Process Control

Fundamentals
ENG. AHMED DEYAB
Introduction to Process Control
•Chemical plants are never truly at steady state.

•Feed and environmental disturbances, heat exchanger

fouling, and catalytic degradation continuously upset
the conditions of a smooth-running process
•Process dynamics refer to an unsteady-state or
transient behavior.
Steady-state vs. unsteady-state behavior
i.Steady state: variables do not change with time
Control

◦To maintain desired conditions in a

physical system by adjusting

selected variables in the system.

What does a control system do?
Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire on a cold
winter evening. You feel uncomfortably cold, so you throw another
log on the fire.

This is an example of a control loop. In the control loop, a variable

(temperature) fell below the setpoint (your comfort level), and you
took action to bring the process back into the desired condition by
adding fuel to the fire. The control loop will now remain static until
the temperature again rises above or falls below your comfort level.
Importance of Process Control for
the Chemical Process Industries
Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:

Reduce variability
Increase efficiency
Ensure safety

Process Control has a major impact on the profitability of a company in the

CPI.
Safety and Reliability

The control system must provide A control system must be able to

safe operation “absorb” a variety of
disturbances and keep the
process in a good operating
region:
Alarms, safety constraint control, start-up Thunderstorms, feed composition upsets,
and shutdown. temporary loss of utilities (e.g., steam
supply), day to night variation in the ambient
conditions
Safety
The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary
requirement for the well-being of the people in the plant and
for its continued contribution to the economic development.

Thus the operating pressures, temperatures, concentration of

chemicals and so on should always be within allowable limits.
Production specifications
A plant should produce the desired amounts and quality of
the final products.

For example, we may require the production of 2 million

pounds of ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity. Therefore, a
control system is needed to ensure that the production level
and the purity specifications are satisfied.
Environmental regulations

Various federal and state

Such regulations exist for
laws may specify that the
example on the amounts of
temperatures,
SO2 that a plant can eject to
concentrations of chemicals
the atmosphere, and on the
and flow rates of the
quality of the water returned
effluents from a plant be
to a river or lake.
within certain limits.
Maximizing the Profit of a Plant

Many times involves controlling against constraints.

The closer that you are able to operate to these constraints,
the more profit you can make. For example, maximizing the
product production rate usually involving controlling the
process against one or more process constraints.
 Consider a reactor temperature control
example for which at excessively high
temperatures the reactor will experience a
temperature runaway and explode.

Constraint
Control But the higher the temperature the greater
the product yield.

Example
Therefore, better reactor temperature
control allows safe operation at a higher
reactor temperature and thus more profit.
Temperature Control – Heat Exchanger
Steam
Setpoint
Product TC
Stream

TT

Feed Condensate
How is control done
Control is accomplished through a rational arrangement of
equipment (measuring devices, valves, controllers,
computers) and human intervention (plant designers, plant
operators), which together constitute a control system.
 Control loops in the process control
industry work in the same way,
requiring three tasks to occur:
THREE
TASKS Measurement
Comparison
Adjustment
Loop Components
 Controlled variable: it is the variable that needs to be
maintained or controlled at some desired value or range.
Sometimes also referred to as process variable.
Set Point: it is the desired value of the controlled
Important variable. Thus the job of a control system is to maintain
the controlled variable at its set point.
terms Manipulated variable is the variable used to maintain
the controlled variable at its set point.
Disturbance: any variable that causes the controlled
variable to deviate from its set point. Also referred to as
upset.
Heat Exchanger Control
Controlled variable - Outlet temperature of product stream
Manipulated variable - Steam flow
Actuator - Control valve on steam line
Sensor - Thermocouple on product stream
Disturbance - Changes in the inlet feed temperature
Logic Flow Diagram for a
Feedback Control Loop
Disturbance

Setpoint e c u
+- Controller Actuator Process CV

Sensor
 Feedback

Feedback vs. Control action after an error exists

Feedforward
Feedforward
Reacting to the disturbance before the error
occurs
Process Variable T2

Disturbances:
1. ………………………….. 4 -……………………………….
2. …………………………... 5- ………………………………
3. …………………………… 6- ……………………………….
Process Variable T2

1. Feed flowrate 4 -Fouling

2. Steam flowrate 5- Steam Temperature
3. Feed temperature 6- Pressure
Feedback Control
The key feature of all feedback control loops is that the
measured value of the controlled variable is compared
with the set point and this difference is used to determine
the control action taken.
Feed forward Control:
Distinguishing feature: measure a disturbance variable

Advantage: Disadvantage:

•Correct for disturbance •Must be able to measure

before it upsets the the disturbance.
process. •No corrective action for
unmeasured
disturbances.

28
Feed forward Model (Boiler Steam Drum)
Temperature Control Loop
Feedback Control Loop
Level control

Feed

Tank
Product

The inlet flow comes from an upstream process, and may change with time
The level in the tank must be kept constant despite these changes
Level controller
LIC: Level Indicator
Controller
Feed

SP

PV (t) Error (t)

LIC
Tank
Product

Valve
Opening
(OP)
Error = Process Variable (PV) – Set Point (SP)
Feedback control

It is the most important and widely used control strategy

It is a closed-loop control strategy

Block diagram
disturbance

comparator manipulated
y variable y
sp
+ controller process
– error
set-point controlled
variable

transmitter
Back to level control
Flow in
desired value
(set-point)
disturbance
transmitter
SP

LT LC

controlled controller
variable
(measurement
)

process
Flow out

manipulated
variable
 • Primary element/sensor
• Converter
• Transducer
Components • Transmitter

of Control • Indicator

Loops • Recorder
• Controller
• Correcting element/final control element
• Actuator
PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS
In all cases, some kind of instrument is measuring
changes in the process and reporting a process variable
measurement.
Some of the greatest ingenuity in the process control field
is apparent in sensing devices.
Because sensing devices are the first element in the
control loop to measure the process variable, they are
also called primary elements
 Pressure sensing diaphragms, strain gauges, capacitance cells
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
Thermocouples
Orifice plates
Pitot tubes
Examples of Venturi tubes
primary Magnetic flow tubes
elements Coriolis flow tubes
Radar emitters and receivers
Ultrasonic emitters and receivers
Annubar flow elements
Vortex sheddar
Magnetic flow tubes
Primary elements are devices that cause some change in their
property with changes in process fluid conditions that can then be
measured.
For example, when a conductive fluid passes through the magnetic
field in a magnetic flow tube, the fluid generates a voltage that is
directly proportional to the velocity of the process fluid.
The primary element (magnetic flow tube) outputs a voltage that can
be measured and used to calculate the fluid’s flow rate.
RTD (Resistance temperature detectors )
With an RTD, as the temperature of a process fluid
surrounding the RTD rises or falls, the electrical
resistance of the RTD increases or decreases a
proportional amount.
The resistance is measured, and from this measurement,
temperature is determined.
TRANSMITTERS
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor into a
standard signal and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller.
Transmitter types include:
- Pressure transmitters
- Flow transmitters
- Temperature transmitters
- Level transmitters
SIGNALS
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process
industry to transmit the process variable measurement
from the instrument to a centralized control system.

1. Pneumatic signal
2. Analog signal
3. Digital signal
Pneumatic Signals
Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in
proportion to the measured change in a process variable.

The common industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3–15 psig.

The 3 corresponds to the lower range value (LRV) and the 15 corresponds to the upper range
value (URV).

Pneumatic signaling is still common. However, since the advent of electronic instruments in
the 1960s, the lower costs involved in running electrical signal wire through a plant as
opposed to running pressurized air tubes has made pneumatic signal technology less
attractive.
Analog Signals
The most common standard electrical signal is the 4–20 mA current signal. With this signal,
a transmitter sends a small current through a set of wires. The current signal is a kind of
gauge in which 4 mA represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20 mA
represents the highest possible measurement.
For example, imagine a process that must be maintained at 100 °C.
An RTD temperature sensor and transmitter are installed in the process vessel, and the
transmitter is set to produce a 4 mA signal when the process temperature is at 95 °C and a
20 mA signal when the process temperature is at 105 °C.
The transmitter will transmit a 12 mA signal when the temperature is at the 100 °C setpoint.
As the sensor’s resistance property changes in response to changes in temperature, the
transmitter outputs a 4–20 mA signal that is proportionate to the temperature changes. This
signal can be converted to a temperature reading or an input to a control device, such as a
burner fuel valve.
Other common standard electrical signals include the 1–5 V (volts) signal and the pulse
output.
Digital Signals
Digital signals are the most recent addition to process control signal
technology. Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are combined in
specific ways to represent process variables and also carry other
information, such as diagnostic information. The methodology used to
combine the digital signals is referred to as protocol.
Manufacturers may use either an open or a proprietary digital protocol.
Open protocols are those that anyone who is developing a control device
can use. Proprietary protocols are owned by specific companies and may be
used only with their permission.
Open digital protocols include the HART® (highway addressable remote
transducer) protocol, FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus, Profibus, DeviceNet, and the
Modbus® protocol.
Transducers & Converters

A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical

signal into an electrical signal. For example, inside a
capacitance pressure device, a transducer converts
changes in pressure into a proportional change in
capacitance.
CONVERTERS
A converter is a device that converts one type of signal
into another type of signal. For example, a converter may
convert current into voltage or an analog signal into a
digital signal.
In process control, a converter used to convert a 4–20 mA
current signal into a 3–15 psig pneumatic signal
(commonly used by valve actuators) is called a current-to-
pressure I/P converter.
INDICATORS
While most instruments are connected to a control system, operators
sometimes need to check a measurement on the factory floor at the
measurement point. An indictor makes this reading possible.
An indicator is a human-readable device that displays information
about the process. Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or
temperature gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out
device.
Some indicators simply display the measured variable, while others
have control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the
field.
CONTROLLERS

A controller is a device that receives data from a

measurement instrument, compares that data to a

programmed setpoint, and, if necessary, signals a control

element to take corrective action.

Final Control Element
Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid flow.

For example, a final control element may regulate the flow of fuel to a burner to control
temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a reactor to control a chemical reaction, or the flow of air
into a boiler to control boiler combustion.

In any control loop, the speed with which a final control element reacts to correct a variable that
is out of setpoint is very important.

Many of the technological improvements in final control elements are related to improving their
response time.
Actuators

An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in the
final control device when signaled to do so.
The most common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes
a valve in response to control signals from a controller.
Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically.
Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot valves, pistons, or electric
motors are often parts of an actuator system
Globe Valve

54
Multiple use of an End Device
RECORDERS
A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement
devices.
Many process manufacturers are required by law to provide a
process history to regulatory agencies, and manufacturers use
recorders to help meet these regulatory requirements.
In addition, manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for
trend analysis.
By recording the readings of critical measurement points and
comparing those readings over time with the results of the process,
the process can be improved.
Trend
Display
Trend Display
DCS System Consoles
DCS System
Graphic
Display
 A disadvantage of feedback control

In conventional feedback control the corrective action for

disturbances does not begin until after the controlled variable
deviates from the set point
TC

If either the cold oil flow rate or

stack gas
the cold oil temperature change,
the controller may do a good job
TT
in keeping the hot oil temperature
at the setpoint

hot oil
fuel gas cold oil

What if the pressure or flow of the fuel gas changes?

 Cascade control # 1
TC
master loop

stack gas The performance can be

set point improved because the fuel
control valve will be adjusted
PC
as soon as the change in
slave loop TT
supply pressure is detected
PT

hot oil
fuel gas cold oil

Two control loops are nested within each other: the master
controller and the slave controller
◦ the output signal of the master (primary) controller serves as the set point
of the slave (secondary) controller
Simple Feedback Loop
Simple
Cascade
Control
Loop
CASCADE EXAMPLE
USING A FLOW CONTROL TO THE FLASH TANK

• WOULD REQUIRE THAT IT CHANGE ACCORDING TO THE MASTER FEED

• THE EXTENDED LAG TIME WOULD MAKE THIS CONTROL INEFFECTIVE.

USING A FLASH FEED BASED ON LEVEL CONTROL

• PROVIDES A MORE IMMEDIATE RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN THE

REACTOR FEED
• THE GAIN WOULD NEED TO BE ADJUSTED TO ALLOW FOR THE
CAPACITANCE OF THE SYSTEM.
CASCADE EFFECTS
FOR THIS EXAMPLE THE FEEDS TO THE REACTOR ARE SET
BY ONE MASTER FLOW WITH THE SECOND FLOW FED BY
RATIO.
 1 Begin with both the master and the slave controllers in manual
2 Tune the slave (inner) loop for set-point tracking first (the tuning

Tuning a guidelines presented before can be used)

3 Close the slave loop, and adjust the tuning online to ensure
cascade good performance

loop 4 Leaving the inner loop closed, tune the master loop for
disturbance rejection (the tuning guidelines presented before
can be used)
5 Close the master loop, and adjust the tuning online to ensure
good performance

A P-only controller is often sufficient for the slave loop

 ☺ It is used to improve the dynamic response
of the process to load disturbances
☺ It is particularly useful when the
disturbances are associated with the
Summary manipulated variable or when the final
on cascade control element exhibits nonlinear behavior
 The disturbances to be rejected must be
control within the inner loop
 The inner loop must respond much more
quickly than the outer loop
 Two controllers must be tuned
Relative Loop Performance to
Supply Upsets
Typical
Split-Range
Control
Loop
Controller
Algorithms and
Tuning
Feed Back Control Loop
LIC: Level Indicator
Controller
Feed

SP

PV (t) Error (t)

LIC
Tank
Product

Valve
Opening
(OP)
Error = Process Variable (PV) – Set Point (SP)
Feed Back Control Loop

Feed

SP
50%
PV (t) Error (t) = 5%
LIC
Tank
55%
Product

Valve
Opening
50%
(OP) 60%
Controller Tuning

 P –Proportional

 PI – Proportional Integral

 PID – Proportional Integral Derivative

Controller Tuning

𝑂𝑃 𝑡 α 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡

𝑂𝑃(𝑡) = × 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡
Performance of P-only controllers
Response to a disturbance step change
no control
(KC=0) • Whatever the value of KC,
the offset is reduced with
increasing KC respect to open-loop
operation
controlled variable

• Increasing KC :
the offset is reduced
the system may oscillate
the process response is
off-set speeded up
• Although the open-loop
response may be 1st order,
set-point
the closed-loop one is not

time
Controller Tuning

𝑂𝑃 𝑡 α⨜𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡
𝐾𝑐
𝑂𝑃(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑐 × 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡 + ⨜𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Performance of PI controllers

Response to a disturbance step change: effect of KC

open-loop
(KC=0)

The offset is eliminated

Increasing KC :
controlled variable

the process response is speeded up

 fixed the system may oscillate
increasing KC

CAUTION
For large values of the controller
gain, the closed-loop response
set point
may be unstable !
time
Performance of PI controllers (cont’d)
Response to a disturbance step change: effect of I
Increasing I :
oscillations are
controlled variable

KC fixed dampened
increasing I the process response is
made more sluggish

CAUTION
For small values
set point of the integral
time, the closed-
loop response
may be unstable
time !
Controller Tuning

𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑡)
𝑂𝑃 𝑡 α
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑐 𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑡)
𝑂𝑃(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑐 × 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡 + ⨜𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑐 × ×
𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Performance of PID controllers
Response to a disturbance step change
no derivative action Increasing D :
D = 0 the oscillations caused by
the integral action are
increasing D dampened
controlled variable

the process response is

speeded up

CAUTION
set-point Noisy measurements may
disrupt the controller
performance !

time
Piping and Instrument
Diagram(P&ID)
Contains: plant construction information (piping, process,
instrumentation, and other diagrams)
ISA Symbology

The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society

(ISA) is one of the leading process control trade and
standards organizations. The ISA has developed a set of
symbols for use in engineering drawings and designs of
control loops
First Letter
First letter Parameters controlled
A Analysis
C Conductivity
D Density
E Voltage
F Flow Rate
I Current
L Level
M Moisture(Humidity)
P Pressure or Vacuum
T Temperature
V Viscosity
Next Letter
Next letter Control equipment type
A Alarm Q Totalizer
C Controller IQ Indicating Totalizer
I Indicator XV Solenoid Valve
T Transmitter Y Calculation
V Control Valve FY Ratio Calculation
E Element SL Switch Low
IC Indicator Controller SH Switch High
FC Ratio Controller AL Alarm Low
R Recorder ALL Alarm Low Low
HS Hand Switch AH Alarm High
HV Hand Valve
AHH Alarm High High
Legend
Abbreviations
Valves
Valves
Valves

"V" - D# - SQ
Where;
•HV or V - A literal and required part of all hand valve tags
•D# - last two digits of P&ID drawing number
•SQ - Sequence Number (01 to 99)
•V0001 - The first hand valve on P&ID D100
•V1205 - The fifth hand valve on P&ID D112
Piping &
Connection
Piping
Lines
Lines
1) Usage: For 2) Line Number:
example, process, The identification
drain, nitrogen, number of the line
blowdown, etc. on the plant.

4) Piping Class:
The piping
3) Size: Usually in
specification, both
inches.
material and
pressure rating

5) Insulation Class
Lines
Lines
Instruments
Instruments
 In a P&ID, a circle represents individual
ISA Symbology measurement instruments, such as
transmitters, sensors, and detectors
A single horizontal line running across the center of the shape The absence of a line indicates that the function is field
indicates that the instrument or function is in a primary mounted.
location (e.g., a control room). Dotted line indicates that the function or instrument is
inaccessible (e.g., located behind a panel board).
A double line indicates that the function is in an auxiliary
location (e.g., an instrument rack).
Board Mounted
Field Mounted
Not Accessible
A square with a circle inside
represents instruments that
both

- Display
measurement readings and

- Perform some
control function
A hexagon represents computer
functions, such as those carried
out by a controller
Exercise

222
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THANK YOU