Unit – IV - Complex Variables

• Function of complex variables • Laurent’s Series

• Analytic Functions • Residues
• Cauchy Riemann Equations • Cauchy Residue Theorem
• Finding Harmonic Conjugates • Evaluation of definite integral involving
• Conformal Mapping sine and cosine

• Bilinear Transformation • Evaluation of certain improper integrals

using the Bromwich contour.
• Contour Integrals
• Cauchy’s Theorem
• Cauchy Integral Formula
• Zeros of Analytic Functions
• Singularities
 Function of complex variables
• General form of Complex Variable: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , where x, y are real variables, then z is
called a complex variable.
• Real and Imaginary Parts: The variables x and y are called the real and imaginary part of z
respectively. i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑅 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 𝐼(𝑧).
• Polar Form : 𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
• Exponential Form: 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
• Modulus : z = r = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 is called modulus of complex variable.
• Argument : arg(z) = amp (z) = θ = tan;1 (𝑦/𝑥) is called argument or amplitude of a
complex variable.
• Argand Diagram : Geometrical representation of complex number is called Argand
Diagram.
• Equation of Circles : z = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 is a circle in xoy plane with centre (0, 0)
and radius equal to 𝑎 .
• If 𝑧0 = 𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0, then z − 𝑧0 = 𝑎 ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0)2 = 𝑎2 represents a circle
with centre (𝑥0, 𝑦0) and radius equal to ‘a’.
• z − 𝑧0 ≤ 𝑎 represents the interior part of the circle, including points on the arc of the
circle.
• z − 𝑧0 > 𝑎 represents the exterior region of the circle.
• 𝐼(𝑧) ≥ 0 represents the entire region above x-axis, including points on the x-axis.
• 𝐼 𝑧 < 0 represents the region below x-axis.
• 𝑅 𝑧 > 0 represents the region to the right side of y-axis.
• 𝑅 𝑧 ≤ 0 represents the region to the left of y-axis including points on the y-axis.
Function of Complex Variable: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and w = 𝑢 + 𝑖v
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖v = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 ∵ 𝑖2 = −1
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦
∴ 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Complex Differentiation: Differentiation of complex-valued functions is completely
analogous to the real case. For 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 , the derivative of 𝑓 𝑧 is defined as,
𝑑𝑤 𝑓 𝑧:𝑕 ;𝑓(𝑧)
= lim
𝑑𝑧 𝑕→0 𝑕

and h approaches 0 via any path. 𝑓′ 𝑧 exists, if the limit exists.

Properties of Complex Differentiation:
(i) (𝑓 ± 𝑔)′(𝑧) = 𝑓′ 𝑧 ± 𝑔′ 𝑧
(ii) (𝑐𝑓)′(𝑧) = c𝑓′ 𝑧 for any constant c.
(iii) (𝑓𝑔)′(𝑧) = 𝑓 𝑧 𝑔′(𝑧) +𝑓′ 𝑧 𝑔(𝑧).
𝑓 𝑔(𝑧)𝑓′ 𝑧 ;𝑓 𝑧 𝑔′(𝑧)
(iv) ′(𝑧) = , 𝑔(𝑧) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔 𝑧 2
𝑑
(v) 𝑓 𝑔 𝑧 = 𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑧 𝑔′ 𝑧 . (Chain Rule)
𝑑𝑧
Analytic Function: A function 𝑓 𝑧 is said to be Analytic at a point 𝑧 = 𝑧0, if it is defined and
has derivative at every point in some neighborhood of 𝑧0.
• It is analytic in a Region R, if it is analytic at every point in region R.
• Analytic function is also called Regular or Holomorphic.
• The point 𝑧 = 𝑧1 where function fails to be analytic is called singular point of the function 𝑓(𝑧).
• If f (z) is analytic on the whole complex plane, then it is said to be an entire function.
Necessary Conditions for Analytic Function - Cauchy-Riemann Equations: The Necessary
conditions for the function 𝑓 𝑧 to be analytic at any point z in the region R is
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 ;𝜕𝑣
= and = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

These equations are called the Cauchy-Riemann Equations. If 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic at any point then C-R
equations are definitely satisfied at z ,but if C-R equations are satisfied at the z that does not
necessarily mean 𝑓 𝑧 is analytic at z, for this continuity of partial derivative of u, v must be ensured.
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Polar form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations: = and = −𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
Rational Function: If f and g are polynomials in z, then h (z) = f (z)/g(z), g(z) ≠ 0 is called
a rational function.
• All polynomial functions of z are entire.
• A rational function of z is analytic at every point for which its denominator is nonzero.
Harmonic Functions: A real-valued function 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be harmonic in a domain D
if all of its second-order partial derivatives are continuous in D and if each point of D
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
satisfies + =0.
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2

• If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic in a domain D, then each of the functions 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and v

(𝑥, 𝑦) are harmonic in D.
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
• The equation + = 0 is called Laplace equation.
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2
𝜕2𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕2𝜙
• Polar form of Laplace equation is + + 2 2 = 0.
𝜕𝑟2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Milne-Thomson Method: This method is used to find Analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 in
terms of z by replacing x by z and y by 0.
Example 1: Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 is analytic everywhere.
Solution: We have to prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 is analytic everywhere.
Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2
= 𝑥2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖2𝑦2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
= 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Here 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2, 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 both are continuous everywhere.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 ;𝜕𝑣
Now we have to verify the Cauchy Reimann Equation = and = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 ;𝜕𝑣
It is clear that = 2𝑥 = and = −2𝑦 = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Hence the given function is analytic everywhere.

Example 2: Check whether the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2is analytic.
Solution: We have to check that the function 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 is analytic or not.
Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = |𝑧|2 = |(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)|2
= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 2

= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑖.0 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Here 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2, 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 =0 both are continuous everywhere.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 ;𝜕𝑣
Now we have to verify the Cauchy Reimann Equation = and = .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 ;𝜕𝑣
It is clear that = 2𝑥 ≠ = 0 and = 2𝑦 ≠ = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Hence the given function is not analytic.

Example 3: Find 𝑣 such that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic, where 𝑢=
1
log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2) . Also determine 𝑓 𝑧 in terms of 𝑧.
2
Solution: We have given that
1
𝑢= log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ) --------- (1)
2
Differentiating Partially with respect to x and y respectively
𝜕𝑢 1 2𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑢 1 2𝑦 𝑦
= . = and = . = 2 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥2:𝑦2 𝑥2:𝑦2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑥2:𝑦2 𝑥 :𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now from first Cauchy-Riemann Equation =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝑥
=
𝜕𝑦 𝑥2:𝑦2
Integrating with respect to y treating ‘x’ as a constant.
𝑥 1
𝑣= 𝑑𝑥 +𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥. tan;1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑓 𝑥 = tan;1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑓 𝑥 (2)
𝑥 2 :𝑦 2 𝑥
Differentiating Partially with respect to x, we have
𝜕𝑣 1 𝑦 𝑥2 𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑦2 − 2 + 𝑓′(𝑥) = − 2 + 𝑓′(𝑥) = − 2 2 + 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 1: 𝑥 𝑥2:𝑦2 𝑥 𝑥 :𝑦
𝑥2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Now from second Cauchy-Riemann Equation = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Putting the values of and , we get
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑦 𝑦
− 2 2 + 𝑓′(𝑥) = − 2 2
𝑥 :𝑦 𝑥 :𝑦
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = constant (c)
From equation (2), we have
𝑣 = tan;1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑐
1
∴f z = log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2) + tan;1 (𝑦/𝑥) + 𝑐
2
Now, we have to find 𝑓(𝑧) in term of z. We put 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0 using Milne-Thomson
1
method, then 𝑓(𝑧) = log(𝑧2) + tan;1 (0/𝑧) + 𝑐 = log 𝑧 + 𝑐
2
𝑓(𝑧) = log 𝑧 + 𝑐
Example 4: If 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3 , find its harmonic conjugate 𝑢 . Find
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 in terms of 𝑧.
Solution: We have given that
𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3 --------- (1)
Differentiating Partially with respect to x and y respectively
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 6𝑥𝑦 and = 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now from first Cauchy-Riemann Equation =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2
𝜕𝑥
Integrating with respect to x treating ‘y’ as a constant.
𝑥3
𝑢= (3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2) 𝑑𝑥 +𝑓 𝑦 = 3. − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑓 𝑦 (2)
3
Differentiating Partially with respect to y, we have
𝜕𝑢
= 0 − 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑦) = −6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑦)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Now from second Cauchy-Riemann Equation =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Putting the values of and , we get
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
6𝑥𝑦 = −[−6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓 𝑦 ] = 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑦
′

⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑦) = constant (c)

From equation (2), we have
𝑢 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑐
∴ f z = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑖 (3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3) + 𝑐
Now, we have to find 𝑓(𝑧) in term of z. We put x = z, y = 0 using Milne-Thomson
method, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3 − 0 + 𝑖. 0 + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3 + 𝑐
 Exercise
1. Check whether the following functions are analytic.
𝑥;𝑖𝑦
(a) 𝑧 + 2𝑧 (b) cosh 𝑧 (c)
𝑥2:𝑦2
(d) 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑖𝑦

2. Find 𝑣 such that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic for the following functions. Also determine
𝑓 𝑧 in terms of 𝑧.
sin 2𝑥
(a) 𝑢 = 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 2𝑦 (b) 𝑢=
cosh 2𝑦; cos 2𝑥
1
(c) 𝑢 = 𝑟3 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (d) 𝑢 = 𝑟 + cos 𝜃 , 𝑟 ≠0
𝑟
3. Find 𝑢 such that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic for the following functions. Also determine
𝑓 𝑧 in terms of 𝑧.
𝑦
(a) 𝑣 = (b) 𝑣 = 4𝑥𝑦(𝑥2 − 𝑦2)
𝑥2:𝑦2

4. if 𝑣 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 represent the complex potential for an electric field and

𝑦 2 2 𝑥
𝜙 = −2𝑥𝑦 + 2 2.. Determine the function 𝜓. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝜓 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2 2
𝑥 :𝑦 𝑥 :𝑦
 More Examples on Analytic Functions
Example 5: Find the conditions under which 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2𝑦 + 𝑐𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑑𝑦3 is
harmonic.
Solution: We have to find the conditions under which the following function is harmonic.
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2𝑦 + 𝑐𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑑𝑦3 --------- (1)
Differentiating partially with respect to x and y respectively
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑎𝑥2 + 2𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦2
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑏𝑥2 + 2𝑐𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑑𝑦2
𝜕𝑦
Again differentiating partially with respect to x and y respectively, we have
𝜕2𝑢
= 6𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦
𝜕𝑥2
𝜕2𝑢
= 2𝑐𝑥 + 6𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦2

MIT SOE, Pune 14

Since 𝑢 is harmonic.
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
∴ + =0 --------- (2)
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2
Putting above values in (2), we have
6𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 6𝑑𝑦 = 0
⟹ 6𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 6𝑑𝑦 = 0
⟹ (6𝑎 + 2𝑐)𝑥 + (2𝑏 + 6𝑑)𝑦 = 0
⟹ 6𝑎 + 2𝑐 = 0 and 2𝑏 + 6𝑑 = 0
⟹ 𝑐 = −3𝑎 and 𝑏 = −3𝑑
These are the required conditions.

MIT SOE, Pune 15

Example 6: Show that 𝑢 = 𝑦 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 is harmonic and find its harmonic
conjugate.
Solution: We have to show that the following function is harmonic.
𝑢 = 𝑦 + 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 --------- (1)
Differentiating partially with respect to x and 𝑦 respectively
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 and = 1 − 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Again differentiating partially with respect to x and 𝑦 respectively, we have
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 and = −𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2
Adding above, we get
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ = 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 −𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2
Hence the given function is Harmonic Function.
Let v be harmonic conjugate of u. Hence 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function and u
and v satisfy C-R equations. MIT SOE, Pune 16
 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
From first C-R equation = , we have
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 ∵ = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Integrating with respect to y treating 𝑥 as a constant, we get
𝑣 = 𝑥<𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 dy + 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑓(𝑥)
Now differentiating partially with respect to 𝑥, we have
𝜕𝑣
= 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
By second C-R equation =− , we have
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 𝑓′(𝑥) = −(1 − 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦) ⟹ 𝑓′ 𝑥 = −1 ∵ = 1 − 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑦
Integrating with respect to 𝑥, we have
𝑓′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 ⟹ 𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑥 + 𝑐
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
This is harmonic conjugate of the given function
MIT SOE, Pune u. 17
Example 7: If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic, find 𝑓 𝑧 , if 𝑢 − 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥2 +
4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2).
Solution: We have to find 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 , which is analytic function. Also, we have
𝑢 − 𝑣 = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2) --------- (1)
Differentiating partially with respect to x and 𝑦 respectively
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (2𝑥 + 4𝑦) + 1. (𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2) --------- (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
and − = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (4𝑥 + 2𝑦) + (−1)(𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
Now by C-R Equations = and = − , we have
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− − = 𝑥 − 𝑦 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − (𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2) --------- (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Subtracting (3) by (2), we have
𝜕𝑢
2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦) + 2(𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
⟹ 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (2𝑦 − 2𝑥) + 2(𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2)
𝜕𝑥

MIT SOE, Pune 18

 𝜕𝑢
⟹ = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (𝑦 − 𝑥) + 𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
⟹ = 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2 = 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥
Again from (2) and (3), we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− = (𝑥 − 𝑦) (2𝑥 + 4𝑦) + (𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
− − = 𝑥−𝑦 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − (𝑥2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Adding, we get
𝜕𝑣
−2 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑥 + 2𝑦) = (𝑥 − 𝑦)(6𝑥 + 6𝑦)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
⟹ = −3(𝑥2 − 𝑦2)
𝜕𝑥
Now since 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic. So, the derivative of 𝑓 𝑧 exists.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Hence 𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖 = 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑖 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 6 × z × 0 − 3 × i × (z2 − 0)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑧 = −3𝑖𝑧2 by Integrating 𝑓 𝑧 = −𝑖𝑧3 + 𝑐
MIT SOE, Pune 19
Example 8: Find ‘k’ such that the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑟3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃 is
analytic.
Solution: We have to find the value of ‘k’ such that the following function is analytic.
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃 --------- (1)
Here 𝑢 = 𝑟3𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 and 𝑣 = 𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃
Differentiating partially with respect to r and 𝜃 respectively
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 3𝑟2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃, = −3𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 , = 3𝑟2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝜃 and = 𝑘𝑟3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Since 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic, so C-R equations in polar form must be satisfied by u
and v.
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
C-R equations are = and = −𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
Substituting above values, we have
2 1
3𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃= . 𝑘𝑟3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝜃 and −3𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = −𝑟. 3𝑟2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝜃
𝑟
⟹ 3𝑟2𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃=𝑘𝑟2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝜃 and 3𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 = 3𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝜃
Here clearly 𝑘 = 3 satisfies both the equations. Hence 𝑘 = 3
MIT SOE, Pune 20
Example 9: Show that an analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 with constant modulus is
constant.
Solution: We have to prove that an analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 with constant modulus
is constant.
∵ Since the modulus of 𝑓 𝑧 is constant.
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑘
⇒ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝑘2 --------- (1)
∵ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic.
∴ By C-R equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= and = − --------- (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦, we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
2𝑢 + 2𝑣 =0⇒𝑢 +𝑣 =0 --------- (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
2𝑢 + 2𝑣 =0⇒ 𝑢 +𝑣 =0 --------- (4)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 MIT SOE,𝜕𝑦
Pune 21
Now by using C-R equation in (3) and (4), we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑢 −𝑣 = 0 and 𝑢 +𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Squaring and adding, we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2
𝑢 −𝑣 + 𝑢 +𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

2 𝜕𝑢 2 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2 2 𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 +𝑣 − 2𝑢𝑣 +𝑢 + 𝑣 + 2𝑢𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⇒ (𝑢2 + 𝑣2) +(𝑢2 + 𝑣2) =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⇒ (𝑢2 + 𝑣2) + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⇒ 𝑘2 + =0 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
⇒ 𝑘2 =0 and (or) + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

MIT SOE, Pune 22

Case I: If 𝑘2 = 0
⇒ 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑢 = 0 and 𝑣 = 0
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 0 , which is constant.
𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 2
Case II: If + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
⇒ = 0 and =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
⇒ 𝑢 is independent of 𝑥 and y (since the partial derivatives are zero)
⇒ 𝑢 = constant
Now by C-R equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= = 0 and =− =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
⇒ 𝑣 is independent of 𝑥 and y (since the partial derivatives are zero)
⇒ 𝑣 = constant
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is constant. (Hence Proved)
MIT SOE, Pune 23
Example 10: Show that an analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 with constant amplitude is
constant.
Solution: We have to prove that an analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 with constant
amplitude is constant.
∵ Since the amplitude of 𝑓 𝑧 is constant.
∴ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑘 ⇒ tan;1 (𝑣/𝑢) = 𝑘
⇒ 𝑣/𝑢 = tan 𝑘 --------- (1)
∵ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic.
∴ By C-R equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= and = − --------- (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦, we have
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝑢𝜕𝑥;𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=0⇒𝑢 −𝑣 =0 --------- (3)
𝑢2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

MIT SOE, Pune 24

 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝑢𝜕𝑦;𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=0⇒ 𝑢 −𝑣 =0
𝑢2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now by using C-R equation = and = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ 𝑢 −𝑣 − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 =0 --------- (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Multiplying (2) by 𝑢 and (3) by 𝑣 and adding, we have
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
⇒ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 =0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
⇒ =0 ∵ 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ≠ 0
𝜕𝑥

MIT SOE, Pune 25

 Multiplying (2) by 𝑣 and (3) by 𝑢 and subtracting, we have
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑢𝑣 − 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
⇒ - 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 =0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
⇒ =0 ∵ 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ≠ 0
𝜕𝑥
Hence by C-R equations
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= = 0 and =− = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
⇒ = = 0 and = =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
⇒ 𝑢 = constant and 𝑣 = constant
⇒ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is constant.
∴ An analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 with constant amplitude is constant.
(Hence Proved)
MIT SOE, Pune 26
Example 11: If 𝑓 𝑧 is an analytic function, then prove that
𝜕2 𝜕2 2 = |𝑓′ 𝑧 |2 .
2 + 2 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑧 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣2
Now consider
𝜕 𝜕
𝑓 𝑧 2= 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 = 2𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 2 𝜕
and 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑥 = 2[𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥𝑣𝑥]
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2
Similarly 2 𝑓 𝑧 2 = 2[𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦2 ] 𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝜕2
L.H.S= + 𝑓 𝑧 2 = 2[𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦2 ]
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦2

= 2[𝑢 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 ]

𝑢𝑦𝑦
MIT SOE, Pune 27
Since the given function is analytic. So, it will satisfy the Laplace equation .i.e
𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0 and 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0 .
L.H.S. = 2[𝑢 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 ]
= 2[𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑦2 ]
Again 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
So, 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 2 = 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 and 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 2 = 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑦2
L.H.S. = 2[𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑦2 ]
= 2[ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 2 + 𝑓′ 𝑧 2]

= 4 𝑓′ 𝑧 2 = R.H.S.
𝜕2 𝜕2 2
∴ + 2 𝑓 𝑧 = |𝑓′ 𝑧 |2
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦

(Hence Proved)
MIT SOE, Pune 28
 Exercise
1. Find ‘k’ such that the function 𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑖 tan;1 (𝑘𝑦/𝑥)is analytic. 𝑘 = 1
2. Determine ‘k’ such that the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑟3𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝜃 is analytic. 𝑘 = 2
3. Show that the following functions are harmonic and also find its harmonic conjugates.
(a) 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑐
(b) 𝑢 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 1 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
(c) 𝑢 = cos 𝑕𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑣 = sin 𝑕𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐
(d) 𝑣 = 4𝑥𝑦 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑢 = 𝑥4 − 6𝑥2𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑐
(e) 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦 − 𝑦3 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑢 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑐
(f) 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 + 𝑐
4. Find the analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, if
1:3𝑖
(a) 2𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 , 𝑓 1 = 1 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 + (𝑒𝑧 − 𝑒)
5
(b) 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 3 𝑥 + 𝑦 + (𝑥 − 𝑦)/(𝑥2 + 𝑦2)
MIT SOE, Pune 29
 Conformal Mapping and Bilinear Transformation
• Conformal Mapping: A mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be angle preserving, or conformal
at 𝑧0, if it preserves angles between oriented curves in magnitude as well as in orientation.
If the angle of intersection of two curves at any point in z-plane is the same as the
angle of intersection of two curves at the point in w-plane in magnitude and sense, then
the transformation or mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be angle preserving or conformal.
• Important facts about conformal mapping: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function in the
domain D, and let 𝑧0 be a point in D. If 𝑓′(𝑧) ≠ 0 , then 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal at 𝑧0.
• A point at which 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 is called a critical point of the transformation.
• The angle preservation property of conformal transformation has many physical
applications. (Example- Flow of incompressible fluid in a plane)
• The conjugate functions 𝑢, 𝑣 remains conjugate functions (satisfy Laplace equation)
under conformal transformation.

MIT SOE, Pune 30

 Some Standard Transformations
Translation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑐
We have
𝑤 =𝑧+𝑐
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑐1) + 𝑖(𝑦 + 𝑐2)
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and 𝑣 = 𝑦 + 𝑐2
Thus, any curve or figure is only shifted through a distance given by the vector
𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2 as 𝑥 → 𝑥 + 𝑐1 and 𝑦 → 𝑦 + 𝑐2 under the translation, however its shape size
and orientation remains the same.
• Circles in a z-plane map into a circle (shifted) in w-plane.
• Rectangle in z-plane map into a rectangle (shifted) in w-plane.

MIT SOE, Pune 31

 Magnification and Rotation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧
Let
𝑣
𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑠 cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙 = 𝑠. 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 ,𝑤 = 𝑠 and arg 𝑤 = 𝜙 = tan ;1
𝑢
𝑖𝜃 ;1 𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟. 𝑒 , 𝑧 = r and arg 𝑧 = 𝜃 = tan
𝑥
𝑖∝ ;1 𝑐2
𝑐 = 𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2 = 𝑘 cos ∝ + 𝑖 sin ∝ = 𝑘. 𝑒 , 𝑐 = 𝑘 and arg 𝑐 = ∝ = tan
𝑐1
Consider
𝑤=𝑐𝑧
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑐1 + 𝑖𝑐2)(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
⇒ 𝑠 cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙 = 𝑘 cos ∝ + 𝑖 sin ∝ . 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
⇒ 𝑠. 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑘. 𝑒 𝑖∝ (𝑟. 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
⇒ 𝑠. 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑘𝑟 𝑒 𝑖(∝:𝜃)
⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑘𝑟 and 𝜙 = ∝ +𝜃
⇒ 𝑤 = 𝑧 |𝑐| and arg 𝑤 = arg 𝑧 + arg 𝑐
MIT SOE, Pune 32
 Inversion 𝑤 = 1/𝑧
Consider
1
𝑤=
𝑧
1
⇒ 𝑤 = ⅈ𝜃
𝑟.𝑒
1
⇒ 𝑤 = . 𝑒 ;𝑖𝜃
𝑟
1 1
⇒ 𝑤 = = and arg 𝑤 = − arg 𝑧
𝑧 𝑟
• This transformation maps a circle of radius ‘a’ into a circle of radius 1/𝑎.
• It maps the interior of the unit circle in z-plane onto the exterior of unit circle in w-
plane and the exterior of the unit circle in z-plane onto the interior of unit circle in w-
plane.

MIT SOE, Pune 33

 Bilinear Transformation
The transformation
𝑎𝑧:𝑏
𝑤= ---------- (1)
𝑐𝑧:𝑑
where a, b, c and d are complex constants and 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is known as Bilinear
Transformation.
𝑑𝑤
• If 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 ⇒ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 ≠ 0, then the transformation is conformal.
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑤
• If 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0 ⇒ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0, then each point in the transformation is a critical
𝑑𝑧
point.
;𝑑𝑤:𝑏
• The Inverse transformation of (1) 𝑧 = is also a bilinear.
𝑐𝑤;𝑎
• Bilinear transformation is a combination of the translation, magnification-rotation and
inversion.
• Cross Ratio: The cross ratio of numbers (𝑧1, 𝑧2, 𝑧3, 𝑧4) and (𝑤1, 𝑤2, 𝑤3, 𝑤4) under
bilinear transformation is constant and defined as
(𝑤1;𝑤3)(𝑤2;𝑤4) (𝑧1;𝑧3)(𝑧2;𝑧4)
=
(𝑤1;𝑤4)(𝑤2;𝑤3) (𝑧1;𝑧4)(𝑧2;𝑧3)
MIT SOE, Pune 34
Example 1: Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1
from the z-plane into the points 𝑤 = 0, 1, ∞ of the w-plane.
Solution: The bilinear transformation is given by
𝑎𝑧:𝑏
𝑤= --------- (1)
𝑐𝑧:𝑑
Since 𝑧 = 1 maps into 𝑤 = 0. So from (1), we have
𝑎:𝑏
0= ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = −𝑏 --------- (2)
𝑐:𝑑
Now since 𝑧 = −1 maps into 𝑤 = ∞. So from (1), we have
1 ;𝑎:𝑏
∞= = ⇒ −𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = d --------- (3)
0 ;𝑐:𝑑
Again since 𝑧 = 𝑖 maps into 𝑤 = 1. So from (1), we have
𝑎𝑖:𝑏
1= ⇒ 𝑎 𝑖 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 𝑖 + d ⇒ −𝑏 𝑖 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 𝑖 + 𝑐 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3)
𝑐𝑖:𝑑
1;𝑖
⇒𝑏 1−𝑖 =𝑐 1+𝑖 ⇒𝑐 =𝑑 = 𝑏 --------- (4)
(1:𝑖)
Putting the values of a, c and d in (1), we have
MIT SOE, Pune 35
 ;𝑏𝑧:𝑏 1;𝑖
𝑤 = 1−ⅈ 1−ⅈ 𝑎 = −𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑑 = 𝑏
𝑧 𝑏: 𝑏 (1:𝑖)
1+ⅈ 1+ⅈ
𝑏(1;𝑧)
= 1−ⅈ
𝑏 1+ⅈ 𝑧:1
(1;𝑧)(1:𝑖)
=
(1;𝑖) 𝑧:1
(1;𝑧)(1:𝑖)(1:𝑖)
=
(𝑧:1)(1;𝑖)(1:𝑖)
(1;𝑧)(1:2𝑖:𝑖2)
=
(𝑧:1)(1;𝑖2)
(1;𝑧)(1:2𝑖;1)
=
(𝑧:1) 1;(;1)
2𝑖(1;𝑧) 𝑖(1;𝑧)
= =
2(𝑧:1) (𝑧:1)
Hence the bilinear transformation is
𝑖(1;𝑧)
𝑤=
(𝑧:1)

MIT SOE, Pune 36

Example 2: Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 0, −1, 𝑖 of
1
the z-plane on to the points 𝑤 = 2, ∞, (5 + 𝑖) of the w-plane.
2
Solution: The bilinear transformation is given by
𝑎𝑧:𝑏
𝑤= --------- (1)
𝑐𝑧:𝑑
Since 𝑧 = 0 maps into 𝑤 = 2. So from (1), we have
𝑎.0:𝑏
2= ⇒ 2𝑑 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = 2𝑑 --------- (2)
𝑐.0:𝑑
Now since 𝑧 = −1 maps into 𝑤 = ∞. So from (1), we have
1 ;𝑎:𝑏
∞= = ⇒ −𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = d --------- (3)
0 ;𝑐:𝑑
1
Again since 𝑧 = 𝑖 maps into 𝑤 = (5 + 𝑖). So from (1), we have
2
5:𝑖 𝑎𝑖:2𝑑 𝑎𝑖:2𝑑 𝑎𝑖:2𝑑
= = = 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3)
2 𝑑𝑖:𝑑 𝑑𝑖:𝑑 𝑑(1:𝑖)
⇒ 𝑑 1 + 𝑖 5 + 𝑖 = 2(𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑)
⇒ 𝑑 5 + 𝑖 + 5𝑖 + 𝑖2 𝑑 = 2(𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑)
⇒ 𝑑 5 + 𝑖 + 5𝑖 − 1 = 2(𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑)
MIT SOE, Pune 37
⇒ 𝑑 4 + 6𝑖 = 2(𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑)
⇒ 2𝑑 2 + 3𝑖 = 2(𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑)
⇒ 𝑑 2 + 3𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑
⇒ 2𝑑 + 3𝑑𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 + 2𝑑
⇒ 𝑎 = 3𝑑
Putting the values of a, b and c in (1), we have
𝑎𝑧:𝑏
𝑤 = 𝑎 = 3𝑑, 𝑏 = 2𝑑, 𝑐 = 𝑑
𝑐𝑧:𝑑
3𝑑𝑧:2𝑑
=
𝑑𝑧:𝑑
𝑑(3𝑧:2)
=
𝑑(𝑧:1)
3𝑧:2
=
𝑧:1
Hence the bilinear transformation is
3𝑧:2
𝑤=
𝑧:1
MIT SOE, Pune 38
 Exercise
1. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 0, −1, ∞ of the z-plane on to
𝑖𝑧;2
the points 𝑤 = −1, −2 − 𝑖, 𝑖 of the w-plane. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑤 =
𝑧:2
2. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = −𝑖, 0, 2 + 𝑖 of the z-plane
2(𝑧:𝑖)
on to the points 𝑤 = 0, −2𝑖, 4 of the w-plane. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑤 =
𝑧;1
3. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, 2𝑖 of the z-plane on to
4:2𝑖 𝑧:(𝑧;4𝑖)
the points 𝑤 = −2𝑖, 0, 1 of the w-plane. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑤 =
1:𝑖 𝑧:2𝑖
4. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = −1, 0, 1 of the z-plane on to
3𝑖 𝑧:1
the points 𝑤 = 0, 𝑖, 3𝑖 of the w-plane. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑤 =
3;𝑧
5. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 1, 0, 𝑖 of the z-plane on to
1 𝑖𝑧:2
the points 𝑤 = ∞, −2, − (1 + 𝑖) of the w-plane. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑤 =
2 𝑧;1
6. Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝒛 = 𝟏, 𝒊, −𝟏 of the z-plane
𝟏:𝒊𝒛
on to the points 𝒘 = 𝒊, 𝟎, −𝒊 of the w-plane. 𝑨𝒏𝒔: 𝒘 =
𝟏;𝒊𝒛
MIT SOE, Pune 39
 Complex Integration
Complex integration of the function 𝑓(𝑧) along the curve C is given by w = f(z)
I = 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= 𝐶
(𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
= 𝐶
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑖𝑑𝑦)
= 𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑑𝑥 + (𝑖 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖2𝑣𝑑𝑦)
= 𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑑𝑥 + (𝑖 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1
= 𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 𝐶
𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦
As 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) are real , therefore the evaluation of complex integrals is equal to
evaluation of real integrals and will depend upon the path of integration or the equation of
the given curve.

MIT SOE 40
Example 1: Evaluate 𝐶 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2 and ‘c’ is the path joining the
points 𝐴 𝑧 = 0 , 𝐵(𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖), where
(i) ‘C’ is the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥2 joining the points A and B.
(ii) ‘C’ is the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 joining the points A and B.
(iii) ‘C’ is the path 𝐴 0, 0 , 𝑀 1, 0 , 𝐵(1, 1).
Solution: Let I = 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 𝐶
𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦 - - - - (1)
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2
= 𝑥2 + (𝑖𝑦)2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
= 𝑥2 + 𝑖2𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦
= (𝑥2 − 𝑦2) + (2𝑥𝑦)𝑖
𝑢 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦
Equation (1) becomes,
MIT SOE 41
 𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶
𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 𝐶 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦
= [ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 [2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦] - - - - (2)
𝐶 𝐶

(i) Here ‘C’ is the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥2 joining the points 𝐴 0, 0 and 𝐵(1, 1).
Since 𝑦 = 𝑥2 , so d𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥 and 𝑥 varies from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1, hence from eqn (2)
I = [ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 [2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦]
𝐶 𝐶
1 2 4 2 1 2𝑑𝑥 +
= 0
[ 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥. 𝑥 2𝑥𝑑𝑥] + 𝑖 0
[2𝑥. 𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥4 2𝑥𝑑𝑥]
1 2 4 4 1 3 + 2𝑥3 − 2𝑥5 𝑑𝑥
= 0
[𝑥 − 𝑥 − 4𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 0
2𝑥
1 2 4 1 3 − 2𝑥5 𝑑𝑥
= 0
[𝑥 − 5𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 0
4𝑥
𝑥3 5𝑥5 1 4𝑥4 2𝑥6 1
= − +𝑖 −
3 5 0 4 6 0
1 1
= −1 +𝑖 1−
3 3
1;3 3;1
= + 𝑖
3 3
2 2
= − + 𝑖 MIT SOE 42
3 3
(ii) Here ‘C’ is the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 joining the points 𝐴 0, 0 and 𝐵(1, 1).
Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 , so d𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑥 varies from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1, hence from eqn (2)
I = [ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 [2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦]
𝐶 𝐶
1 2 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥. 𝑥𝑑𝑥] + 𝑖 1[2𝑥. 𝑥𝑑𝑥
= 0
[ 𝑥 0
+ 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥]
1 2]𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 1 2𝑥2 − 0 𝑑𝑥
= 0
[0 − 2𝑥 0
1 1
= −2 0 𝑥2𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 2 0 𝑥2𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 1 𝑥3 1
= −2 + 𝑖2
3 0 3 0
2 1
= − +0 +𝑖 2 − 0
3 3
2 2
= − + 𝑖
3 3

MIT SOE 43
(iii) Here ‘C’ is the path 𝐴 0, 0 , 𝑀 1, 0 and 𝐵(1, 1).
For the line AM, 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 varies from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1. Similarly, for the
line BM, 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 varies from 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 1, hence from eqn (2)
I = [ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 [2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦]
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀
+ 𝑀𝐵[ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 𝑀𝐵[2𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦]
1 2 1
= 0
[ 𝑥 − 0 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 × 0 × 0] + 𝑖 0 [2𝑥 × 0𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 0 × 0] +
1 2 1
0
[ 1 − 𝑦 × 0 − 2 × 1 × 𝑦𝑑𝑦] + 𝑖 0 [2 × 1 × 𝑦 × 0 + 1 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦]
1 2 1 1 1 2)𝑑𝑦
= 0
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 0
0𝑑𝑥 − 0
2𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 0
(1 − 𝑦
𝑥3 1 2𝑦2 1 𝑦3 1
= +𝑖×0− +𝑖 𝑦−
3 0 2 0 3 0
1 1
= −0 +0− 1−0 +𝑖 1− −0
3 3
1 1
= −1 +𝑖 1−
3 3
2 2
= − + 𝑖
3 3

MIT SOE 44
 2 2
Now it is clear that the value of the given integral in all three paths is same (− + 𝑖 )
3 3
It means that the value of the integral 𝐶 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is independent of the path joining end
points, hence the given function is analytic.

MIT SOE 45
 Exercise
1. Evaluate 𝐶 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 and ‘c’ is the path joining the points 𝑂 0, 0 , 𝐴(1, 1),
where
(i) ‘C’ is the straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥 joining the points 𝑂 0, 0 and 𝐴(1, 1). 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = 1
(ii) ‘C’ is the path 𝑂 0, 0 , 𝑀 1, 0 , 𝐴(1, 1). 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = 1 + 𝑖
5;5𝑖
2. Evaluate 2:4𝑖 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑧 along
(i) The path 𝑥 = 𝑡2 + 1, 𝑦 = 3𝑡 + 1. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = 9 − 42𝑖
(ii) The straight line joining 2 + 4𝑖 and 5 − 5𝑖. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = 9 − 42𝑖
2:𝑖
3. Evaluate 1;𝑖
(2𝑧 + 4) 𝑑𝑧 along the path 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑡2 − 1. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = 7 + 14𝑖
1:𝑖 2
4. Evaluate 0
(𝑧 + 1) 𝑑𝑧 along
1
(i) The arc of the parabola 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡2. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = (1 + 5𝑖)
3
1
(ii) The straight line 𝑦 = 𝑥. 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = (1 + 5𝑖)
3
2;3𝑖 2
5. Evaluate 1:𝑖
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 along the straight joining the points 1+𝑖 and 2−3𝑖.
11
𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝐼 = (4 + 𝑖)
3

MIT SOE 46
 Complex Integration
Cauchy’s Theorem : C
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a closed curve C, then R
𝐶
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
When C is closed curve, 𝐶 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is denoted by 𝑐 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 and is called contour
integral. The direction of description of C is taken as anticlockwise. Closed curve C is
called closed contour C or simply contour C.
Proof:
We know that by Green’s Theorem “If C is closed curve enclosing the region R and
P(x, y) and Q(x, y) are continuous on or within C, then
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 = 𝑅 𝜕𝑥
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ---------- (1)
𝜕𝑦
𝑐
Consider
𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑐
(𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
MIT SOE 47
𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑐
(𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)
= 𝑐
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑖𝑑𝑦)
= 𝑐
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑑𝑥 + (𝑖 𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖2𝑣𝑑𝑦)
= 𝑐
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑑𝑥 + (𝑖 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) ∵ 𝑖 2 = −1
= 𝑐
𝑢𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑑𝑥 + (𝑖 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦)
= 𝑐
𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑐
𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
= 𝑅
− − 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦+𝑖 𝑅 𝜕𝑥
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∵ 𝑐
𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄𝑑𝑦 = 𝑅 𝜕𝑥
− 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑅
− + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦+𝑖 𝑅 𝜕𝑥
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ∵ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = − 𝜕𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑅 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

=0
∴ 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
Hence Cauchy’s Theorem is proved.

MIT SOE 48
Cauchy’s Integral Formula:
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C,
then
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎
𝑐

Important Results:
𝑧
1. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic function, then 𝑧 2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 is independent of the path joining the points
1
𝑧1 and 𝑧2 .
2. If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic function in the region R between two simple closed contours 𝐶1 and 𝐶2
described in the same direction, then
𝐶1
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶2
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑓(𝑧) 2! 𝑓(𝑧) 3! 𝑓(𝑧)
3. 𝑓′ 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 2
𝑑𝑧, 𝑓" 𝑎 =
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 3
𝑑𝑧, 𝑓′′′ 𝑎 =
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 4
𝑑𝑧……..
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖 𝑛
4. 𝑓𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 .
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑧;𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑛!
𝑐 𝑐
MIT SOE 49
 𝑧2:1
Example 1: Evaluate 𝑑𝑧, where (i) ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧 − 2| = 1, (ii) ‘C’ is the
𝑧;2
𝑐
circle |𝑧| = 1.
Solution: (i) We know that by Cauchy’s Integral Formula “If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and
within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C, then
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓 𝑎 ------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 𝑧;𝑎
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧2:1
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧;𝑎 𝑧;2
𝑐 𝑐
Now here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2 + 1 is analytic everywhere and 𝑧 = 2 is the point inside the
contour |𝑧 − 2| = 1 ⇒ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2| = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 − 2 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 − 2 2 + 𝑦2 = 1 ⇒
circle of centre (2, 0) and radius 1.
Hence from (1), we have
𝑧2:1
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓 2 = 2𝜋𝑖 × (4 + 1) = 2𝜋𝑖 × 5 = 10𝜋𝑖
𝑧;2 MIT SOE 50
𝑐
(ii) We know that by Cauchy’s Theorem
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a closed curve C, then

𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧2:1
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧;𝑎 𝑧;2
𝑐 𝑐
2
𝑧 :1
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = is not analytic at the point 𝑎 = 2, but this point lies outside the contour
𝑧;2
|𝑧| = 1 ⇒ |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = 1 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1 ⇒ circle of centre (0, 0) and radius 1.
𝑧2:1
But 𝑓 𝑧 = is analytic on and within the contour |𝑧| = 1.
𝑧;2
Hence by Cauchy’s Theorem
𝑧2:1
𝑑𝑧 =0
𝑧;2
𝑐

MIT SOE 51
 𝑧:4
Example 2: Evaluate 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧 − 2𝑖| = 3/2.
𝑧2:2𝑧:5
𝑐
Solution: (i)We know that by Cauchy’s Integral Formula “If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and
within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C, then
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓 𝑎 ------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 𝑧;𝑎
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧:4 𝑧:4
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 ------- (2)
𝑧;𝑎 𝑧2:2𝑧:5 (𝑧:1;2𝑖)(𝑧:1:2𝑖)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Here the roots of 𝑧2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0 (𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 5) is given by
;𝑏± 𝑏2;4𝑎𝑐 ;2± 22;4×1×5 ;2± ;16 ;2±2 ;4 ;1±𝑖 4
𝑧= = = = = = −1 ± 2𝑖
2𝑎 2×1 2 2 1
Hence 𝑧 = 𝑧1 = −1 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧 = 𝑧2 = −1 − 2𝑖 are two singularities of the given
function.

MIT SOE 52
 Out of these two singular points 𝑧1 = −1 + 2𝑖 lies within inside the contour
3
𝑧 − 2𝑖 =
2
3
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2𝑖 =
2
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖(𝑦 − 2) = 1.5 2

⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 2 2 = 1.5 2

⇒ circle of centre (0, 2) and radius 1.5.

Again since the function
𝑧:4
𝑓 𝑧 = is analytic function within and on ‘C’ and 𝑧1 = −1 + 2𝑖 lies inside
(𝑧:1:2𝑖)
‘C’. Hence by (1), we have
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧:4 𝑧:4 ;1:2𝑖:4
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ×
𝑧;𝑎 𝑧2:2𝑧:5 (𝑧:1;2𝑖)(𝑧:1:2𝑖) ;1:2𝑖:1:2𝑖
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
3:2𝑖 𝜋
= 2𝜋𝑖 × = (3 + 2𝑖)
4𝑖 2
MIT SOE 53
 Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals
z2;z:1
1. dz, where ‘C’ is the contour (i) |𝑧| = 1 and (ii) |𝑧| = 1/2 .
z;1
c
Ans: i 2𝜋𝑖 𝑖𝑖 0
4z2:z
2. dz, where ‘C’ is the contour |𝑧 − 1| = 1/2. Ans: I = 5𝜋𝑖
z2;1
c
𝑒2𝑧
3. dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z| = 3. Ans: 2πi(e4 − e2)
(z;1)(z;2)
c
𝑒𝑧
4. dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z + 1| = 1/2. Ans: 2πi/e
(z:1)(z:2)
c
sinπz2:cosπz2
5. dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z| = 3. Ans: I = 4πi
(z;1)(z;2)
c

MIT SOE 54
Cauchy’s Integral Formula:
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C,
then
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎
𝑐

Important Results:
1 𝑓(𝑧)
1. 𝑓′ 𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑐
2! 𝑓(𝑧)
2. 𝑓" 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 3
𝑐
3! 𝑓(𝑧)
3. 𝑓′′′ 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 4
𝑐

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖 𝑛

4. 𝑓𝑛 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑎 .
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑧;𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑛!
𝑐 𝑐
MIT SOE 55
 4𝑧2:𝑧
Example 3: Evaluate 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧 − 1| = 2.
𝑧;1 2
𝑐
Solution: We know that by Cauchy’s Integral Formula “If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and
within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C, then
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓′ 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓′ 𝑎 ------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 2 𝑧;𝑎 2
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 4𝑧2:𝑧
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧;𝑎 2 𝑧;1 2
𝑐 𝑐
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 4𝑧2 + 𝑧 is analytic on and within the given contour ‘C’ and 𝑧 = 1 is the
point inside the contour
𝑧−1 =2
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1 = 2
⇒ 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2 1, 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑦2 = 4
⇒ circle of centre (1, 0) and radius 2. MIT SOE 56
Hence from (1), we have
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓′ 𝑎
𝑧;𝑎 2
𝑐
4𝑧2:𝑧
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓′ 1 ∵ 𝑓 𝑧 = 4𝑧2 + 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 8𝑧 + 1
𝑧;1 2
𝑐
= 2𝜋𝑖 × 8𝑧 + 1 𝑧<1
= 2𝜋𝑖 × 8 × 1 + 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 × 9
= 18𝜋𝑖

4𝑧2:𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 18𝜋𝑖
𝑧;1 2
𝑐

MIT SOE 57
 2z2:z:5 𝑥2 𝑦2
Example 4: Evaluate 3 2
𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the ellipse + = 1.
z;2 4 9
c
Solution: We know that by Cauchy’s Integral Formula “If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and
within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C, then
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓′ 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓′ 𝑎 ------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 2 𝑧;𝑎 2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑓(𝑧) 2z2:z:5
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 3 2
𝑑𝑧
𝑧;𝑎 2 z;2
𝑐
𝑐
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑧2 + 𝑧 + 5 is analytic on and within
3 3 0, 0 1.5, 0
the given contour ‘C’ and 𝑧 = = ,0 is the point
2 2
inside the contour
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
4 9
⇒ Ellipse centreof (0, 0) with major axis 3 and minor axis 2.
MIT SOE 58
Hence from (1), we have
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓′ 𝑎
𝑧;𝑎 2
𝑐

2z2:z:5 3
⇒ 3 2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑓′ ∵ 𝑓 𝑧 = 2𝑧2 + 𝑧 + 5 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 4𝑧 + 1
z; 2
𝑐 2

= 2𝜋𝑖 × 4𝑧 + 1 𝑧<
3
2
3
= 2𝜋𝑖 × 4 × + 1
2
= 2𝜋𝑖 × 7
= 14𝜋𝑖

2z2:z:5
∴ 3 2
𝑑𝑧 = 14𝜋𝑖
z;2
𝑐
MIT SOE 59
 𝑧2:𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
Example 5: Evaluate 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧| = 1.
𝑧;𝜋/4 3
𝑐
Solution: We know that by Cauchy’s Integral Formula “If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and
within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C, then
2! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖
𝑓′′ 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = × 𝑓′′ 𝑎 ------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 3 𝑧;𝑎 3 2!
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧2:𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧;𝑎 3 𝑧;𝜋/4 3
𝑐 𝑐
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧 is analytic on and within the given contour ‘C’ and
𝑧 = −𝜋/4 is the point inside the contour
𝑧 =1
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1 0, 0
𝜋
2
⇒𝑥 +𝑦 =1 2 ,0
4

⇒ circle of centre (0, 0) and radius 1.

MIT SOE 60
Hence from (1), we have
𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖
𝑑𝑧 = × 𝑓′′ 𝑎
𝑧;𝑎 3 2!
𝑐
∵ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
𝑧2:𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧 2𝜋𝑖 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧 − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = × 𝑓′′
𝑧;𝜋/4 3 2! 4 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧
𝑐
⇒ 𝑓′′ 𝑧 = 2 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
2𝜋𝑖
= × 2 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧 𝜋
𝑧< 4
2×1
2𝜋
= 𝜋𝑖 × 2 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠
4
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋𝑖 × 2 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0
2 2
= 𝜋𝑖 × 2 − 8 × 0
= 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧2:𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖
𝑧;𝜋/4 3
𝑐

MIT SOE 61
 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧
Example 6: Evaluate 4 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧| = 2.
𝑧:𝜋/3
𝑐
Solution: We know that by Cauchy’s Integral Formula “If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and
within a closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C, then
3! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖
𝑓′′′ 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = × 𝑓′′′ 𝑎 ------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑎 4 𝑧;𝑎 4 3!
𝑐 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧
We have 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧;𝑎 2 𝑧:𝜋/3 4
𝑐 𝑐
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧 is analytic on and within the given contour ‘C’ and 𝑧 = −𝜋/3 is
the point inside the contour
𝑧 =2
0, 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2 𝜋
− ,0
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4 3

⇒ Circle of centre (0, 0) with radius 2.

MIT SOE 62
Hence from (1), we have
𝑓(𝑧) 2𝜋𝑖
𝑑𝑧 = × 𝑓′′ 𝑎
𝑧;𝑎 3 2!
𝑐
∵ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧 2𝜋𝑖 ;𝜋 ⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
⇒ 4 𝑑𝑧 = × 𝑓′′′
𝑐
𝑧:𝜋/3 3! 3 ⇒ 𝑓′′ 𝑧 = −4 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧
⇒ 𝑓′′′ 𝑧 = −8𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧
2𝜋𝑖
= × −8𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑧 𝑧<−𝜋
3×2×1 3
𝜋𝑖 ;2𝜋
= × − 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3 3
𝜋𝑖 2𝜋 ;2𝜋 2𝜋
= × − 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
3 3 3 3

𝜋𝑖 1 2𝜋 1
= × −8 × − ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 =−
3 2 3 2
4𝜋𝑖
=
3
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑧 4𝜋𝑖
∴ 4 𝑑𝑧 =
𝑧:𝜋/3 3
𝑐

MIT SOE 63
 Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals
2z2:z:5 𝑥2 𝑦2
1. dz, where ‘C’ is the ellipse + = 1. Ans: 26𝜋𝑖
z;3 2 9 4
c
z3;2z:1
2. dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z| = 2. Ans: 2πi/e
z;𝑖 2
c
sin2z
3. 3 dz, where ‘C’ is the contour |𝑧| = 1. Ans: 𝜋𝑖
𝑧;𝜋/6
c
𝑒2𝑧
4. 4 dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z| = 2. Ans: 8πi/3e2
z:1
c

MIT SOE 64
 Complex Integration (Cauchy’s Residue Theorem)
• Singular Point: The point 𝑧0 is called singular point of the analytic function if the
given function is not analytic at that point.
• Isolated Singular Point: The singular point 𝑧0 is called isolated singular point of the
analytic function, if in the small neighborhood of 𝑧0 (say |𝑧 − 𝑧0| < ∈) there is no any
other singular point of the given function.
Laurent’s Series:
Laurent’s series of the function 𝑓(𝑧) around the point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 is given by
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2 + 𝑎3 𝑧 − 𝑧0 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛
+𝑎;1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ;1 + 𝑎;2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ;2 + ⋯ + 𝑎;𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ;𝑛
Analytic Part of Laurent’s Series:
Laurent’s series consisting of positive powers of (𝑧 − 𝑧0) is called the Analytic part of
the Laurent’s series i. e.
𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2 + 𝑎3 𝑧 − 𝑧0 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛

MIT SOE 65
Principal Part of Laurent’s Series:
Laurent’s series consisting of negative powers of (𝑧 − 𝑧0) is called the Principal part of the
Laurent’s series
;1 ;2 ;3 ;𝑛
i. e. 𝑎;1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎;2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑎;3 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + ⋯ + 𝑎;𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0
Here 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎;𝑛 are given by the integral
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧;𝑧0 𝑛+1
𝑐

• Simple Pole : If the Principal part of the Laurent’s series contains only first term
𝑎;1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ;1 , then the singular point 𝑧0 is called simple pole.
• Pole of order ‘2’ : If the Principal part of the Laurent’s series contains first two terms
𝑎;1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ;1 + 𝑎;2 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ;2 , then the singular point 𝑧0 is called pole of order ‘2’.
• Pole of order ‘n’: If the Principal part of the Laurent’s series contains all n terms, then
the singular point 𝑧0 is called pole of order ‘n’.
• Residue of 𝒇(𝒛): 𝑎;1 is called the residue of the function 𝑓(𝑧) given by
1
𝑎;1 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 SOE
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
MIT 66
 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a closed contour ‘C’ except at finite number of
isolated singular points within ‘C’, then

𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑛)
Where 𝑟1, 𝑟2, … 𝑟𝑛 are the residues at the singular points within ‘C’.
General Formula for Residue: Residue r at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑧0 of order n is given by
1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑟= 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑧<𝑧0

• Residue of simple pole : residue r at the simple pole 𝑧 = 𝑧0 is given by

𝑟= 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧<𝑧0
• Residue of pole of order ‘2’ : residue r at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑧0 of order ‘2’ is given by
𝑑
𝑟= 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝑧<𝑧0

MIT SOE 67
 2𝑧2:2𝑧:1
Example 1: Evaluate using Residue Theorem 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the
𝑧:1 3 𝑧;3
𝑐
contour |𝑧 + 1| = 2.
Solution: Let I = 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
2𝑧2:2𝑧:1
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧:1 3 𝑧;3

Here 𝑓 𝑧 has simple pole at 𝑧 = 3 = (3, 0) and the pole of order 3 at 𝑧 = −1 =

(−1, 0). Out of these two poles 𝑧 = 3 lies outside the contour and 𝑧 = −1 lies in the circle
𝑧+1 =2
𝑥+1 2 + 𝑦2 = 4
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1 = 2
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖𝑦 = 2
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 2 + 𝑦2 = 4 (-1, 0) (3, 0)

⇒ Circle of centre (−1, 0) and radius 2.

MIT SOE 68
 2𝑧2:2𝑧:1
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑅
𝑐 𝑧:1 3 𝑧;3
𝑐
where R is the residue at z = −1 given by
1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑅 = 𝑛−1 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑧<𝑧0
1 𝑑 3−1 2𝑧2:2𝑧:1
= 𝑧 − −1 × 3
3;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 3−1 𝑧:1 3 𝑧;3 𝑧<;1
1 𝑑2 3 2𝑧 2
:2𝑧:1 1 𝑑 𝑑 2𝑧2
:2𝑧:1
= 𝑧+1 × =
2! 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑧:1 3 𝑧;3 𝑧<;1 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;3 𝑧<;1
2
1 𝑑 𝑧;3 4𝑧:2 ; 2𝑧 :2𝑧:1 ×1 1 𝑑 4𝑧 :2𝑧;12𝑧;6;2𝑧2;2𝑧;1
2
= =
2 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;3 2 𝑧<;1 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;3 2
𝑧<;1
2 2 2
1 𝑑 2𝑧 ;12𝑧;7 1 𝑧;3 4𝑧;12 ; 2𝑧 ;12𝑧;7 2 𝑧;3
= =
2 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;3 2 𝑧<;1 2 𝑧;3 4 𝑧<;1
2
1 𝑧;3 4𝑧;12 ;2 2𝑧 ;12𝑧;7 1 ;1;3 ;4;12 ;2 2:12;7
= =
2 𝑧;3 3 𝑧<;1 2 ;1;3 3

1 ;4 ;16 ;2 7 1 64;14 1 50 25
= = = =−
2 ;4 3 2 ;64 2 ;64 64
2𝑧2:2𝑧:1 25 25𝜋𝑖
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × − = −
𝑧:1 3 𝑧;3 64 32
𝑐
MIT SOE 69
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
Example 2: Evaluate 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the contour |𝑧| = 4.
𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2
𝑐
Solution: Let I = 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
where 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2

Here 𝑓 𝑧 has simple pole at 𝑧 = 2 = (2, 0) and the pole of order 2 at 𝑧 = 1 =

(1, 0). These two poles lie inside the contour (circle)
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 16
𝑧 =4
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 4
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 4 (2, 0)
(1, 0)
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 16
⇒ Circle of centre (0, 0) and radius 4.

MIT SOE 70
 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
∴ 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 =
𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [𝑟1 + 𝑟2] ----------- (1)
𝑐
where 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the residues at z = 1, 2 given by
1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑟1 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑧<𝑧0
1 𝑑 2−1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
= 𝑧−1 ×
2;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 2−1 𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2 𝑧<1
1 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
=
1! 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;2 𝑧<1
1 𝑧;2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2𝜋𝑧:2 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧 ×1
2
=
1 𝑧;2 2 𝑧<1
𝑧;2 2𝜋𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧2:2 ;𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2;2𝑧
=
𝑧;2 2 𝑧<1
1;2 2𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋:2 ;𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋;2
=
1;2 2
;1 ;2𝜋:2 ;0;2
=
;1 2
= 2𝜋 − 4 MIT SOE 71
Similarly, we have
1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑟2 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑧<𝑧0
1 𝑑 1−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
= (𝑧 − 2) ×
1;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 1−1 𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2 𝑧<2
2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 :2𝑧
=
0! 𝑧;1 2 𝑧<2
𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋:4
=
2;1 2
4
=
1 2
=4
From (1), we have
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 2𝜋 − 4 + 4 = 2𝜋𝑖 [2𝜋] = 4𝜋2𝑖
𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2
𝑐
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧2:2𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑧 = 4𝜋2𝑖
𝑧;1 2 𝑧;2
𝑐
MIT SOE 72
 Exercise
1. Find the residues at each of the poles of the functions:
z3:2 6 ;1 1
(i) 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧:1 2(𝑧;𝑖)(𝑧:2)
Ans:
5
2−𝑖 ,
10
4 + 3𝑖 ,
2
−2 + 3𝑖
1 ;𝑖 𝑖
(ii) 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2:1
Ans: ,
2 2
z:1 ;1 1
(iii) 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧2:1
Ans: (−1 + 𝑖), (1 + 𝑖)
2 2
z3:2z ;13 5 1
(iv) 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧:1 3(𝑧2;9)
Ans: , ,
128 128 16

2. Evaluate the following integrals

z3:2z ;𝜋𝑖
(i) dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z − 3| = 5 Ans:
𝑧:1 3(𝑧2;9) 8
c
z:2
(ii) dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z − i| = 1/2 Ans: 𝜋(2 + 𝑖)
𝑧2:1
c
(iii) 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑧 dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z| = 4
c
Ans: 6πi
π
(iv) c
𝑒𝑧𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑧 dz, where ‘C’ is the circle |z| = 2 Ans: −4πisinh
2

MIT SOE 73
 Evaluation of definite integral involving sine and cosine
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem:
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic on and within a closed contour ‘C’ except at finite number of
isolated singular points within ‘C’, then

𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑛)
Where 𝑟1, 𝑟2, … 𝑟𝑛 are the residues at the singular points within ‘C’.
General Formula for Residue: Residue r at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑧0 of order n is given by
1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑟= 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑧<𝑧0

• Residue of simple pole : residue r at the simple pole 𝑧 = 𝑧0 is given by

𝑟= 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑧<𝑧0
• Residue of pole of order ‘2’ : residue r at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑧0 of order ‘2’ is given by
𝑑
𝑟= 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧 𝑧<𝑧0MIT SOE 74
 𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽
Procedure to evaluate the integration 𝟎 𝒂:𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
or 𝟎 𝒂:𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
.
Here the closed curve is a circle of unit radius C ∶ 𝑧 = 1.
Now we know that
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1. 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , then
⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 (0, 0)

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
⇒ 𝑑𝜃 = =
𝑖𝑒 ⅈ𝜃 𝑖𝑧
Consider
1 1 1
𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑧 +
𝑧 2 𝑧
1 1 1
𝑧 − = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑧 −
𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧

MIT SOE 75
 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
Example 1: Evaluate 0 5:4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
.
Solution: We have to evaluate
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
𝐼= 0 5:4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
-------- (1)
Here the closed curve is a circle of unit radius C ∶ 𝑧 = 1.
Now we know that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1. 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , then
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 = =
𝑖𝑒 ⅈ𝜃 𝑖𝑧
Consider
1 1 1
𝑧 − = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑧−
𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧
Hence (1) becomes

1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐼= 4 1 = 2 = 2
5ⅈ𝑧+2𝑧 −2 𝑖𝑧 =
2𝑧2:5𝑖𝑧;2 𝑖𝑧
5:2ⅈ 𝑧;𝑧 𝑖𝑧 5:ⅈ𝑧 𝑧2;1 𝑖𝑧
𝑐
ⅈ𝑧
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

MIT SOE 76
 ;5𝑖± (;5𝑖)2 ;4×2×(;2) ;5𝑖± 25𝑖 2 :16
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ∵𝑧= =
2×2 4
𝐼= =
2𝑧2:5𝑖𝑧;2 (𝑧:2𝑖) 2𝑧:𝑖 ;5𝑖± ;25:16 ;5𝑖± ;9 ;5𝑖±3𝑖 ;𝑖
𝑐 𝑐 = = = = −2𝑖,
4 4 4 2
𝑑𝑧
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = has two simple poles at 𝑧 = −2𝑖 = (0, 2) and 𝑧 = −𝑖/2 =
(𝑧:2𝑖) 2𝑧:𝑖
(0, −1/2). Out of these two poles, the pole 𝑧 = −2𝑖 lies outside the contour and the pole
𝑧 = −𝑖/2 lies inside the contour (circle)
𝑧 =1
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1 (0, 0) (0, -1/2)
⇒ Circle of centre (0, 0) and radius 1.
𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑅 - - - - (2)
(𝑧:2𝑖) 2𝑧:𝑖
𝑐
where R is the residue at z = −𝑖/2 given by
(0, -2)
MIT SOE 77
 1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑅 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑧<𝑧0
1 𝑑 1−1 1
= 𝑧 − −𝑖/2 ×
1;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 1−1 (𝑧:2𝑖) 2𝑧:𝑖 𝑧<;𝑖/2
1 1 1
= 2𝑧 + 𝑖 ×
0! 2 (𝑧:2𝑖) 2𝑧:𝑖 𝑧<;𝑖/2
1 1
=
2 (𝑧:2𝑖) 𝑧<;𝑖/2
1 1 1 1 1
= = −ⅈ+4ⅈ =
2 (;𝑖/2:2𝑖) 2 3𝑖
2
Hence from (1) and (2), we have
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝑧2:2𝑧:1 1 2𝜋
0 5:4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 3
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × =
𝑧:1 𝑧;3 3𝑖 3
𝑐
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
∴ 0 5:4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
3

MIT SOE 78
 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
Example 2: Evaluate 0
.
2
5;3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Solution: We have to evaluate

2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
𝐼= 0 2
-------- (1)
5;3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Here the closed curve is a circle of unit radius C ∶ 𝑧 = 1.

Now we know that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1. 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , then
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝜃 = =
𝑖𝑒 ⅈ𝜃 𝑖𝑧
Consider
1 1 1 1
𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑧+ = 𝑧2 + 1
𝑧 2 𝑧 2𝑧

Hence (1) becomes

1 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑑𝑧 4𝑧2 𝑑𝑧 4𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝐼= 𝑧 +1 2 𝑖𝑧 =
2
3 =
10𝑧;3𝑧2;3 2 =
3𝑧2;10𝑧:3 2
5;3 2𝑧 5;2𝑧 𝑧2:1 2 𝑖𝑧 𝑐
𝑖𝑧
𝑐
𝑖
𝑐 𝑐
MIT SOE 79
 ;(;10)± (;10)2 ;4×3×3 10± 100;36
4 𝑧𝑑𝑧 4 𝑧𝑑𝑧 ∵𝑧= =
2×3 4
𝐼= =
𝑖 3𝑧2;10𝑧:3 2
𝑖 𝑧;3 3𝑧;1 2
10± 64 10±8
𝑐 𝑐 = = = 3, 1/3
6 6
𝑧
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = has two simple poles of order 2 at 𝑧 = 3 = (3, 0) and
𝑧;3 2 3𝑧;1 2

𝑧 = 1/3 = (1/3,0). Out of these two poles, the pole 𝑧 = 3 lies outside the contour and the
pole
𝑧 = 1/3 lies inside the contour (circle) 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1
𝑧 =1
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1 (0, 0) (1/3, 0) (3, 0)
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1
⇒ Circle of centre (0, 0) and radius 1.
4 𝑧𝑑𝑧 4
∴ 𝑐
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2 = × 2𝜋𝑖 × 𝑅 -- (2)
𝑖 𝑧;3 3𝑧;1 𝑖
𝑐
where R is the residue at z = 1/3
MIT SOE 80
 1 𝑑 𝑛−1
𝑅 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛𝑓(𝑧)
𝑛;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑧<𝑧0
1 𝑑 2−1 𝑧
= 𝑧 − 1/3 2 ×
2;1 ! 𝑑𝑧 2−1 𝑧;3 2 3𝑧;1 2
𝑧<1/3
1 𝑑 2 𝑧 1 𝑑 𝑧
= 3𝑧 − 1 × =
9 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;3 2 3𝑧;1 2
𝑧<1/3 9 𝑑𝑧 𝑧;3 2
𝑧<1/3
1 𝑧;3 2.1;𝑧.2 𝑧;3
=
9 𝑧;3 4 𝑧<1/3
1 𝑧;3 ;2𝑧 1 ;𝑧;3 1 ;1/3;3 1 ;10/3 1 10 27
= = = = = × ×
9 𝑧;3 3 𝑧<1/3 9 𝑧;3 3 𝑧<1/3 9 1/3;3 3 9 ;8/3 3 9 3 64×8
5
=
64×4
Hence from (1) and (2), we have
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 4 𝑧𝑑𝑧 4 5 5𝜋
= = × 2𝜋𝑖 × =
0 5;3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝑖 𝑐 𝑧;3 3𝑧;1 2
𝑖 64×4 32
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 5𝜋
∴ 2 =
0 5;3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 32
MIT SOE 81
 Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals
2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1. 0 5:4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

−1 𝑧4 − 1 𝑑𝑧 1 5 5
Ans: 𝐼 = 2
= − × 2πi − =0
2 𝑧 2𝑧 + 1 𝑧 + 2 2 4 4
𝑐

MIT SOE 82
MIT SOE 83