Basic Aggregates

by
Robert C. Beste, PG

Aggregates are the major constituents of concrete (making up about 75 to 80 percent),

asphaltic concrete (making up about 95 percent) and road and railroad base and bedding
materials.

“Every kind of rock and every mineral species that occurs on this planet as a solid, grain,
or mass - except ice - is potentially subject to evaluation for use as aggregate. However those
substances that can significantly affect the performance of concrete, asphalt and ballast for better
or worse when they occur as aggregate constituents are more important to identify, and among
these, those that occur most frequently are of the greatest interest.”1

A Mineral is a naturally occurring solid element or compound, exclusive of biological

formed carbon components. It has a definite composition, or range of composition, and an
orderly internal arrangement of atoms know as Crystalline Structure, which gives it unique
physical and chemical properties, including a tendency to assume certain geometric forms known
as Crystals.

A Rock is any naturally formed, consolidated material (but not soil) composed of two or
more minerals, or occasionally of one mineral, and having some degree of chemical and
mineralogic constancy, which is able to be represented as a sample of the unit.

Aggregates are normally processed from rock, however, some minerals can be processed
as aggregate. This has given birth to a new term, Industrial Minerals which is synonymous with
Sand, Crushed Stone, Clays, and other commercially used natural products.

Aggregates can be classified in three ways: Size, Density, and Origin.

Aggregates classified by Size or usually broken into two categories roughly divided at the
#4 sieve: Coarse Aggregates and Fine Aggregates. Either of these two categories can be Clean
graded (with the lower sized particles removed in processing) or Full graded (with the lower
sized particles retained in processing · also called Minus Stone). These sizings may be specified
by a nominal Top Size or by a specific Gradation Size number designation.

Aggregate classified by Density are classified into three categories: Normal Weight
Aggregates, Lightweight Aggregates, and Heavy Weight Aggregates. The most commonly used
type used in concrete are Normal Weight Aggregates which generally range in density from
about 2.45 to 2.90 in specific gravity.
Lightweight Aggregates are generally below 2.0 in specific gravity and are widely used
in lightweight concrete where weight is a critical factor in the design considerations of a

1
Dolar - Mantuani, L., 1983, Handbook Of Concrete Aggregates

Page 1
structure. Most lightweight aggregates are produced from products such as expanded shale but
some natural sources do exist.

Heavy Weight Aggregates are used in concrete to increase the weight of the concrete or
to provide shielding in concrete for nuclear power plants. In railroad ballast Heavy Weight
Aggregates or used for steep grades to better hold the roadbed. In the past most heavy weight
aggregates have been produced from Iron Oxide ores but increasing heavy slags such as copper
slags have been used in these applications. In fact only recently have lead slags been
discontinued for use in these applications. Heavy Weight Aggregates range in density from
about 3.0 to 5.0 in specific gravity.

Aggregates classified by Origin can be classified by how the rock was formed or Rock
Type. They can also be classified by how they are processed.
Aggregates classified by rock type
(excluding man-made aggregates) fall into
one of three types of rock: Igneous,
Sedimentary, or Metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed by
crystallization of liquid rock or Magma in
the earth.
Sedimentary rocks are formed from
small pieces of existing rock which has been
broken down and moved by rivers and wind.
These sediments were then deposited and
cemented together by natural processes.
Metamorphic rocks are pre-existing
rocks which have been changed by great
pressure and heat (but not the point of re-
melting). The rock cycle diagram to the
right illustrated the inter-relation of rocks.2
Aggregates classified by processing are man made such as Slags, Expanded Shales,
Manufactured Sand, etc.

All aggregates can be characterized by two components Size and Physical & Chemical
Properties. This is very much the same way shoes are sold. Size is denoted by a specific
Gradation or sizing much the way shoes have different sizes large to small. Physical & Chemical
Properties are not un-like the different types of shoes, i.e. Slip-ons, Dress shoes, Tennis Shoes,
etc. As in shoes, you can wear the same sized shoe but it would not be proper to wear Tennis
Shoes to a Banquet, nor could you wear Tennis Shoes to the court 3 sizes too big. Properties
which affect an aggregates performance are shown on pages 3 to 5.

2
Leet, L.D. & Judson, S., 1963, Physical Geology; 3rd Ed.

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 Effects of Aggregate Properties on Concrete, Asphaltic Concrete and Ballast

Aggregate Aggregate
Properties Desirable Objectionable
Characteristic Characteristic
Physical Properties
Texture
Crystallinity Crystalline Partially or Entirely Glassy
Grain Size Medium to Fine Large
Intergranular Bond Interlocked with Good Bond Coarse grained minerals,
Poor Bond
Packing of Grains Dense Loose
Granularity Medium to Fine Conglomerate
Cementation Well Cemented Poorly Cemented
Cementing Medium Silica, Carbonates Clay, Limonite, Halides
Structure
Continuity of Structure Massive Fissile, Foliated, Shistose
Stratification Thick Layered, Widely Stratfied Thin Layered, Highly Stratified
Parting Joints Widely Spaced Narrowly Spaced
Mechanical Properties
Sound when hit with hammer Rings Sounds Dull
Compactness Compact Loose
Hardness High Mohs Hardness, Hard Low Mohs Hardness, Soft
Toughness Interlocked grains, Tough Weak
Compressive Strength High Strength Low Strength
Modulus of Rupture High Strength Low Strength
Elasticity Elastic Non-Elastic
Resistance to Abrasion High Resistance, Hard Low Resistance, Soft
Resistance to Impact High Resistance, Strong Granular Low Resistance, Weak Granular
Interlock Interlock
Resistance to Polishing Slight polishing over time Easily polishes
(asphalt)
Internal Fracturing Free of micro- and macrocracks Easily broken, high micro- and
macrocracks, crack due to
Cleavage, Laminated
Properties Influencing Physical Stability
Volume Stability Low Compressibility High Compressibility
Density High Density Low Density
Vugginess Slight Very Deeply Vuggy
Porosity Low Porosity, Compact High Porosity
Pore Size & Quality Few Pores > 0.2 Microns or Many Pores 0.2 - 0.04 Microns
Pores < 0.04 Microns
Distribution of Pores Even Distribution Uneven Distribution
Permeability Low, Impermeable High, Permeable
Water Absorption Slight High

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 Effects of Aggregate Properties on Concrete, Asphaltic Concrete and Ballast

Properties Influencing Physical Stability (continued)

Solubility in Water Insoluble Soluble
Sensitivity to Water No significant Volume Change Expands on wetting, flakes or
or disintegration on wetting disintegrate in water
Susceptibility to wetting & Resistant to disintegrating due Disintegrate in water
Drying to wetting and drying cycles
Susceptibility to freeze-thaw Low; High frost resistance High; Low frost resistance
Damage
Volume stability on heating & Stable Unstable
cooling
Coefficient of Thermal High; compatible with that of Very Low
Expansion cement paste
Chemical Properties
Compositional Stability
Chemical Stability (activity) Practically Stable Unstable
Surface Reactivity (concrete) Non-reactive or very slightly Reactive with formation of
reactive unstable products
Reactivity with cement paste Non-reactive or slightly reactive, Reactive with excessive
(concrete) non-expansively reactive expansion
Chemical Reactivity Insensitive to external environment Highly sensitive to environment:
oxidizes, hydrates, carbonates
or forms sulfates
Volume stability in acids & Stable Unstable, Swells
bases
Volume instability do to ion Cation exchange minerals Cation exchange minerals
exchange absent present
Color stability Stable Unstable, discolors easily
Coatings, Incrustations Unreactive Reactive
Weathering or Alteration Unreactive Reactive
products
Specific Bulk Aggregate Properties
Particle Shape (sphericity) Cubic Oblong and/or Flat
Angularity Angular to Sub-Rounded Sharp Angular or Well Rounded
Surface Texture Rough, Rugged Very Smooth
Adherence (bond) of particles Good adherence, Good Bond Poor adherence, Poor Bond
to cement paste or asphalt
(coating, incrustation)
Packing capacity of particles High capacity with small or few Low packing capacity with many
(concrete, asphalt) large interparticle voids large interparticle voids
Unit Mass Relatively High Low Unit Mass
Rock Cement Value of fines No or Little Cement Value High Cement Value
(ballast)
Resistivity (ballast) High Resistivity, passes little Low Resistivity, easily passes
AC or DC current AC or DC current

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 Effects of Aggregate Properties on Concrete, Asphaltic Concrete and Ballast

Complex General Properties

Mineralogical and Lithological Desirable minerals and rocks Harmful minerals and rocks
compositional properties present present (concrete: sulfates,
sulfides, Zeolites, Magnesite,
etc.; ballast: schistose &
high mica rock)
Distribution of minerals, rock Homogeneous, uniform Heterogeneous
constituents, textures &
structure
Physical & Chemical Insignificant changes in texture, Significant changes in texture,
condition due to weathering structure, or composition; structure, or composition;
and/or alteration reactive products absent reactive products or physically
harmful products present
Alumina Content (carbonates) Very Low High
Mica Content (igneous & Very Low High
metamorphic rocks)
Surface of particles Fresh, Clean Weathered, Dirty coated with
clay minerals, rock dust or
organic matter
Contaminants None or few slightly harmful Large amounts of objectionable
contaminants present or few very objectionable
contaminates present
Material finer than 75 µm Few, physically or chemically Large amounts of physically or
not harmful; low clay fines chemically harmful; high clay
fines

Adapted from: Handbook of Concrete Aggregate, Dolar-Mantuani, L. and including data from
Ballast Selection and Grading, Raymond, G.P.,Boon, C.J. and Lake, R.W
Effects of Particle Characteristics on Behavior of Granular Material, Selig and Roner;
Iowa Pore Test, Dubberke and Marks
The relationship of Aggregate Durability to Trace Element Content, Dubberke and Marks
Absorption and other properties of carbonate rocks affecting soundness of aggregate, Harvey, Baxter, Fraser & Smith
Alumina Content of Carbonate Rocks as an index to Sodium Sulfate Soundness, Baxter and Harvey

Page 5
 Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks are generally hard durable aggregates. This varies with the
individual mineral assemblage of the rock itself. Igneous rocks are usually very low in
absorption. For aggregate with an absorption value above 1%, the strong possibility of
adverse weathering is present which should signal the need for further testing. A general
chart for Igneous Rock types is contained on page 7. As a general rule for unweathered
aggregates, finer grained (or Aphanitic) material performs better in the areas of resistance
to impact and abrasion than larger grained (or Phaneritic) material. Coarser grained
igneous rocks tend to break more easily on crystal boundaries. In the area of mineral
assemblage, Basalts tend to be more durable than granite.
Considerations in quarrying Igneous rocks are Oxidized Zones and boundary
Chill Zones. These Zones will normally have less desirable Physical Properties than the
interior of the rock mass. Because of their brittleness, internal fracturing of this rock type
is a factor which can greatly reduce rock durability. These micro-fractures are usually
not apparent to the naked eye. A example of this is the fact that two physically appearing
Basalts can be the most durable or least durable in a group of different stone types.
Mica and other platy minerals reduce durability in Igneous (and Metamorphic)
Rocks. They provide an easy parting plain for the fracture of the particle.
Certain minerals contained in Igneous Rocks can be reactive with higher alkali
cements. Some rocks which have been reported as Alkali-Reactive Siliceous Rocks in
the past are Andesites, Basalts, Dacites, Granites and Rhyolites. This does not mean that
these categories are always reactive, but because enough Igneous Rock has been found to
be reactive, either the deposit should be tested (best by the mortar bar method with the
local cement) for possible reactivity or concrete made from untested aggregates should be
limited to low alkali cement and/or fly ash.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks can be categorized into two major groups: Non-Directional

Structure which is massive or granular (caused by contact metamorphism and therefore
less widespread), and Directional Structure which is lineate or foliated (caused by
regional metamorphism). Of the two types, Non-Directional Structured stone is
preferable to Directional Structured stone as aggregates. Some examples of these rock
types are found on page 8.
The mineral assemblage of the rock again will effect durability and other physical
properties. Softer minerals and platy minerals reduce the durability of the stone. The
degree of Metamorphism also affects durability, the higher the level of metamorphism
the higher the durability.
Most Gneisses have some Schistose material contained with it. As the Schistose
material increases, durability is reduced.

Page 6
 Generalized Chart of Igneous Rock Types

Light Colored Minerals Mostly Light Colored Light and Dark Colored Mainly Dark Colored Dark Colored Minerals
with K Feldspar > 2/3 of Minerals with K Minerals (salt & pepper) Minerals with Ca with little or no
the total Feldspar. Feldspar 1/3 to 2/3 of with Na Feldspar > 2/3 Feldspar > 2/3 of the Feldspar. Mainly iron
Darker Color » » » Mainly K Feldspar, the total Feldspar. of the total Feldspar. total Feldspar. rich dark minerals and
Quartz, and mica with Mainly Feldspar, Mainly Na Feldspar, Mainly Ca Feldspar, Olivine
minor amounts of dark Quartz, and mica with dark minerals, with dark minerals, with little
minerals. minor amounts of dark some Quartz, and dark Quartz, and some
minerals. mica Olivine

Phaneritic (large crystal Granites, Syenites and Monzonite Granodiorite and Gabbro Peridotite
size) Nephelene Syenites Diorite Diabase and
Theralite

Porphyritic (mixed large Granite Porphyry, Monzonite Porphyry Granodiorite Porphyry, Gabbro Porphyry, Peridotite Porphyry
and very small crystals) Rhyolite Porphyry, and Latite Porphyry Diorite Porphyry, Basalt Porphyry and
Syenite Porphyry, Dacite Porphyry and and Theralite Porphyry Limburgite Porphyry
Trachyte Porphyry, Andesite Porphyry
Phonolite Porphyry

Aphanitic (very small Rhyolite, Trachyte and Latite Dacite and Andesite Basalt and Theralite Limburgite
crystal size) Phonolite

(Note. The most rock types are highlighted in bold print.)

Page 7
 Generalized Chart of Metamorphic Rock Types

Non-Directional Directional Structure - Regional Metamorphism

Metamorphism » » » Structure
Contact Metamorphism
Slaty Phyllitic Schistose Gneissose

Light Color Metaquartzite, Marble Phyllite (an Quartz and Mica Quartzite Gneiss
and Hornfels intermediate state Schists and Granulite
between Slate and
Schist)
Intermediate Color Metaquartzite, Marble, Garnet and Mica Granite Gneiss,
(including red or brown) Hornfels and Schists Granodiorite Gneiss,
Serpentine and Biotite Gneiss

Dark Color (including Metaquartzite, Marble, Slates Greenschist and dark Diorite Gneiss
green) Hornfels and Schists
Serpentine

(Note. The most rock types are highlighted in bold print.)

Page 8
 Certain minerals contained in Metamorphic Rocks can be reactive with higher alkali
cements. Zeolites have been found to be harmful due to their tendency to exchange ions in there
crystal lattice (causing and increase in volume). Periclase (MgO a high temperature
metamorphic mineral found in marble formed from dolomitic limestones) can be reactive and
expansive. It easily alters to Brucite ( Mg(OH)2 ). Some rocks which have been reported as
Alkali-Reactive Siliceous Rocks in the past are Granite-Gneiss, Granodiorite-Gneiss, Hornfels,
Phyllites, Quartzites and Schists. This does not mean that these categories are always reactive,
but because enough Metamorphic Rock has been found to be reactive, either the deposit should
be tested (best by the mortar bar method with the local cement) for possible reactivity or concrete
made from untested aggregates should be limited to low alkali cement and/or fly ash.

Limestones and Dolomites

Limestones and Dolomites are the most widespread Sedimentary Rocks used for
aggregates. These are made of primarily of Calcium and Magnesium Carbonates. Very few
limestone’s or dolomites are pure compounds. True High Lime Limestone are used in chemical
applications such as stack de-sulfurization. Normally, besides impurities such as Iron, Silica and
Alumina; they most always have some blend of Calcite (CaCO3 the major constituent of
Limestone) and Dolomite ( CaMg (CO3)2 the major constituent of Dolomite). This creates a
series in rocks from Limestone to Dolomite (shown below, considering only the mix of Calcium
and Magnesium Carbonates).

True Limestone Dolomitic Limestone Limy Dolostone True Dolomite

Containing 95% or more Containing from 50% to Containing from 50% to Containing 90% or more
Calcite and less than 5% 90% Calcite and 10% to 90% Dolomite and 10% to Dolomite and 10% or less
Dolomite 50% Dolomite 50% Calcite Calcite

Limestones come in many types and grain sizes, i.e. crystalline, fossiliferous, etc.
Generally they are compact and low in absorption, lighter in both color and density than true
Dolomites. They can change to Dolomitic Limestones by the process of Dolomitization.
Dolomitization is the process whereby limestone is wholly or partly converted to
dolomite rock or dolomitic limestone by the replacement of the original calcium carbonate with
magnesium carbonate, usually through the action of magnesium-bearing water (seawater or
percolating meteoric water). It can occur penecontemporaneously or shortly after deposition of
the limestone, or during lithification at a later period. It is commonly accompanied by
recrystallization and by shrinkage of volume (as much as 11% if the original limestone) leading
to the formation of pores, cavities, and fissures. Limestone which have become dolomitized are
usual higher in absorption, softer, and has a higher L.A. Abrasion loss than their parent
limestones. This type of rock is usually used for base stone, or if the Magnesium content is high
enough, for fluidized bed material. Examples of this process are seen in the uppermost ledges of
quarries or along seams which carry water laterally through the formation.

Page 9
 Dolomites are categorized into three types3:

Plainer E Dolomite Plainer S Dolomite Non-Plainer Dolomite

Crystal Structure: Straight Crystal Structure: Subhedral Crystal Structure: Anhedral
Euhedral Crystal faces Crystal faces Crystal faces
Least Dense Density: Medium Density Density: Very Dense
Porosity: High Porosity: Medium Porosity: Very Low

Plainer S Dolomites and Non-Plainer Dolomites are best suited for the building industry.
Only Non-Plainer Dolomites are well suited for railroad ballast. Dolomites are generally darker
in color and heavier than true Limestone. They are also more resistance to chemical attack than
Limestones.4

Limestones and Dolomites many times do quite well on impact tests such as the L.A.
Abrasion but are not sufficiently hard to produce low loss during wear or abrasion tests such as
the Mill Abrasion test. This has led to most railroads having a prejudice against using carbonate
rocks for mainline ballast, especially limestone. Many limestones fines also have higher cement
values than dolomites. of Igneous Rocks and most Metamorphic Rocks have no cement value.
This aids in the ability of the ballast to remove worn stone from the roadbase that collects
moisture which causes damage to the sub-base. These fines, while not generally conductive
themselves, retain moisture and reduce the resistivity of the ballast as a whole. This can create
signal problems.5

Some Carbonates can be reactive with higher alkali cements. Carbonates with roughly
equal amounts of calcite and dolomite and which also have amounts of illite clay in their matrix
can sometimes be reactive. The reaction is caused by a reverse dolomitization which causes the
dolomite to revert to brucite (Mg(OH)2 ,with a net volume reduction) followed by an uptake of
water by the illites causing expansion. Iron sulfides such as pyrite and marcasite are also
reactive causing expansion and staining. Some other Sedimentary Rocks which have been
reported as Alkali-Reactive Siliceous Rocks in the past are Arenites, Argillites, Chalcedony,
Chert, Dolomite, Dolostones, Flint, Graywacke, Opal, and Siltstones. This does not mean that

3
Greg and Sibley, 1987, Journal of Sedimentary Geology
4
Lamar, J.E., Limestone For Sewage Filter Beds, 1929
5
Signals are transmitted through one track and back through the other with the engine functioning as a moving shunt.
Reduced resistivity allows the signal to pass from track to track through the ballast.

Page 10
these categories are always reactive, but if a large clay or quartz content is present there is an
increase of potential for expansion and either the deposit should be tested (best by the mortar bar
method with the local cement) for possible reactivity or concrete made from untested aggregates
should be limited to low alkali cement and/or fly ash.

A General Summary of Engineering Properties of for Rocks is contained on page 12.

Particle Shape in an Aggregate Mix

Particle shape affects interlock

of aggregates. A simple graph to
estimate particle shape is shown to the
right: Aggregates near the center of
the chart usually perform best for
construction purposes. S & P values
for a given aggregate can be useful in
predicting aggregate performance
when other factors remain equal. Up
to a given point, more angular particle
have increased surface area (a plus).
Past a given point the extremely
angular particles tend to degrade on
the edges (a minus).
Stockpiling characteristics are
also affected by particle shape. The
more rounded a aggregate, the less
steep the angle of repose.

Page 11
 Summary of Engineering Properties of Rock

Presence of
Type of Rock Mechanical Durability Chemical Surface undesirable Crushed
Strength Stability Characteristics impurities Shape

Igneous
Granite, Diorite, Syenite Good Good Good Good Possible Good
Felsite Good Good Questionable Fair Possible Fair
Basalt, Diabase, Gabbro Good Good Good Good Seldom Fair
Peridotite Good Fair Questionable Good Possible Good

Sedimentary
Limestone, Dolomite Good Fair Good Good Possible Good
Sandstone Fair Fair Good Good Seldom Good
Chert Good Fair Poor Fair Likely Poor
Conglomerate, Breccia Fair Fair Good Good Seldom Fair
Shale Poor Poor ...... Good Possible Fair to Poor

Metamorphic
Gneiss, Schist Good Good Good Good Seldom Good to Poor
Quartzite Good Good Good Good Seldom Fair
Marble Fair Good Good Good Possible Good
Serpentine Fair Fair Good Fair to Poor Possible Fair
Amphibolite Good Good Good Good Seldom Fair
Slate Good Good Good Poor Seldom Poor

Page 12
 Shales and Clay Minerals

Clay minerals proper are sheet-structure Hydrous Aluminosilicates that contain Sodium,
Potassium, Calcium or Magnesium as exchangeable cations. The crystal lattice is characterized
by a few basic sheet units stacked on top of one another.

Properties of Main Clay Mineral Subgroups6

Property Kaolinite Montmorillonite

(Kandite) Illite (Smectite)
Subgroup Subgroup Subgroup

Individual particle size, in µm 4.0 to 0.3 µm 0.3 to 0.1 µm 0.2 - 0.02 µm

Relative water adsorption Slight Moderate Very Large
Principal interlayer cations ( Nil ) Potassium Calcium, Sodium
Relative ion exchange Slight Moderate Large
Relative permeability Large Moderate Small
Relative plasticity Slight Moderate Large
Refractive Index (range) 1.55 to 1.57 1.54 to 1.61 1.48 to 1.53
Birefringence, mm ~ 0.006 ~ 0.03 ~ 0.01 to 0.02

Major Problems Presented by Shales and Clay Minerals

Intercrystalline Volume Change. The most important property inherent in all clay
minerals is a volume change on wetting and drying. This type of volume change is due to the
uptake of water into the crystal surface and the space between crystals.

Intracrystalline Volume Change. This type of volume change is due to water and
exchangeable ions entering the crystal lattice and occupying the space between the lattice sheets
and between unit layers of crystals.

These actions cause pop-outs in concrete, poor performance in soundness tests, lower
resistance to abrasion and impact, and are more susceptible to frost damage. Some shales also
carry reactive or expansive materials in their matrix.

6
Krumbein and Sloss, 1963, p.195, Table 6.2 and Deer et al, Vol. 3, p. 192, Table 30.

Page 13