MEASUREMENT LABORATORY LAB MANUAL

EXPERIMENT No. 01
TITLE
Fundamentals of measurements and Calibration process by using Dead weight Tester / Strain
Gauges / Pressure Gauge.

APPARATUS
 Load cell
 Weights – 50g, 100g, 150g, 200g,250g etc.

INTRODUCTION
In science and engineering, objects of interest have to be characterized by
measurement and testing. Measurement is the process of experimentally obtaining quantity
values that can reasonably be attributed to a property of a body or substance. Metrology is the
science of measurement. Metrology is also a fine avenue for discussing accuracy, error, and
calibration. Testing is the technical procedure consisting of the determination of
characteristics of a given object or process, in accordance with a specified method. In
metrology (the science of measurement), a standard is an object, system, or experiment that
bears a defined relationship to a unit of measurement of a physical quantity.
Metrology is mainly concerned with the following aspects
 Unit of measurement and their standards.
 Errors of measurement.
 Changing the units in the form of standards.
 Ensuring the uniformity of measurements.
 New methods of measurement are developing.
 Analyzing these new methods and their accuracy.
 Establishing uncertainty of measurement.
 Gauges designing, manufacturing and testing.
 Researching the causes of measuring errors.
 Industrial Inspection.

LOAD CELL

A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude
is directly proportional to the force being measured. The various types of load cells include
hydraulic load cells, pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells. A load cell is typically a
stiff and precise spring that outputs a relatively large electrical signal directly proportional to
the force on the device. Applying a force to this spring produces strain that causes small
deformations in the load-cell material.
These deformations directly transfer to strain gauges strategically bonded to the load
cell. In turn, the dimensional change of the bonded strain gauges produces a resistance change
in each individual gauge. The cells are typically arranged in a Wheatstone bridge
configuration to produce an electrical output whose polarity depends on whether the load cell
is loaded in compression or tension.
Applications:
Load cells are designed to sense force or weight under a wide range of adverse
conditions; they are the most essential part of an electronic weighing system. Load cells are
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used in several types of measuring instruments such as universal testing machines to

accurately measure force in tension/compression.
Weighing systems both static and dynamic applications, in road and railway
weighbridges, in electrical overhead travelling cranes, roll force measurement in steel plants
/rolling mills, Weight bridges in conveyors& bunkers.

Fig: Wheatstone bridge

PROCEDURE
 The given load cell is fixed to a hook suspended from the frame and lead wire is
connected to the load cell indicator.
 At one end of the load cell the load carrying pan is fixed.
 A load indicator is first set to read zero after the pan is fixed by turning the zero setting
knob.
 A known weight is placed on the pan and indicator reading is noted.
 Repeat the experiment by placing different weights on the pan.
 Readings are tabulated and the calibration curve is plotted (A graph of actual weight v/s
indicated weight is plotted).

OBSERVATION TABLE
Following observations have been made for the Strain gauge experiment.

Sr. Weight placed on the Load indicator reading (indicated reading)

No. span (Kgs) (Kgs)

1.

2.
3.

4.

5.

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RESULT
The given load cell is calibrated using standard weight and the values are tabulated. The load
cell is calibrated in the range 1 to 5 kgs.

CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT No. 02
TITLE
Linear and angular Measurement: Demonstration and calculations using Vernier Caliper,
Screw gauge, dial gauge, height gauge, bevel protector etc. and plotting cause and effect
diagram for their errors in measurement with the help of excel sheet.

APPARATUS
 Vernier Calipers
 Simple Vernier Caliper
 Dial Gauge Vernier Caliper
 Digital Vernier Caliper
 Vernier Height Gauge
 Bevel Protractor
 Micrometer (0-25mm and 25-50mm range)
 Screw Pitch Gauge

Vernier Caliper
Vernier Calipers are the precise instruments that give accuracy of 10 microns. The
main scale carries the fine graduations of the measuring jaws. Vernier head has the vernier
scale engraved on it. The vernier head can be locked to the main scale by the screw attached
to the head.

Reading method for Vernier Caliper

The number of divisions is the first read off and then vernier scale is examined to find
which of the division coincides with the main scale.
The total reading on vernier Caliper is given by,

Total Reading = (Main Scale Reading) + (No. of Vernier Division Coinciding with Main
Scale)*(Least Count)

Fig. Vernier Caliper Scale

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Vernier Height Gauge

It works on the principle of vernier Caliper. It is used for accurate measurements and
marking of vertical heights above a surface plate datum.
It can also be used to find difference in heights by taking the Vernier scale reading at
each height and calculate the difference.

Fig. Vernier Height Gauge

It consists of an integral base with lapped surface with graduated main scale and the
slider with two vernier scales.
Dial indicators can be attached to the brackets for checking purpose.
Surface plate is used as a datum during calculations.

Bevel Protractor
A (Universal) Bevel Protractor is used to measure angles of objects. Unlike a regular
protractor, a bevel protractor is adjusted to fit the angle. The base is placed on the bottom side
of the angle, whilst the blade is moved to match the opposing side.
In addition to a degree scale, a vernier scale is their underneath the degree scale. The
least count (LC) of this instrument is 5 minutes (5’).

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Fig. (Universal) Bevel Protractor

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MICROMETER
Principle- Micrometer screw gauge works on the principle of nut and bolt assembly. It
consists of an accurate screw which consists about 10 or 20 threads per centimeter. The
revolution is fixed with nut. The rotation of thread is measured which is pre calibrated.

Fig. Micrometer Screw Gauge

Simple Micrometer
It consists of a screw with fixed pitch and nut arrangement. The end of the screw acts
as a spindle anvil in the base of the frame spindle connected to the spindle. The barrel has
engraved lines of main scale which is true scale. Thimble has circular scale with number of
divisions engraved on it. A lock nut is provided for locking a dimension.

Screw Pitch Gauge

A thread gauge, also known as a screw gauge or pitch gauge, is used to measure the
pitch or lead of a screw thread. Thread pitch gauges are used as a reference tool in
determining the pitch of a thread that is on a screw or in a tapped hole.

Fig. Screw Pitch Gauge

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OBSERVATION TABLE
Observation table for measurements using Linear Measuring Instruments:

Sr. Instrument Name L.C. Main Scale Vernier Scale Total Reading
No. Reading Reading
1 Simple Vernier Caliper
2 Dial Gauge V. Caliper
3 Digital Vernier Caliper Displayed Reading =
4 Micrometer 1
5 Micrometer 2
6 Vernier Height Gauge

Observation table for measurements using Angular Measuring Instruments:

Sr. Instrument Name Range of the Least Main Scale Vernier Scale Sample No. and
No. Instrument Count Reading Reading Dimension

1 Bevel Protractor

CALCULATIONS
Formula for calculations:
Total Reading = (Main Scale Reading) + [(No. of Vernier Division Coinciding with Main
Scale) * (Least Count)]
A.1.

A.2.

A.3.

A.4.

A.5.

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A.6.

CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT No. 03
TITLE
Limit Gauges: Concepts, uses and applications of Go – No Go Gauges and Taylor’s principle.

APPARATUS
 Plain plug gauge, Plain ring gauge
 Taper plug gauge, Taper ring gauge
 Thread plug gauge, Thread ring gauge

GO - NOGO Gauges
Introduction
The American National Standards Institute defines a gauge as "a device for
determining whether or not one or more dimensions of a manufactured part are within
specified limits." A plug gauge is a cylinder designed to check the component tolerance of a
hole in a product. The plug gauge has been found to be highly accurate, economical and
convenient for small hole inspection where a determination is made of compliance with
designed limits.
GO and NOGO gaging with plug gauges provides a complete check of the dimensions
of a hole. If GO-NOGO gaging is used, there is no need to measure the size of a hole to be
certain that it is within the design limits. The proper use of plug gauges therefore eliminates
the need for complex and expensive measuring equipment.
Fig. Plain Plug Gauge and Plain Ring Gauge

Fig. Plain Plug Gauge and Plain Ring Gauge

If a GO gauge is used to verify the lower limit and a NOGO gauge to verify the upper
limit of a hole, inspection is precise, clean cut and extremely simple. Inspection with plug
gauges requires no training or experience in the interpretation of numerical readouts or results
which are necessary if measuring instruments are used. By using plug gauges an "inspector"
has only to determine whether a gauge is entering or not entering a hole.
With plug gauges, accuracies are possible in the order of .0000005" under proper
conditions of hole and gauge quality, cleanliness, and temperature control, similar to
conditions normally required for any precise inspection. In addition to eliminating any
complicated measuring instruments, no set-up time is required in using plug gauges; thus a
plug gauge can be brought into use more quickly and economically with no loss of accuracy.

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Fig. Thread Plug Gauge and Thread Ring Gauge

Finally a plug gauge, having a fixed dimension, requires no set-up, cannot get out of
calibration nor is it affected by cumulative error. Plug gauges should be used in a GO-NOGO
combination. The purpose of the GO gauge is to determine whether the hole has met the low
limit of the specifications. If a hole is to small the GO gauge will not enter. The larger NOGO
gauge checks the upper limit of the hole. If the hole is too large the NOGO gauge will enter.
When the GO gauge enters and the NOGO gauge is unable to enter the design specifications
of the hole have been met.

Advantages
 Simple and accurate.
 Convenient and economical.
 No need to measure feature size to ensure parts are within limits.
 Easy to operate

Disadvantages
 Verify parts for fitment only. Their dimensions are not measured.
 Cannot monitor gradual deviation in the manufacturing process.
 Recommended to be used only on production parts.

Applications
Go - No Go gauges are manual mechanical measuring tools used in production lines
to guarantee the machining has taken place and it has been performed correctly. Ago/no-go
gauge is an integral part of the quality process that is used in the manufacturing industry to
ensure interchangeability of parts between processes or even between different
manufacturers.

TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLE
Taylor’s principle states that Go-No Go gauges are designed to measure the maximum
material condition and minimum material condition. The GO gauge should check all related
dimensions. Simultaneously the NOGO gauge should check only one dimension at a time.
Maximum metal condition
It refers to the condition of hole or shaft when maximum material is left on i.e. high limit of
shaft and low limit of hole.
Minimum metal condition
If refers to the condition of hole or shaft when minimum material is left on such as low limit
of shaft and high limit of hole.

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OBSERVATION TABLE AND RESULT

Sr. No. Specimen Name GO- NOGO Gauge Observation Part Accepted / Rejected

1.

2.

3.

CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT No. 04
TITLE
Surface roughness measurement of a given sample using surface tester.

AIM
To study surface measurement using surface roughness tester.

APPARATUS
Surface Roughness Tester, sample surfaces, etc.

THEORY
Types of surface irregularities-
 First order
 Second order
 Third order*
 Fourth order

Surface Texture
Roughness
It consists of the fine irregularities in the surface texture, generally caused by the
manufacturing process. It includes irregularities of third/fourth order.

Waviness
It is a wide space of the surface texture which is wider than the roughness width cut
off.

Direct roughness measuring instrument

 Electrical stylus profilometer
 Piezo - electric type roughness meter
 Tomlinson’s surface tester
 Optical roughness measuring instrument
 Numerical specification of surface roughness

Peak-valley height method

Roughness is defined as the maximum peak to valley distance in the sample length.

Fig. Peak – Valley Height Method

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Centre line average method

Fig. Centre Line Average Method

Determination of mean line

Fig. Mean Line Method

Root Mean Square Method
Y={ [ ∑ (Yi)2 ] / n }-2
RMS values are used extensively all over the world. It may be pointed out that for the
same surface texture and sample RMS value is about 11% higher than others.

Roughness Symbol Table

Sr. No. Ra (µm) Roughness Grade No. Roughness Symbol

1. 50 N12
2. 25 N11
˅
3. 12.5 N10
4. 6.3 N09
5. 3.2 N08
˅˅
6. 1.6 N07
7. 0.8 N06
8. 0.4 N05
˅˅˅
9. 0.2 N04

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10. 0.1 N03

11. 0.05 N02 ˅˅˅˅

12. 0.025 N01

For Machine Surfaces

Sr. No. Machine Value (µm)

1. Turning 0.8, 2.5
2. Milling 0.8, 2.5, 8, 10
3. Boring 0.8, 2.5, 8, 10
4. Shaping 0.25, 0.8, 2.5
5. Grinding 0.25, 0.8, 2.5
6. Reaming 0.8, 0.25
7. Broaching 0.8
8. Honing and Lapping 0.25, 0.8

For Non-Machined Surfaces

Molding, Extrusion, Brushing = 0.8, 2.5 (µm)

CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT No. 05
TITLE
Determination of geometry and dimensions of a given composite object by using
Optical Projector / Tool Makers’ Microscope and differentiate between its usefulness in real
life.

AIM
To study the construction, working, geometry and dimensions of given composite
objects using profile projector and tool maker’s microscope.

APPARATUS
 Profile projector apparatus.
 Tool maker’s microscope.
 Spur gear (with known dimensions)

PROFILE PROJECTOR
Types of Profile Projectors-
 Co-axial profile projector
 Bench top profile projector
 Vertical profile projector
 Horizontal profile projector
 Shadowgraph profile projector

A profile projector is an optical measurement tool that magnifies a sample’s surface

features to allow measurement on a linear/circular scale. A profile projector is also referred to
as an optical comparator or known as a shadowgraph. A profile projector projects a magnified
profile image of an area or feature of a workpiece onto a screen, most commonly using
diastolic illumination. Dimensions can be measured directly on the screen or compared to a
standard reference at the corrected magnification for accuracy.

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Fig. Profile Projector

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It is important that the magnification does not change with perspective, i.e. its position or
the viewpoint of the operator. Telemetric lances are highly desirable. The screen often has a
grid and can often be rotated through 3600 to align with the edge as displayed on the screen
point position.
Measurements and calculations can also be performed using a simple digital readout
device and a comparator may be added to a profile projector system for detected elimination
of human errors.

APPLICATIONS
Profile projectors are robust measuring tools commonly used in machine shops and
quality assurance departments and occasionally on the assembly shop floor. They are suitable
for measuring and quality control for a wide range of size and weights of any object.
The most basic use of a profile projector is to identify a point or edge on the shadow
and from this point to calculate different dimensions by magnifying the image. The operator
is less likely to make a mistake when deciding where the edge or point starts.
Profile images can also be used to make simple stop or go decisions by matching an
image against a standard to determine whether a part has been made correctly.

PREPARING WORK
There are three basic requirements for perfect working of profile projector-
1. A clean optical system.
2. Accurately centred lighting.
3. Careful focussing of the image.
All optical parts must be perfectly clean, or the projector image will appear dull or unshaped.

Fig. Tool Maker’s Microscope

CENTERING THE LIGHTING

The Filament of Lamp must be in the optical axis i.e. must be seated into the focus of
the main condenser. The centering has to be done whenever the lamp is changed.

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CENTERING DIASCOPE LAMP

 Draw the diagonals accurately with a pencil on a transparent paper.
 Remove the objective and condenser lens.
 Switch the regulator to half brilliance.
 Slacken clam screw to enable the lamp socket to be moved in direction a-a.
 Move the lamp socket in direction a-a or b-b or c-c, until the image of the filament is
sharp and central on the screen.
 Tighten the clamp screw and grush screw.
 Mount objective and condenser lens at its position.

FILTERS
Filters can be fitted in the condenser mount by screwing the filter mounts.

SURFACE ILLUMINATION
With episcopic projection, the light reflected from the object is thrown on the screen.

CENTERING EPISCOPIC LAMP

 Insert the 10x objective lens mount.
 Place a workpiece of white transparent paper on the objective glass plate.
 Mount the required lens 10x, 20x, 25x.
 Bring the proper height of the light beam.
 Check the magnification with the transparent master scale, lay this scale on the
objective glass table and measure its image by means of work scale.

OBSERVATION & RESULT TABLE

Least count of Micrometer = Least count of Angle Measurer =

Sr. No. Parameter Initial Reading Final Reading Dimension

1. Top width of tooth
2. Bottom width of tooth
3. Depth of gear tooth
4. Angle of gear tooth

USEFULNESS
Comment on usefulness in real life of Optical Projector and Tool Makers’ Microscope:

CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT No. 06
TITLE
Verification of dimensions and geometry of given components using Mechanical /
Pneumatic comparator in context of manufacturing.

APPARATUS
 Mechanical Comparator
 Pneumatic Comparator
 Dial Indicator

MECHANICAL COMPARATOR
It is mechanical, meaning magnification of the movement of a contact plunger. This
comparator usually moves robustly, compactly, easier to handle and cheaper in comparison to
other comparators. They are very suitable for ordinary workshop conditions and being
portable.
Usually these comparators have a linear scale. It employs the sector on a dial gauge,
mounted on the measuring head, which can be adjusted up and down on a cylindrical column.
The contact plunger of the comparator is spring loaded and moves in vertical directions only.
Magnification up to 1000x is provided in the comparator. The scale is provided with the
adjustable red pointer which can be set to the upper and lower limits of the job with the help
of gauge blow combinations.
The actual checking with the comparator then consists of putting the job on the work
pieces anvil and looking if the scale pointer is moving within the red marks. The linear
movement of the plunger at a produced angular movement is large.
They are self-content in that they do not need for their any independent source of
energy supply or light for their operation.

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Fig. Dial Gauge Indicator

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PNEUMATIC COMPARATOR
Pneumatic air gauging uses the variations of flow or pressure in a pneumatic cut
caused by restrictions of flow from the orifice to measure the change in dimensions. Dry
compressed air at a regulated pressure is made to escape through the space between the
orifice in the gauge head and the surface of the gauged work piece.
Any variation caused in the flow or back pressure due to change in the height of the
workpiece is measured to indicate the variation in workpiece size.

Fig. Pneumatic Comparator

Advantages
 There is practically no wear on the gauging member.
 Very small number of moving parts.
 Measuring pressure is very small.
 Very high magnification is possible.
 Very suitable for measuring dimensions of long and small holes.

Disadvantages
 Requires elaborate auxiliary equipment like a pressure regulator.
 The space is generally not uniform.
 Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.

OBSERVATION
Following observations have been made for the Mechanical Comparator experiment.
i) Standard specimen dimension:
ii) Tolerance provided (in mm):
iii) Tolerance set in Dial Plunger (in number of divisions):

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CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT No. 07
TITLE
Experimentation by using Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper.

AIM
To study the use of gear tooth vernier Caliper and measure different parameters like
pitch, module, etc. using this instrument.

APPARATUS
 Spur Gear
 Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper

Fig.:- Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper

THEORY
The thickness of the gear tooth is the measurement of the pitch line. The instrument
commonly used for the purpose is a gear tooth vernier Caliper. Two verniers are provided in
this instrument, one for setting the jaws at proper depth (d) from the top of the tooth and the
other for measuring the width (w).
For measuring the chordal thickness the tongue of the gear tooth vernier is to set to
avertical distance such that when the tongue rests on the top of the tooth, the horizontal jaws
are at the correct position for required measurement which can be read on the scale.
FORMULAE-
1. W = N m sin(90/N)
2. D=½ N M [ 1 + (2/N) – cos(90/N) ]
where,
W = width of the gear tooth at pitch circle
D = depth of the gear tooth at pitch circle
N = number of teeth on the gear
m = module of the gear

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OBSERVATIONS
Number of teeth on the gear N=
Module of the gear m=

OBSERVATION TABLE
Case I: width of the gear (W) is calculated theoretically and depth of the gear (D) is measured
practically.

Number of teeth Module Theoretical width Practical depth

Gear Type
(N) (m) (Wth) (Dprac)

Case II: width of the gear (W) is calculated practically and depth of the gear (D) is measured
theoretically.

Number of teeth Module Theoretical width Practical depth

Gear Type
(N) (m) (Wth) (Dprac)

CONCLUSION

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EXPERIMENT NO. 08
TITLE
Numerical analysis relevant to metrology using python software

INTRODUCTION

In the era of big data and AI, data science and ML have become essential in many
fields of science and technology. A necessary aspect of working with data is the ability to
describe summarizes and represents data visually. Python statistics libraries are
comprehensive, popular and widely used tools that will assist you in working with data.
Descriptive statistics:

It is about describing and summarizing data. It uses two main approaches.

1. Quantitative approach- Describing and summarizing data numerically.
2. Visual approach- Data in the form of charts, plots, histograms and other graphs.

Types of measures:
1. Central Tendency- It tells you about the centers of the data. Useful measures include
the mean, median, mode.
2. Variability- It tells you about the spread of the data. Useful measures include variance
and standard deviation.
3. Correlation or joint variability- Correlation tells you about the relation between a pair
of variable in a dataset. Useful measures include covariance and the correlation
coefficient.

Statistical Libraries:
1. Pandas- Pandas stand for Python Data Analysis Library. A panda is an open-source
Python package that provides high-performance, easy-to-use data structures and data
analysis tools for the labeled data in Python programming language. Pandas take data in
a CSV or TSV file or a SQL database and create a Python object with rows and columns
called a data frame.
2. NumPy- NumPy is an efficient container of generic multi-dimensional data. One of the
most fundamental packages in Python, NumPy is a general-purpose array- processing
package. It provides high-performance multidimensional array objects and tools to work
with the arrays. In NumPy, dimensions are called axes and the number of axes is called
rank. NumPy’s array class is called ndarray aka array.
3. SciPy- The SciPy library is one of the core packages that make up the SciPy stack. SciPy
builds on the NumPy array object and is part of the stack which includes tools like
Matplotlib, Pandas, and SymPy with additional tools,
4. Matplotlib- Matplotlib is the plotting library for Python that provides an object- oriented
API for embedding plots into applications. It is a close resemblance to MATLAB
embedded in Python programming langauge.
5. Seaborn- It is defined as the data visualization library based on Matplotlib that provides
a high-level interface for drawing attractive and informative statistical graphics.

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Dataset table

Sr. No Name Salary Country

1 A 40000 USA
2 B 32000 Brazil
3 C 45000 Italy
4 D 54000 USA
5 E 72000 USA
6 F 62000 Brazil
7 G 52000 Italy
8 H 55000 USA
9 I 54000 Italy
10 J 48000 Brazil

1. Arithmetic Mean- It is the average or arithmetic mean of all the values of a sample
and is obtained by dividing the sum of all the values in a set of reading in the set.
∑𝑋
𝑋̅ 𝑁
2. Median- When a set of readings are arranged in the order of their magnitude, the
median is the central value.
For example- In the set 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 the median is 7.
If there are even numbers of values, the median is the average of two middle values.
3. Mode The most frequently occurring value is termed as mode.
For example- Knuckle joint, the diameters are 3.4, 3.6, 3.5, 3.5, 3.6, 3.4, and 3.5 so
3.5 occur three times i.e. maximum number of times therefore 3.5 is the mode.
4. Range- R =Xh – Xl
Xh - highest reading Xl - lowest reading
5. Standard Deviation- It can be defined as the square root of the average of the squared
deviation from the mean value of set.
It is used in control chart and in process capability study, when the data has extremely
high or low value the standard deviation is more desirable than the range.

where X ,X.....X are the values of individual readings in the set

̄ x is the mean value of all the reading in the set.
N is the number of readings in the set

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CONCLUSION:

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