectional analysis.
 As a simple example, consider the equation of motion
describing the elevation z of an object falling by gravity
through a vacuum (no air drag).
 The initial location of the object is z0 and its initial velocity is
w0 in the z-direction. From high school physics,

……………… (1)
 Dimensional variables are defined as dimensional quantities
that change or vary in the problem.
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 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 For the simple differential equation given in Eq. 1, there are
two dimensional variables: z (dimension of length) and t
(dimension of time).
 Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables are defined as
quantities that change or vary in the problem, but have no
dimensions; an example is angle of rotation, measured in
degrees or radians which are dimensionless units. Gravitational
constant g, while dimensional, remains constant and is called a
dimensional constant.
 Other dimensional constants are relevant to this particular
problem are initial location z0 and initial vertical speed w0.
 While dimensional constants may change from problem to
problem, they are fixed for a particular problem and are thus
distinguished from dimensional variables.
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 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 We use the term parameters for the combined set of
dimensional variables, nondimensional variables, and
dimensional constants in the problem.
 Equation 1 is easily solved by integrating twice and
applying the initial conditions. The result is an expression
for elevation z at any time t:

……………(2)
 The constant ½ and the exponent 2 in Eq. 2 are
dimensionless results of the integration. Such constants are
called pure constants. Other common examples of pure
constants are Π and e.

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 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 To nondimensionalize Eq.
1, we need to select
scaling parameters,
based on the primary
dimensions contained in
the original equation.
 In fluid flow problems
there are typically at least
three scaling parameters, In a typical fluid flow problem, the
e.g., L, V, and , scaling parameters usually include a
since there are at least characteristic length L, a characteristic
three primary dimensions velocity V, and a reference pressure
difference . Other parameters
in the general problem
and fluid properties such as density,
(e.g., mass, length, and viscosity, and gravitational acceleration
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time). enter the problem as well.
 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 In the case of the falling object being discussed here, there are
only two primary dimensions, length and time, and thus we are
limited to selecting only two scaling parameters.
 We have some options in the selection of the scaling parameters
since we have three available dimensional constants g, z0, and
w0. We choose z0 and w0. we can also do the analysis using g and
z0 and/or with g and w0
 With these two chosen scaling parameters we nondimensionalize
the dimensional variables z and t.
 The first step is to list the primary dimensions of all dimensional
variables and dimensional constants in the problem,
Primary dimensions of all parameters:

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 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 The second step is to use our two scaling parameters to
nondimensionalize z and t (by inspection) into nondimensional
variables z* and t*,
Nondimensionalized variables:

………………(3)
 Substitution of Eq. 3 into Eq. 1 gives

 …...(4)

 which is the desired nondimensional equation. The grouping of

dimensional constants in Eq. 4 is the square of a well-known
nondimensional parameter or dimensionless group called the
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Froude number,
 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 Froude number: ………... (5)

 Substitution of Eq. 5 into Eq. 4 yields

 Nondimensionalized equation of motion: …..(6)

 In dimensionless form, only one parameter remains, namely the

Froude number.
 Equation 6 is easily solved by integrating twice and applying the
initial conditions. The result is an expression for dimensionless
elevation z* as a function of dimensionless time t*:
 Nondimensional result:

 …………(7)
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 Nondimensionalization of Equations
 There are two key advantages of nondimensionalization
 First, it increases our insight about the relationships between
key parameters. Equation 5 reveals, for example, that doubling
w0 has the same effect as decreasing z0 by a factor of 4.
 Second, it reduces the number of parameters in the problem.
For example, the original problem contains one dependent
variable, z; one independent variable, t; and three additional
dimensional constants, g, w0, and z0. The nondimensionalized
problem contains one dependent parameter, z*; one
independent parameter, t*; and only one additional parameter,
namely the dimensionless Froude number, Fr. The number of
additional parameters has been reduced from three to one!

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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 Nondimensionalization of an equation by inspection is useful
only when we know the equation to begin with.
 However, in many cases in real-life engineering, the equations
are either not known or too difficult to solve; often times
experimentation is the only method of obtaining reliable
information.
 In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are
performed on a geometrically scaled model, rather than on the
full-scale prototype. In such cases, care must be taken to
properly scale the results. We introduce here a powerful
technique called dimensional analysis.

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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
✓ To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the
design of experiments (physical and/or numerical) and in
the reporting of experimental results
✓ To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can
be predicted from model performance
✓ To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between
parameters
 There are three necessary conditions for complete similarity
between a model and a prototype.
 The first condition is geometric similarity—the model must
be the same shape as the prototype, but may be scaled by
some constant scale factor.
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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 The second condition is
kinematic similarity, which
means that the velocity at
any point in the model flow
must be proportional (by a
constant scale factor) to the
velocity at the
corresponding point in the
prototype flow.
 Specifically, for kinematic
similarity the velocity at
corresponding points must
scale in magnitude and must
point in the same relative
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direction. Fig. Kinematic similarity
 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 Kinematic similarity is achieved when, at all locations, the speed in
the model flow is proportional to that at corresponding locations in
the prototype flow, and points in the same direction.
 Geometric similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic similarity
 Just as the geometric scale factor can be less than, equal to, or
greater than one, so can the velocity scale factor.
 In Fig. above, for example, the geometric scale factor is less than
one (model smaller than prototype), but the velocity scale is greater
than one (velocities around the model are greater than those around
the prototype).
 The third and most restrictive similarity condition is that of
dynamic similarity. Dynamic similarity is achieved when all
forces in the model flow scale by a constant factor to corresponding
forces in the prototype flow (force-scale equivalence).
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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 As with geometric and kinematic similarity, the scale factor for
forces can be less than, equal to, or greater than one.
 In Fig. shown in slide 20 above for example, the force-scale
factor is less than one since the force on the model building is
less than that on the prototype.
 Kinematic similarity is a necessary but insufficient condition
for dynamic similarity.
 It is thus possible for a model flow and a prototype flow to
achieve both geometric and kinematic similarity, yet not
dynamic similarity. All three similarity conditions must exist for
complete similarity to be ensured.
 In a general flow field, complete similarity between a model
and prototype is achieved only when there is geometric,
kinematic, and dynamic similarity.
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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 We let uppercase Greek letter Pi (Π) denote a nondimensional
parameter. We have already discussed one Π, namely the
Froude number, Fr.
 In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one Π that
we call the dependent Π, giving it the notation Π1. The
parameter Π1 is in general a function of several other Π’s,
which we call independent Π’s. The functional relationship is
 Functional relationship between Π’s:

 where k is the total number of Π’s.

 Consider an experiment in which a scale model is tested to
simulate a prototype flow.

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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 To ensure complete similarity between the model and the
prototype, each independent P of the model (subscript m) must
be identical to the corresponding independent Π of the prototype
(subscript p),
i.e., Π2, m = Π2, p , Π3, m = Π3, p, . . . .., Πk, m = Πk, p.
 To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be
geometrically similar, and all independent Π groups must match
between model and prototype.
 Under these conditions the dependent Π of the model (Π1, m) is
guaranteed to also equal the dependent Π of the prototype (Π1, p).
 Mathematically, we write a conditional statement for achieving
similarity,

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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 Consider, for example, the
design of a new sports car, the
aerodynamics of which is to
be tested in a wind tunnel. To
save money, it is desirable to
test a small, geometrically
scaled model of the car rather
than a full-scale prototype of
the car.
 In the case of aerodynamic
drag on an automobile, it
turns out that if the flow is
approximated as
incompressible, there are only
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two Π’s in the problem,
 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity

 Where

 The procedure used to generate these Π’s will be discussed

later in this chapter.
 In the above equation FD is the magnitude of the aerodynamic
drag on the car, ρ is the air density, V is the car’s speed (or the
speed of the air in the wind tunnel), L is the length of the car,
and μ is the viscosity of the air. Π1 is a nonstandard form of the
drag coefficient, and Π2 is the Reynolds number, Re.
 The Reynolds number is the most well known and useful
dimensionless parameter in all of fluid mechanics
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 Dimensional Analysis and Similarity
 In the problem at hand there is only one independent Π, and
the above Eq. ensures that if the independent Π’s match (the
Reynolds numbers match: Π2, m = Π2, p ), then the dependent
Π’s also match (Π1, m = Π1, p).
 This enables engineers to measure the aerodynamic drag on
the model car and then use this value to predict the
aerodynamic drag on the prototype car.

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 Example 3: Similarity between Model and Prototype Cars
 The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at a
speed of 50.0 mi/h at an air temperature of 25°C. Automotive
engineers build a one fifth scale model of the car to test in a wind
tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is located in an unheated
building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only about
5°C. Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind
tunnel in order to achieve similarity between the model and the
prototype.
Solution:
 We are to utilize the concept of similarity to determine the speed
of the wind tunnel.
Assumptions:
 The model is geometrically similar to the prototype
 The wind tunnel walls are far enough away so as to not interfere
30
with the aerodynamic drag on the model car.
 Example 3: Similarity between Model and Prototype Cars
 The wind tunnel has a moving belt to simulate the ground under
the car. (The moving belt is necessary in order to achieve
kinematic similarity everywhere in the flow, in particular
underneath the car.)

A drag balance is a device

used in a wind tunnel to
measure the aerodynamic
drag of a body. When
testing automobile models,
a moving belt is often
added to the floor of the
wind tunnel to simulate the
moving ground
(from the car’s frame of
reference).
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 Example 3: Similarity between Model and Prototype Cars
 Properties: For air at atmospheric pressure and at T = 25°C, ρ =
1.184 kg/m3 and μ = 1.849 x 10-5 kg/m·s. Similarly, at T = 5°C,
ρ = 1.269 kg/m3 and μ = 1.754 x 10-5 kg/m·s.
 Analysis: Since there is only one independent Π in this problem,
the similarity equation holds if Π2, m = Π2, p, where Π2 is the
Reynolds number. Thus, we write

 Thus

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Example 3: Similarity between Model and Prototype Cars
 The power of using dimensional analysis and similarity to
supplement experimental analysis is further illustrated by the fact
that the actual values of the dimensional parameters (density,
velocity, etc.) are irrelevant. As long as the corresponding
independent Π’s are set equal to each other, similarity is achieved
even if different fluids are used.
 This explains why automobile or aircraft performance can be
simulated in a water tunnel, and the performance of a submarine can
be simulated in a wind tunnel.
 Suppose, for example, that the engineers in Example above use a
water tunnel instead of a wind tunnel to test their one-fifth scale
model. Using the properties of water at room temperature (20°C is
assumed), the water tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is
easily calculated as
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 Example 3: Similarity between Model and Prototype Cars

 As can be seen, one advantage of a water tunnel is that the

required water tunnel speed is much lower than that required
for a wind tunnel using the same size model

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 The Method of Repeating Variables and the
Buckingham Pi Theorem
 In this section we will learn how to generate the nondimensional
parameters, i.e., the Π’s.
 There are several methods that have been developed for this
purpose, but the most popular (and simplest) method is the method
of repeating variables, popularized by Edgar Buckingham (1867–
1940).
 We can think of this method as a step-by-step procedure or
“recipe” for obtaining nondimensional parameters. There are six
steps in this method as described below in detail

35
 The Method of Repeating Variables and the
Buckingham Pi Theorem

36
 The Method of Repeating Variables and the
Buckingham Pi Theorem

37
 The Method of Repeating Variables and the
Buckingham Pi Theorem

 Fig. A concise
summary of the six
steps that comprise
the method of
repeating variables

38
 The Method of Repeating Variables and the
Buckingham Pi Theorem
 As a simple first example, consider a ball falling in a vacuum. Let
us pretend that we do not know that Eq. 1 is appropriate for this
problem, nor do we know much physics concerning falling objects.
 In fact, suppose that all we know is that the instantaneous
elevation z of the ball must be a function of time t, initial vertical
speed w0, initial elevation z0, and gravitational constant g.
 The beauty of dimensional analysis is that the only other thing we
need to know is the primary dimensions of each of these
quantities.
 As we go through each step of the method of repeating variables,
we explain some of the subtleties of the technique in more detail
using the falling ball as an example.

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 The Method of Repeating Variables
Step 1
 There are five parameters
(dimensional variables,
nondimensional
variables, and
dimensional constants) in
this problem; n = 5. They
are listed in functional
form, with the dependent
variable listed as a
function of the
independent variables
Fig. Setup for dimensional analysis of a ball falling
and constants: in a vacuum. Elevation z is a function of time t,
 List of relevant initial vertical speed w0, initial elevation z0, and
gravitational constant g.
parameters:
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 The Method of Repeating Variables

41
 The Method of Repeating Variables
Step 4
 We need to choose two repeating parameters since j = 2. Since
this is often the hardest (or at least the most mysterious) part of
the method of repeating variables, several guidelines about
choosing repeating parameters are listed in Table 1.
 Following the guidelines of Table 1 on the next page, the wisest
choice of two repeating parameters is w0 and z0.
Repeating parameters: w0 and z0
Step 5
 Now we combine these repeating parameters into products with
each of the remaining parameters, one at a time, to create the Π’s.
The first Π is always the dependent Π and is formed with the
dependent variable z.
Dependent Π : ……………….(1)
42  where a1 and b1 are constant exponents that need to be determined.
 The Method of Repeating Variables
 We apply the primary dimensions of step 2 into Eq. 1 and force
the Π to be dimensionless by setting the exponent of each
primary dimension to zero:
 Dimensions of Π1:

 Since primary dimensions are by definition independent of each

other, we equate the exponents of each primary dimension
independently to solve for exponents a1 and b1

 Thus

43
 The Method of Repeating Variables
 In similar fashion we create the first independent Π (Π2) by
combining the repeating parameters with independent variable t.

44
 The Method of Repeating Variables
 Finally we create the second independent Π (Π3) by combining
the repeating parameters with g and forcing the P to be
dimensionless

45
 The Method of Repeating Variables

 We can see that Π1 and Π2 are the same as the nondimensionalized

variables z* and t* defined by Eq. 3 (See slide number 15)—no
manipulation is necessary for these.
 However, we recognize that the third P must be raised to the power
of -1/2 to be of the same form as an established dimensionless
parameter, namely the Froude number of

 Such manipulation is often necessary to put the Π’s into proper

established form (“socially acceptable form” since it is a named,
established nondimensional parameter that is commonly used in
the literature.

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 The Method of Repeating Variables
Step 6
 We should double-check that the Π’s are indeed dimensionless
 We are finally ready to write the functional relationship between
the nondimensional parameters
Relationship between Π’s:

 The method of repeating variables properly predicts the functional

relationship between dimensionless groups.
 However, the method of repeating variables cannot predict the
exact mathematical form of the equation. This is a fundamental
limitation of dimensional analysis and the method of repeating
variables.
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 The Method of Repeating Variables
Table 1

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 The Method of Repeating Variables

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 The Method of Repeating Variables
Table 2

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 Table 3. Some common established nondimensional parameters

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 EXAMPLE 4. Pressure in a Soap Bubble
 Some children are playing with soap
bubbles, and you become curious as to the
relationship between soap bubble radius and
the pressure inside the soap bubble. You
reason that the pressure inside the soap
bubble must be greater than atmospheric
pressure, and that the shell of the soap
bubble is under tension, much like the skin
of a balloon. You also know that the
property surface tension must be important
in this problem. Not knowing any other
physics, you decide to approach the
problem using dimensional analysis. The pressure inside a soap
Establish a relationship between pressure bubble is greater than that
difference surrounding the soap
bubble due to surface tension
in the soap film.
 soap bubble radius R, and the surface
55 tension σs of the soap film.
 EXAMPLE 4. Pressure in a Soap Bubble
 SOLUTION. The pressure difference between the inside of a soap
bubble and the outside air is to be analyzed by the method of
repeating variables.
 Assumptions 1. The soap bubble is neutrally buoyant in the air, and
gravity is not relevant. 2 No other variables or constants are
important in this problem.
 Analysis The step-by-step method of repeating variables is
employed.

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 EXAMPLE 4. Pressure in a Soap Bubble
 Step 2 The primary dimensions of each parameter are listed.

 Step 3 As a first guess, j is set equal to 3, the number of primary

dimensions represented in the problem (m, L, and t).
Reduction (first guess): j=3
 If this value of j is correct, the expected number of Π’s is
k = n - j = 3 - 3 = 0.
But how can we have zero P’s? Something is obviously not right
 At times like this, we need to first go back and make sure that we are
not neglecting some important variable or constant in the problem.
 Since we are confident that the pressure difference should depend only
on soap bubble radius and surface tension, we reduce the value of j by
one,
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 EXAMPLE 4. Pressure in a Soap Bubble

Reduction (second guess): j=2

 If this value of j is correct, k = n - j = 3 - 2 = 1. Thus we expect one
Π, which is more physically realistic than zero Π’s.
 Step 4 We need to choose two repeating parameters since j = 2.
Following the guidelines of Table 1, our only choices are R and σs,
since ∆P is the dependent variable.
 Step 5 We combine these repeating parameters into a product with
the dependent variable ∆P to create the dependent Π,
Dependent Π: ………(1)
 We apply the primary dimensions of step 2 into Eq. 1 and force the
Π to be dimensionless.

58
 EXAMPLE 4. Pressure in a Soap Bubble

 From Table 3, the established nondimensional parameter most

similar to Eq. 2 is the Weber number, defined as a pressure
(ρV2) times a length divided by surface tension. There is no need
to further manipulate this Π.

59
 EXAMPLE 4. Pressure in a Soap Bubble

 Step 6 We write the final functional relationship. In the case at

hand, there is only one Π, which is a function of nothing. This is
possible only if the Π is constant.
 Relationship between Π’s:

 This is an example of how we can sometimes predict trends with

dimensional analysis, even without knowing much of the physics
of the problem. For example, we know from our result that if the
radius of the soap bubble doubles, the pressure difference
decreases by a factor of 2. Similarly, if the value of surface
tension doubles, ∆P increases by a factor of 2.
 Dimensional analysis cannot predict the value of the constant in
Eq. 3; further analysis (or one experiment) reveals that the
constant is equal to 4 (Chap. 1).
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 Example 5
 When small aerosol particles or microorganisms move through
air or water, the Reynolds number is very small (Re << 1). Such
flows are called creeping flows. The aerodynamic drag on an
object in creeping flow is a function only of its speed V, some
characteristic length scale L of the object, and fluid viscosity μ.
Use dimensional analysis to generate a relationship for FD as a
function of the independent variables.

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 Example 6
 Consider fully developed Couette flow—flow between two infinite
parallel plates separated by distance h, with the top plate moving
and the bottom plate stationary as illustrated in the Fig. shown. The
flow is steady, incompressible, and two-dimensional in the xy-plane.
Use the method of repeating variables to generate a dimensionless
relationship for the x component of fluid velocity u as a function of
fluid viscosity μ, top plate speed V, distance h, fluid density ρ, and
distance y.

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