Assoc. Prof. Dr.

EMRAH ÖZAHİ
Group B____________

Assitant(s): Alperen Tozlu

Textbook
Textbook
Fundamentals of
Thermodynamics,
Claus Borgnakke,
Richard E. Sonntag,
Wiley, 8th Edition

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT ASSOC. PROF. DR. EMRAH ÖZAHİ
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Contents
 CH 1 INTRODUCTION

 CH 2 PURE SUBSTANCE BEHAVIOR

 CH 3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND

ENERGY EQUATION

 CH 4 ENERGY EQUATION FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

 CH 5 THE CLASSICAL SECOND LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS

 CH 6 ENTROPY FOR A CONTROL MASS

 CH 7 ENTROPY EQUATION FOR A CONTROL VOLUME

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Property Tables
Property Tables: Termodinamik
ve Isı Geçişi Tabloları

Aksel Öztürk,
Abdurahman Kılıç,
Hasbi Yavuz

Çağlayan Kitapevi, 4. Basım.

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FIRST MIDTERM 17.03.2016 Hour : 10.20

SECOND MIDTERM 28.04.2016 Hour: 10.20

TUTORIALS

01.03.2016
15.03.2016
29.03.2016
26.04.2016
10.05.2016
12.05.2016

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Some Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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 The Simple Steam Power Plant

Schematic diagram of a steam power plant

The Esbjerg, Denmark power station

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 Schematic Diagram of a Power Plant

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Schematic Diagram of a Simple Refrigeration Cycle

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A Simplified Diagram of a Liquid Oxygen Plant

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 A 43 MW Gas Turbine

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 Significant Figures

 If you are required to perform a calculation in which the uncertainties

are not known, and all you have to work with is the number of
significant figures in each quantity in the calculation,
 using the proper number of significant figures in calculations is an important part
of carrying out credible engineering work.

 There are two types of numbers used in engineering calculations:

 1. Exact values such as an integer number used in counting

(for example, 5 golden rings) or numbers fixed by definition
(for example, 3600 seconds = 1 hour)

 2. Inexact values produced by physical measurements such as the diameter of a

pipe, or the velocity or height of an object

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 What is a “Significant Figure”?

 A significant figure is any one of the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

Zero is also a significant figure except when used simply to fix the
decimal point or to fill the places of unknown or discarded digits.

 A number reported as "0.000452" has only three significant figures (4, 5 and 2)
since the leading zeros are used simply to fix the decimal point.

 The number 7305 has four significant figures.

 The number 2300 may have two or four significant figures. In order to convey
which ending zero's of a number are significant, it should be written as 2.3𝑥103 if it
has only two significant figures, 2.30𝑥103 if it has three, and 2.300𝑥103 if it has
four.

 The number of significant figures associated with a measurement is

determined only by knowing how the measurement was made.

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 Rules for Operations

Rule for Addition and Subtraction

 The sum or difference of two numbers should contain no more significant

figures farther to the right of the decimal point than occur in the least
accurate number used in the operation. For example, 114.2 + 1.31 =
115.51 must be rounded to 115.5 since the least precise number in this
operation is 114.2 (having only 1 place to the right of the decimal point).
Similarly, 114.2 - 1.31 = 112.89 must be rounded to 112.9.

Rule for Multiplication and Division

 The product or quotient should contain no more significant figures than

are contained in the term with the least number of significant figures
used in the operation. For example, 114.2 × 1.31 = 149.602 must be
rounded to 150 since the term 1.31 contains only 3 significant figures.
Also, 114.2/1.31 = 87.1756 must be rounded to 87.2 for the same
reason.

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 What About Intermediate Calculations?

• When doing multi-step calculations, keep one or two more digits in

intermediate results than needed in your final answer.

• If you round-off all your intermediate answers to the correct number of

significant figures, you are discarding the information contained in the
next digit, and the last digit in your final answer might be incorrect.

 For example, the calculation: 12×12×1.5 will have an answer with two
significant figures. But you should use the intermediate results without
rounding because 12×12 = 144, and 1.44×1.5 = 216 → 220. But if you
had rounded 144 to 140 you would have obtained 140×1.5 = 210, which
is pretty far off. It is always best to wait until the end of a calculation to
round to the correct number of significant figures.

• Never round in the middle of a calculation - only round the final

answer.

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 Orders of Magnitude
• When an experiment is performed, we often have a feel the size of the
numerical values that should emerge. This may come from having
performed a similar experiment in the past, or just from everyday
familiarity with the quantity being studied.

 For example, if we were to measure the velocity of a car moving along a

main street and found it to be 4x106 m/s, we should suspect something
to be wrong. Equally, when measuring the mass of a glass of beaker we
should look again if that mass turned out to be 49 kg. We are saying that
there are many situations in which it should be possible to assess how
sensible the numbers are that emerge from an experiment, at least to
within a factor of 10 of the “actual” value. We speak of knowing the value
to within an order of magnitude.

• The habit of estimating the expected measured value to within an order

of magnitude is very helpful for avoiding gross (and embarrassing)
mistakes. Imagine you are given a voltmeter and battery that has been
removed from a radio and are asked to determine the output voltage of
the battery. People will be amused if you report that voltage as 1500 V,
and may not take anything else you have to say seriously.
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 Some Concepts and Definitions
 Thermodynamics: The science of energy.
 Energy: The ability to cause changes.
 The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek
words therme (energy or temperature) and
dynamics (movement, power).
 Conservation of energy principle: During an
interaction, energy can change from one form to
another but the total amount of energy remains
constant.
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
 The first law of thermodynamics: An expression of
the conservation of energy principle.
 The first law asserts that energy is a thermodynamic
property. Energy cannot be created
or destroyed; it only
Conservation of energy manifest itself in different
principle for the human body. forms (the first law).

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 The second law of thermodynamics: It asserts
that energy has quality as well as quantity, and
actual processes occur in the direction of
decreasing quality of energy.

 Classical thermodynamics: A macroscopic

approach to the study of thermodynamics that
does not require a knowledge of the behavior
of individual particles.

 It provides a direct and easy way to the

solution of engineering problems and it is used
in this text.

 Statistical thermodynamics: A microscopic Heat flows in the direction

approach, based on the average behavior of of decreasing temperature.
large groups of individual particles.

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 Control Volumes and Units

A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM AND THE CONTROL VOLUME

 System: A quantity of matter or a region in

space chosen for study.

 Surroundings: The mass or region outside

the system.

 Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that

separates the system from its surroundings.

 The boundary of a system can be fixed or

movable.

 Systems may be considered to be closed or

open.

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 Closed System (Control Mass)

No mass can cross its boundary implies that  a fixed amount of mass is
under investigation.

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An isolated system is a general system where neither mass nor the energy transfer (in
the form of heat or work) is allowed to cross the system boundary.

Therefore, an isolated system is a special case of closed system with no energy transfer
allowed through the boundary of the system.

Isolated System Boundary

No Heat Transfer Work

Surr 4
No Work Interaction Mass
System
Surr 3
Mass
No Mass Transfer Surr 1 Heat
Surr 2
Across an Isolated
System Boundary

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT ASSOC. PROF. DR. EMRAH ÖZAHİ
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 Open System (Control Volume)
A properly selected region in space  mass can cross its boundary.

Compressor, turbine, heat exchanger, or nozzle are some examples of CV.

An open system (control volume) with one inlet and one exit.
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Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be
real or imaginary.

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 Continuum Hypothesis

The continuum model is applicable as long as the

characteristic length of the system (such as its
diameter) is much larger than the mean free path
of the molecules.

Continuum is known to be valid for Kn < 0.01

In this course we will always treat fluids as continuum
The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions

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 Phase and State
A phase is defined as a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout. When more
than one phase is present, the phases are separated from each other by the phase
boundaries.

In each phase the substance may exist at various

pressures and temperatures or, to use the
thermodynamic term, in various states.

The state may be identified or described by certain

observable, macroscopic properties; some familiar ones
are temperature, pressure, and density.

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 Properties of a System
 Property: Any characteristic of a system; some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive:

 Intensive properties: Those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.

 Extensive properties: Those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the
system.

 Specific properties: Extensive properties per unit mass.

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 EQUILIBRIUM
A system reaching thermal equilibrium.
 Equilibrium: A state of balance.
Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
 In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.

Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.

Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of the system

with time.

Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.

Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not change with
time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP ME 204: THERMODYNAMICS I
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 PROCESSES and CYCLES

Quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such a

manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all
times.
Process: Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another.
Path: The series of states through which a system
passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should
specify the initial and final states, as well as the
path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.

Cycle: A process during which the initial and final states are identical.
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The prefix iso- is often used to designate a
process for which a particular property remains
constant.

Isobaric process: A process during which the

pressure P remains constant.

Isothermal process: A process during which

the temperature T remains constant.

Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process

during which the specific volume v remains The P-V diagram for a compression
constant. process.
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 The State Postulate

 The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the
state postulate:

 The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two

independent, intensive properties.

 Simple compressible system: A system which involves no electrical,

magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects

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Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force

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 SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
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 Specific Volume and Density

Specific volume Density

Density of common substances

Density is mass per

unit volume; specific
volume is volume per
unit mass.

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 PRESSURE

F
A
P
A
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa 1 bar = 105 Pa = = 100 kPa = 0.1MPa

1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 14.696 Ibf/in2 (= psi)

Some Bourdon Gage type

pressure measuring devices.

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 Absolute and Gage Pressure
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
surrounding pressure. Mostly, Psurr = Patm.
 Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

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Measuring Pressure: U – Tube Manometer
The force acting downward at the bottom of the column is
PB  Po A  mg  Po A   A g H
This force must be balanced by the upward force at the
bottom of the column, which is PB A. Therefore,
PB  Po   g H
Since points A and B are at the same elevation in columns
of the same fluid, their pressures must be equal

P  P  Po   g H
(the fluid being measured in the vessel has a much lower density,
such that its pressure P is equal to PA)

Consider the barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure,

Since there is a near vacuum in the closed tube above the
vertical column of fluid, usually mercury, the height of the column
gives the atmospheric pressure
Patm   g H 0
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 ENERGY

The concept of energy is so familiar to us today that it is intuitively obvious, yet we have
difficulty in defining it exactly.

Energy is a scalar quantity that cannot be observed directly but can be recorded and
evaluated by indirect measurements.

The absolute value of the energy of a system is difficult to measure, whereas its energy
change is rather easy to calculate. Luckily, what we need to know is the change in
energy of a system rather than the absolute value of energy of a system.

Energy comes in many inter - convertible forms

- internal (atomic motion in solids, liquids & gases) - electrical & magnetic
- chemical - in molecular bonds (coal power) - kinetic (wind power)
- potential – gravitational (hydropower) - radiant (solar power)
- nuclear – in proton-neutron bonds (nuclear power)

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 ENERGY

The sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system. The magnetic, electrical, surface
tension, radiant, nuclear etc. effects are significant in some specialized cases only. In the
absence of such effects, the total energy of a system is taken as the sum of the bulk
kinetic and potential energies KE and PE, and the internal energy, U.

E = m e = U + KE + PE + … ( J or kJ)
KE = ½ m V2 & PE = m g z
or, on a unit mass basis, i.e., specific total energy

e = E / m = u + ke + pe + … ( J/kg or kJ/kg)
ke = ½ V2 & pe = g z
If the system is rotating, a rotational kinetic energy term ½ I ω2 should be added.
UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP ME 204: THERMODYNAMICS I
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 FORMS OF ENERGY
 Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure and the
degree of the molecular activity:

Internal energy, U: represents all the energy associated with the microscopic
modes, that is, the energy not accounted for in the bulk mechanical energy terms. The
internal energy is «randomly» oriented, that is, ‘’disorganized’’, and hence is not readily
useful.

 Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with respect

to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.

Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field.
The macroscopic energy of an
object changes with velocity and
elevation.
UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP ME 204: THERMODYNAMICS I
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 Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the
internal energy of a system
associated with the kinetic energies
of the molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase of a
system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous
The internal energy of a amount of energy associated with
system is the sum of all forms the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the microscopic energies. of the atom itself.
The various forms of
microscopic energies Thermal = Sensible + Latent
that make up sensible
energy. Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

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 Equality of Temperature
Although temperature is a familiar property, defining it exactly is difficult. We are aware
of temperature first of all as a sense of hotness or coldness when we touch an object.
We realize that our sense of hotness or coldness is very unreliable.

Because of these difficulties in defining temperature, we define equality of

temperature.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium after
being brought into contact
in an isolated enclosure.

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 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics: When two bodies have equality of temperature
with a third body, they in turn have equality of temperature with each other.

 By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if
they are not in contact.

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 Temperature Scales
 All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as
the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the steam point.

 Celsius & Kelvin scales: in SI unit system

 Fahrenheit & Rankine scales: in English unit system

A constant-volume gas thermometer would

read -273.15°C at absolute zero pressure. P – T plots for a constant-volume gas thermometer.
UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP ME 204: THERMODYNAMICS I
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 Comparison of
temperature
scales.

T ( K )  T (C ) T (R)  T ( F )
Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.
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 Engineering Applications

Automotive tire pressure gages

Air compressor with tank

Schematic of a
pressure relief valve

Thermocouples
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