power system operation &

control

Al-Balqa Applied University

Department of Electrical Energy Engineering

Dr Audih 1
 Part 4

Active Power
and
Frequency Control

Dr.Audih 2
Dr.Audih 3
 Active Power and Frequency Control
1- Introduction:
 The frequency of a system is dependent on active power balance
 Frequency is a common factor throughout the system, a change in active
power demand at one point is reflected throughout the system frequency.
 Because there are many generators supplying power into the system, then
there are (some means) must be provided to allocate change in demand to
the generators as
1) speed governor on each generating unit provides primary speed
control function
2) supplementary control originating at a central control (center
allocates generation)
 In an interconnected system, with two or more independently controlled
areas, the generation within each area has to be controlled so as to
maintain scheduled power interchange
 The control of generation and frequency is commonly known as load
frequency control (LFC)
Dr.Audih 4
 REAL POWER FREQUENCY CONTROL

2- TECHNICAL TERMS

Control area: Most power systems normally control their

generators in unison. The individual control loops have the same
regulation parameters. The individual generator turbines tend to
have the same response characteristics then it is possible to let the
control loop in the whole system which then would be referred to as
a control area
area.
Prime Mover: The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine
that drives an electric generator.
Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant: A plant that usually
generates electric energy during peak-load periods by using water
pumped into an elevated storage reservoir. (is not applicable in Jordan)

Regulation: The governmental function of controlling or directing

economic entities through the process of rule making and
adjudication
Dr.Audih 5
Reserve Margin (Operating): The amount of unused available
capability of an electric power system at peak load for a utility
system as a percentage of total capability.
Scheduled Outage: The shutdown of a generating unit,
transmission line, or other facility, for inspection or maintenance, in
accordance with an advance schedule.
ISOCHRONOUS GOVERNOR: a governor that maintains the same
speed in the mechanism controlled regardless of the load.
governor ( speed limiter) is a device used to measure and regulate
the speed of generators
generators..
Speed Governor: It is an error sensing device in load frequency
control. It includes all the elements that are directly responsive to
control
speed and influence other elements of the system to initiate action.
Governor Controlled Valves: They control the input to the turbine
and are actuated by the speed control mechanism
mechanism.
Speed Control Mechanism: all equipment such as levers and
linkages, servomotors, amplifying devices and relays that are placed
between the speed governor and the governor controlled valves.
Speed Changer: It enables the speed governor system to adjust the
speed of the generator unit while in operation
Dr.Audih 6
3- Primary Speed Controls (Isochronous speed governor)

◦ an integral controller resulting in constant speed.

◦ not suitable for multimachine systems (is isolated machine or
non-coherent machine) ; slight differences in speed settings
would cause them to fight or conflict against each other (since is
note connected at same shaft)
◦ can be used only when a generator is supplying an isolated load
or when only one generator in a system is required to respond to
load changes
4- Governor with Speed Droop
◦ speed regulation or droop is provided to assure proper load
sharing
◦ a proportional controller with a gain of 1/R
◦ The speed-load characteristic can be adjusted by changing
governor settings; this is achieved in practice by operating
speed-changer motor

Dr.Audih 7
5- Review of SWING EQUATION :
The differential equation that relates the angular momentum
(M) the acceleration power (Pa) and the rotor angle (δ) is
known as swing equation.

Consider the generator shown in Fig.(a). It receives

mechanical power Pm at the shaft torque Tm and the
angular speed ω via. shaft from the prime-mover. It delivers
electrical power Pe to the power system network.
The generator develops electromechanical torque Te in
opposition to the shaft torque Ts.At steady state,Tm = Te

Dr.Audih 8
 accelerating torque acting on the rotor is given by
Ta = Tm – Te
Multiplying by ω on both sides, we get power acceleration (Pa) :
Pa = Pm – Pe
or

Pa  T a .  J . .  M .
d  d 2
  =  angular acceleration
dt dt 2
d d 2
Pa  M .  M . 2 ,(   angular  displacement of rotor   ( rad .)
dt dt
d 2
 Pa  M . 2 ,  (  it ' s m ore convenient to measure the angular position
dt
of rotor with respect to synchrouously rotation frame
(    t ) of reference t  0  (   ) then ;
d 2 d 2 d 2
  2
 2  Pa  M . 2
dt dt dt

Dr.Audih 9
W here :  A n g u lar d e p lac e m e n t ( rad .)
d
  A n g u lar v e lo c it y ( rad / s e c ) 
dt
2
  A n g u lar ac c e larat io n ( rad / sec 2 )
d d 2
 
dt dt 2
J  M o m e n t o f i n e rt ia ( k g . m 2 )
T = T o rq u e ( N .m ) = J.
M  A n g u lar m o m e n t u m
( k g . m 2 . rad / s e c )  J 
1
K .E  J  2  S . H ( J o u le )
2
H  I n e r ti a   c o n s tan t  
P  p o w e r (w at t )  T 
d
W  w o r k   Pe d    T T 
dt
Dr.Audih 10
 d 2 S .H d 2
Pa  Pm  Pe  M . 2  o
. 2 Known as swing equation
dt 180 .f dt
The swing equation is the differential equation that relates the angular momentum (M) the acceleration power (Pa) and
the rotor angle (δ).

In case damping power (D) is to be included, then equation is modified as

d 2 d d  S .H d
Pa  Pm  Pe  M . 2  D  ( . o  D)
dt dt dt 180 .f dt
As result of swing equation for generator is
d 2
Pa  Pm  Pe  Pm  Pmax .sin   M . 2
dt
d 2
M . 2  Pm  Pmax .sin  swing equation for generator
dt
Pe  Pmax .sin   T max . max .sin   T max .2 f .sin 
Dr.Audih 11
 If load Accelerating Speed Frequency
decreases, torque increases increases

If load Decelerating Speed Frequency

increases torque decreases decreases

nm P 120f
f   nm 
120 P

Pmax Pmax
T max  
max n
2  s 
 60 

Dr.Audih 12
6- SPEED GIVERNING MECHANISM AND MODELLING

Governor The power system is basically dependent upon the

Governor:
synchronous generator and its satisfactory performance.

The important control loops in the system are:

(i) Frequency control ,and
(ii) Automatic voltage control
Frequency control is achieved through generator control
mechanism (governing systems) . The governing systems for
thermal and hydro generating plants are different in nature (since the
inertia of water that flows into the turbine presents additional
constrains which are not present with steam flow in a thermal plant).
However, the basic principle is still the same, the speed of the shaft
is sensed and compared with a reference, and the feedback signal is
utilized to increase or decrease the power generated by controlling
the valve to turbine of steam or water.
Dr.Audih 13
P and Freq. control Q and V control

Basic Generator Control loops

Dr.Audih 14
 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
For successful operation of the system The following basic
requirements are to be meet :
1. The generation must be adequate to for all the load demand.
2.The system frequency must be maintained within narrow limits.
3.The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable
limits and In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power
flows must be maintained at the specified values.
4. When real power balance between generation and demand is
achieved the frequency specification is automatically satisfied.
5. An independent aim of the automatic generation control (AGC) is
to reschedule the generation changes to preselected machines in
the system after the governors have accommodated the load
change in a random manner
manner..

Remembering that under steady state conditions, the total real

power generation in the system equals the total MW demand
plus real power losses. Any difference is immediately indicated
by a change in speed or frequency .
Dr.Audih 15
 Automatic load frequency control (ALFC)

The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the

real power balance in the system. The main functions of the ALFC
are :
1) To maintain the steady frequency;
2) Control the tie-line flows; and
3) Distribute the load among the participating generating units.

The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆P (measured

from the tie- line flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained
by measuring the angle deviation ∆δ).
These error signals ∆f and ∆P tie are amplified, mixed and
transformed to a real power signal, which then controls the
valve position.
Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes
its output power to establish the real power balance. The complete
control schematic as shown in Fig.1
Dr.Audih 16
 Block schematic for Load frequency control

Fig 1 The Schematic representation of ALFC system

Note : For single system the sensor between turbine and generator
(governor) sense ω and control the speed through the steam valve, but in case of
tie line there is anther sensor to mach the freq.

Dr.Audih 17
ALFC required to analyzed, each the model of the blocks in Fig 1.

1- MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF A GENERATOR:

With the use of (pu.) swing equation of a synchronous machine to

small perturbation, we have
H d 2  H d 2
 P a   P m   Pe  .  .
1 8 0 o .f dt 2  dt 2
.f
2
o
  2   3 6 0 an d f  1

Error compiler

(See reference in the next slide)

Fig. of mathematical modelling

block diagram for a generator

1
  (s )  .   Pm ( s )   Pe ( s ) 
2 H (s ) Dr.Audih 18
 Reference

2H d 2 d 2    syn   Pm   P e
.   Pm   Pe or  or
 syn dt 2 dt 2 2H
d 2  syn  Pm  Pe 
cancelling  in both sides then 
dt 2 2H
d d 2 d d 
A nd since  e  then for 2
 .
dt dt dt dt
d  ( P  Pe ) d
 e  syn m  2 H .  e   syn ( Pm  Pe )
dt 2H dt
dividing both sides by  syn w e get ;
d e e
2H  ( Pm  Pe ) ,w here   W e get ;
d t  syn  syn
d 1
 Pm  Pe
dt 2H
Where:-
δ- is the machine “torque” (electrical) angle by which the rotor leads the
synchronously rotating reference.
ωsyn - is the synchronous rotor speed in mechanical rad/sec.

Dr Audih 19
The valve and the hydraulic amplifier represent the speed
governing system using the swing equation,, the generator
can be using the swing equation and can be modeled also as
as::

Block diagram representation of The Generator

Dr.Audih 20
2- MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF LOAD:

The load on a power system consists of variety of electrical drives. The

load speed characteristic of the load is given by:

where
ΔPL is the non-frequency sensitive change in load,
DΔω is the load change that is frequency sensitive.
D is expressed as % change in load divided by % change in frequency
.

From the swing equation slide 9 we have P  M . d   P  P

a m e
dt
Introducing D we obtain

Taking the Laplace transform we get:

Dr.Audih 21
 d d 2  d 2 d  
Pa  M . M. 2  2  
dt dt  d t d t 

Substitution of the above into the stability equation we get

Simplifying, and noting that at equilibrium the Pm0=Pe0, then ;

Because we want to derive block diagrams for our control systems, we will
transform all time-domain expressions into the Laplace (ss) domain.

Dr Audih 22
time--domain expressions into the Laplace (s
time (s) domain is:

Solving for ∆ω(s), we obtain

=
2Hs+D

Block diagram representation of the

generator and load
M  Angular momentum

Dr Audih 23
The relationship between the change in load due to the change in
frequency is given by

where D is expressed as percent change in load divided by percent

change in frequency
frequency.
For example:
If load changed by 1.5% for a 1% change in frequency, then D
would equal 1.5. However, the value of D used in solving for
system dynamic response must be changed if the system base
MVA is different from the nominal value of load.
Suppose the D above is referred to a net connected load of 1200
MVA and the entire dynamics problem were to be set up for a 1000-
MVA system base.
(Note that D = 1.5 tells us that the load would change by 1.5 pu for
1 pu change in frequency.) .That is, the load would change by 1.5 x
1200 MVA (actual) =1800 MVA for a 1 pu change in frequency.
When expressed on a 1000-MVA base, D becomes
1800
or D 1000 MV A base    1.8
1000
Dr.Audih 24
EXAMPLE
An isolated power system with a 600-MVA generating unit having an M of
7.6 pu MW/pu frequency/sec on a machine base. The unit is supplying a
load of 400 MVA. The load changes by 2% for a 1% change in frequency
frequency.

Solution : D
change in the load 2
 2
change in freq . 1

First, we will set up the block diagram of the equivalent generator load
system. Everything will be referenced to a 1000 MVA base
600
M on base of 1000 MVA   7.6   4.56 pu .
1000
400
The change in the load is x 2  0.8
1000
Then the block diagram

Suppose the load suddenly increases by 10 MVA (or 0.01 pu); that is

Dr.Audih 25
 Then

or taking the inverse Laplace transform,

The final value of Δω is - 0.0125 pu, which means is a drop of 0.75 Hz

on a 60-Hz system. or drop of 0.625HZ on 50-HZ system

Dr.Audih 26
3- MATHEMATICAL MODELLING FOR PRIME MOVER:
The prime mover driving a generator unit may be a steam turbine or a hydro
turbine. The models for the prime mover must take account of the steam
supply and boiler control system characteristics the mechanical power
provided to the generator, briefly discussed in next slide(not our inters) we
can denote it as ∆Pm. We will denote the mechanical power control as
∆PV.. (valve position) . The model of turbine relates the changes in mechanical
power output ΔPm and the changes in the steam

mathematical modelling for prime mover

ζ= charging time" time constant where the turbine constant is in the range of
0.2 -2.0s.

1
2Hs  D

Combined prime mover,

mover,generator
generator and load model
Dr.Audih 27
for a single generating unit
a brief discussion about turbine models and indicates that a general
turbine model is as shown in Fig.

 The time constants ζ5, ζ6, and ζ7are associated with time delays of
piping systems for reheaters and cross-over mechanisms ,TT4 represents
the first stage, often called the steam chest
chest.
 The coefficients K1, K3, K5, and K7 represent fractions of total
mechanical power outputs associated with very high, high, intermediate,
and low pressure components, respectively.”

=
Dr Audih 28
transfer functions providing frequency deviation as a function of:
change in steam valve setting and
change in connected load.
The block diagram for this appears as in Figure.

Also we have a mechanism (speed

speed governor)
governor through which secondary
speed control can act .This requires having feedback from ∆ω to ∆PV .
We denote this feedback as Q(s),

Dr Audih 29
4- MATHEMATICAL MODELLING FOR GOVERNOR :
Governor : adjusts the input valve (to change the mechanical power output to
compensate for electrical load changes and to restore frequency to nominal
value) .
When the electrical load is increased suddenly then the electrical power
exceeds the input mechanical power (Pe>Pm). Due to this reason the energy that
is stored in the machine is decreased and the governor sends signal for supplying
more volumes of steam , gas or water, to increase the speed of the prime mover.

Modern governors use combination of electronic, mechanical, and

hydraulic to effect the required valve position changes. The simplest
governor, called the isochronous governor
governor,.
1
 P g   P ref .  f
R
The command ΔPg is transformed through amplifier to the steam valve position
command ΔPV. We assume here a linear relationship and considering simple
time constant we get this s-domain relation

Dr.Audih 30
We will illustrate such a speed-governing mechanism with the
diagram shown in Figure. The speed-measurement device‘s output,
ω, is compared with a reference, ωref, to produce an error signal,
Δω. The error, Δω, is negated and then amplified by a gain KG and
integrated to produce a control signal,ΔPvaive which causes the main
steam supply valve to open (ΔPvaive position) when Δω is negative.
If, for example, the machine is running at reference speed and the
electrical load increases
increases, ω will fall below ωref and Δω will be
negative then the action of the gain and integrator will be to open
the steam valve, and the turbine to increase its mechanical output,
thereby increasing the electrical output of the generator and
increasing the speed ω.

Isochronous governor
Dr.Audih 31
When to exactly equals ωref, the steam valve stays at the new
position (further opened) to allow the turbine generator to meet the
increased electrical load .
Note that the isochronous governor of Figure cannot be used if two
or more generators are electrically connected to the same system
since each generator would have precisely the same speed setting
, each trying to pull the system's speed (or frequency) to its own
setting.

To be able to run two or more generating units in parallel on a

generating system, the governors are provided with a feedback
signal that causes the speed error to go to zero at different
values of generator output
This can be accomplished by adding a feedback loop around the
integrator as shown in next figure .
(Note that we have also inserted a new input, called the load
reference, that we will discuss shortly. The block diagram for this
governor is shown in Figure of slide 40 , where the governor now
has a net gain of l/R and a time constant TG

Dr.Audih 32
 For two or more generating units in parallel Governor with
speed-droop feedback loop added at each machine

Figure shows an input labeled "load reference set point." By changing the
load reference, the generator's governor characteristic can be set to give
reference frequency at any desired unit output.

Dr.Audih 33
Block diagram of governor

Dr.Audih 34
 Block diagram of frequency control in power system

a) Single unit

b) More unit

Block diagram of governor+ Primary mover + generator +load

Dr Audih 35
Speed--droop characteristic (R)
Speed
The result of adding the feedback loop with gain R is a governor
characteristic as shown in Fig. The value of R (speed slope) determines the
slope of the characteristic. Where R determines the change on the unit's
output for a given change in frequency.
Common practice is to set R on each generating unit, so that a change from
0 to 100
100%
% (rated) output will result in the same frequency change for each
unit. Also, a change in electrical load on a system will be compensated by
generator unit output changes proportional to each units rated output

Speed-droop characteristic
Dr.Audih 36
R u  is th e sp eed  reg u latio n  p er u n it w h ich  is d efin e as:
A ctu al ch an g e in f req u en cy
f ( pu ) b ase o f f req u en cy
R u  = 
P( p u ) A ctu al ch an g e in lo ad
b ase o f p o w er
 f 
 f 
f  f1 SR S f f1
R u  =  R   2 .  R . 2 or
  PgR  fR  PgR f R  PgR
 S 
 R 
S R f fR
Ru  . m u ltip ly b o th sid e b y th en
f R  PgR SR
fR f
Ru .  (1)
SR  PgR

37
Where:
f2 =Frequency at no load ,Hz
f1 =Frequency at rated MW output(PgR ),Hz
fR =rated frequency of the unit, Hz
SR =MW base
R=the magnitude of the slop of speed drop (Hz/MW)
If the load is increased by P then the generators 
correspond for this load is Pg=Pgo +Pg and the 
changing in load MW obtain from relation (1) is:

38
 f .S R  n S R (i )  f
PgR    or generally Pg (total) R   . (2)
Ru .f R  i R (i )u  f R

For example if we have two units then for first unit:
 S R 1  f
Pg (1) R   . ,(MW) (3)
 R1u  f R
Note that  the changing in load is distributed between
both units.From relation(2) for two unit we get
f Pg (total ) R
 ,( pu ) (4)
f R  S R1 S R 2 
  
 R1u R 2u 
39
Substituate (3) into (4) we get;
1
 S R1   S R1 S R 2 
Pg (1) R  Pg (total ) R .  .   , MW
 R1u   R1u R 2u 
And
1
 S R 2   S R1 S R 2 
Pg (2) R  Pg (total ) R .  .   , MW
 R 2u   R1u R 2u 

40
Example:
If two units operated in parallel at 60Hz to supply a load
of 700MW, the rated of the units are given in table
below Output Supply Speed drop
rated(MW) load(MW characteristic
Unit 1 600 400 4%
Unit 2 500 300 5%
Total 1100 700

If the load increased to 800MW,determine the new

loading of each unit and common frequency change
before supplementary control (AGC) take action
(neglected losses).
Solution;
The change in load (increased) is 100
100MW
MW then the
change in frequency is

41
 f Pg (total ) R 100
   0.004
f R  S R 1 S R 2   600 500 
    0.04  0.05 
 R1u R 2u 
But since the load is increased the frequency is
decreased then
f
  0.004
fR
And the change in frequency is
f  f R   0.004  60   0.004  59.76Hz
Now for the change of the units load we have for unit (1)
1
 S R1   S R1 S R 2 
Pg (1) R  Pg (total ) R .   .  
R
 1u   1u R R 2u 

42
 1
 600   600 500 
Pg (1) R  100       60MW
 0.04   0.04 0.05 
1
 500   600 500 
Pg (2) R  100       40MW
 0.04   0.04 0.05 
The new load change are
Output rated(MW) Supply load(MW
Unit 1 600 460
Unit 2 500 340
Total 1100 800

The droop of the load frequency

curve is thus mainly determined
by -R as shown in next figure
figure..

1 f
  R
R PgR
43
 AGC
Hz

initial
-R=4%

60 initial
59.76 Δf Δf
new
-R=5%

Unit 1
new

MW
300 340 400 460
Unit 2

Speed drop characteristics

44
The question is can you modify the slop value to be
common for both units

Hz

initial

60 initial
59.76 Δf Δf
-R=4%

-R=5%

MW
300 340 400 460

Dr Audih 45
 Then if two generators with drooping governor characteristics are
connected to a power system, there will always be a unique frequency
frequency, at
which they will share a load change between them.
This is illustrated in Figure , showing two units with drooping characteristics
connected to a common load as shown in example before

ΔP1

Allocation of unit outputs with governor droop

Figure shown, the governors increase output until the units seek a new,
common operating frequency, f'f'. The amount of load pickup on each unit is
proportional to the slope of its droop characteristic.
Unit 1 increases its output from Pl to P1’ and unit 2 increases its output
from P2 to P’2 such that the net generation increase.

PL  (P1'   Pl )   (P2'  P2 )

Dr.Audih 46
Parallel operation of two units with different capacity and regulation

The case when two units of different frequency and regulation

characteristics are operated in parallel is as shown below. The regulation
characteristics are
f ( pu )
f ( pu )
 P1 ( p u )   f ( pu )
  P1 ( p u ) . R 1 an d  P2 ( pu )  th en ;
R1 R2
R1  P2 ( pu ) R
 P 2 ( p u )   P1 ( p u ) . d iv id ed b o th s i d e b y  P1 ( p u )   1 or
R2  P1 ( p u ) R2
 P1 ( p u ) R2
 ( in p u ) o r 
 P2 ( pu ) R1
 P1 ( actu al )  P1 (p u ) P1 ( rated ) R2
 . 
 P 2 ( ac tu al )  P 2 ( p u ) P 2 ( rated ) R1

Initial Loads - P1 and P2, change in load

f P f .P( rated )
P( pu )   (actual )  P( actual ) 
R P( reated ) R

 f .P1( rated )  f .P2 ( rated )

 L   P1( actual )   P2 ( actual )  
R1 R2
Dr Audih 47
Equivalent System Regulation
 P 1 ( ra t e d ) P 2 ( ra t e d )  L  P 1 ( rat e d ) P 2 ( rat e d ) 
L  f   or    or
 R 1 R 2   f  R 1 R 2 
1
f  P P  f
  1 ( rat e d )  2 ( ra te d )    R ( n e g le c t in g lo s s e s )
L  R1 R2   Pg

Example :
Two parallel operating generators, 60Hz. Unit1 = 337 MW with 0.03 pu droop,
Unit 2=420MW with 0.05 pu droop.
Find each unit’s share for 0.1pu increase in load and new frequency ?

Dr Audih 48
Both generators must share an increase load of 0.1pu that means the actual
increasing value are :
gen (1)  0.1 337  33.7 MW and
gen (2)  0.1 420  42MW as a result of both is  76.7 M W
And the  change  in  frequency  is

f

Pg (total ) R

P1( rated )
 P2( rated ) 

1
  337  420   0.03855 pu
fR  S R1 S R 2  P1( rated ) P2( rated ) 337 420
    
 1u R 2u
R  R1 R2 0.03 0.05

New  system  frequency  due  to  increase  in  load

f
L  P   f  R system .L  0.03855  0.1  0.003855 pu
R
A nd since the load is increse then the frequancy is decrease by  0.003855
thuse 60( reted )   60(base )  0.00386( pu )   60  0.2316  59.769Hz (actual )
f 0.00386
P1  .P1reated   337  43.47 MW and
R1 0.03
f 0.00386
P2  .P2 reated   420  32.4MW
R2 0.05
The total increase in the load is  43.47  32.4  75.87 MW
Dr Audih 49
Note that a steady-state change
in ΔPvalve of 1.0 pu requires a
value of R pu change in
frequency, Δω. (unit regulation
referred to in percent). For
instance, a 3% regulation for a
unit would indicate that 3%
change in frequency (for 60HZ).

Speed-changer settings

Therefore, R is equal to pu change in frequency divided by pu change in

unit output
output.. That is percentage speed regulation droop
percent speed or frequency change
Percent R  x 100
percent power output change
   FL 
  NL  x 100
 0 

where
ωNL = steady-state speed at no load
ωFL = steady-state speed at full load
ω0 = nominal or rated speed
Dr.Audih 50
For example, a 5% droop or regulation means that a 5% frequency deviation causes 100%
change in valve position or power output for (for 50HZ)

Note that the transfer function relating the load change, ΔPL, to the
frequency change Δω, is
Dr.Audih 51
 The steady-state value of Δω(s) may be found by

Note that if D were zero, the change in speed would simply be as shown
before

Dr.Audih 52
Example

Dr Audih 53
(0.04)

Dr Audih 54
Dr Audih 55
Dr Audih 56
TIE-LINE MODEL(AGC)
Suppose now that we have an interconnected power system broken into
two areas each having one generator
generator.. The areas are connected by a single
transmission line.

The power flow over the transmission line will appear as a positive load to
one area and an equal but negative load to the other
other, or vice versa,
depending on the direction of flow.
The direction of flow will be dictated by the relative phase angle between
the areas, which is determined by the relative speed deviations in the areas
A block diagram representing this interconnection can be drawn as in

Figure (next slide) .

Dr.Audih 57
 Block diagram of interconnected areas.
Note that the tie power flow was defined as going from area 1 to area 2; therefore, the flow
appears as a load to area 1 and a power source (negative load) to area 2. If one assumes that
mechanical powers are constant, the rotating masses and tie line exhibit damped oscillatory
characteristics known as synchronizing oscillations.
Dr.Audih 58
1.If
If frequency decreased and net
interchange power leaving the system is
increased a load increase has
occurred outside the system
system..

2.If frequency decreased and net interchange power leaving the

system is decreased a load increase has occurred inside the
system

In the following table we note the increase with (+) and decrease with (-) and shown
their results

Dr.Audih 59
It is quite important to analyze the steady-state frequency deviation, tie-
flow deviation, and generator outputs for an interconnected area after a
load change occurs
occurs..

Let there be a load change ΔPLl in area 1. In the steady state, after all
synchronizing oscillations have damped out, the frequency will be constant
and equal to the same value on both areas. Then
     1    2 and the change in respect w ith tim e m ust be z ero , then
 (   )  (  1 )  (   2 )
   0 and
t t t
 Pm achine 1   Ptie line   PL 1    D 1
 Pm achine 2   Ptie line    D 2 also
  
 Pm achine 1  and  Pm achine 2 
R1 R2
 
  subst itute w e get f or f i rst equatio n   Ptie line   PL 1    D 1 or
R1
  1 
     Ptie line   PL 1    D1     D1 
R1  R1 
 1 
sam e f or the second equation    Ptie line      D2 
 R2 
f rom both equations w e get the changing in  
Dr.Audih 60
  1   1 
   D 2   PL 1     D1  or
 R2   R1 
 1   1   1   1 
PL 1     D1      D 2      D1     D2 
 R1   R2   R 1   R2 
PL 1
then  
 1 1 
   D 2  D 1 1 
 R1 R 2  PL 1   D2 
 R1 
from which we can derive the change in tie flow Ptie 
1 1 
   D2  D1 
 R1 R 2 
EXAMPLE
You are given two system areas connected by a tie line with the following
characteristics.

If a load change of 100 MW or (0.2 pu) occurs in area 1.(on base of 500)
Dr.Audih 61
What is the new steady-state frequency and what is the change in tie
flow? Assume both areas were at nominal frequency (60 Hz) to begin.
Solution:

The change in prime-mover power would be

Dr.Audih 62
The total changes in generation is(100- 98.814) MW, which is 1.186 MW
short of the 100 MW load change. The change in total area load due to
frequency drop would be

Where D1=8 , D2=1 and Δω=-0.00131752 pu and the power base is

500MW then;
Actual area 1=-0.0010540x500=-0.527MW
And area 2 =-0.00131752x500=-0.6588MW

Therefore, the total load change is ΔPL= 100-98.814=1.186 MW, which

accounts for the difference in total generation change and total load
change.

Dr.Audih 63
Dr.Audih 64
Appendix

Dr.Audih 65
 Usefully Formula
o o
2 P 
1o mechanical    electrical 1 oelectical    mechancal
p 2
P  No. of poles P
One revolution   360o elect.deg.
2
(mechanical )  2 n' (mech.rad / sec) o
' o 2 o
n  speed in revolution / sec.(rps ) or 1 electical     360 (revolution )
P 
2.n
 2
o
1
60 1 oelec . / sec     o
(rev / sec)
n  speed in revolution / min.(rpm)  P  360
o
(electrical)  Angular frequancy  2   1 1
1 o elec . / min      o 
(electrical)  2f (elect .rad / sec)  P   360 60 
o
o
(electrical)  360 f (elect .deg / sec )  2  60
  
 P  360

Dr.Audih 66
Rotation Mechanics-vs-Linear Mechanics
Rotational mechanical is very important in stability studies. The following
table show us comparison between the linear and rotational mechanical
formula.
Rotational mechanics L in e ar m e c h an ic s

  A ngular deplacement ( rad .) S = D e p alc e m e n t(d is tan c e )(m )

d ds
  A ngular velocity ( rad / sec)  V  V e lo c ity ( m / s e c ) 
dt dt
  A ngular accelaration (rad 2 / sec 2 ) a  ac c e laratio n ( m / s e c )
d  d 2 dv d 2
  2 mv  
dt dt dt dt
J  Moment of inertia (kg .m 2 ) m  M as s ( k g )
T = Torque (N.m) = J. F  Fo rc e  m .a ( N )
M  A ngular momentum
M  M o m e n tu m ( k g . m / s e c ) = m .v
2
( kg .m .rad / sec)  J 
1
1 K . E .  . m .v 2 ( Jo u le )
K .E  J  2 (Joule) 2
2 d
P  power (watt )  T  P = ( F .s )  F .v ( N . m / s )
dt
d
W  work   Pe d   T T  W o rk = F.s
dt

Dr.Audih 67
List of Symbols
: Stator voltage in d-axis and q-axis circuit

: Terminal voltage

: Transient EMF in the quadratic axis of the generator

: Stator–rotor mutual reactance
: Field voltage
: Field resistance
: Self reactance of field winding
: Exciter input
: Rotor angle
: Mechanical power
: Water power
: Inertia constant
: Rotor speed of the generator
: Angular frequency of the infinite bus bar
: Mechanical damping torque coefficient
: Damping torque coefficient due to damper windings
: Real power output at the generator terminals
: Exciter time constant
: Governor valve time constant
: Turbine time constant
: Governor input
: Governor valve position
: Valve constant
: Total d-axis synchronous reactance between the generator and the infinite busbar
: Total q-axis synchronous reactance between the generator and the infinite busbar
: Total d-axis transient reactance including the generator and the infinite busbar

: d-axis transient open-circuit time constant

: Reactance of the transformer
: Reactance of the transmission line
Dr Audih 68
: Reactance of the system
Ta 1

Dr.Audih 69