Phs 105 Lecture Notes: by O.I. Olusola (PH.D.) Course Contents

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PHS 105 LECTURE NOTES

(Part II – Heat and Thermodynamics)

By
O.I. Olusola (Ph.D.)

Course contents
Temperature, heat, thermometers, internal energy and
Mechanical Equivalence of heat, Elementary treatment of the
contents of the laws of thermodynamics.
Suggested references:
1. University Physics W. Sears
2. Fundamentals of Physics by J. Walker
3. Advance level Physics by Nelkon and Parker
4. College Physics by Frederick, J Beuche and Eugene Hecht
1.0 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS & THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics involve the study of the relationship between heat and other forms of
energy. It often involves production of heat from work or work from heat. The former occurs
when we rub our palms together (i.e. mechanical work) to generate heat and the later when fuel
is burnt (heat from automobile engine to generate motion of the wheels (mechanical work).
Chemical thermodynamics deals mainly with equilibrium states i.e. with systems which
are in the thermodynamic equilibrium. To be in thermodynamic equilibrium, a system must be
in mechanical, chemical and thermal equilibrium. This means that mechanical properties (e.g.
pressured, chemical properties (e.g. composition) and thermal properties and thermal properties
(e.g. temperature) must all be at “steady-state” i.e. they must not change with time.
If two systems A and B which are initially at different thermal states are brought into
thermal contact, energy exchange will occur between the two systems until eventually both
attain the same thermal state. At this point the then properties of A and B no longer vary with
time and they are in thermal equilibrium.
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two systems which are in their
equilibirium with a third system are also in thermal equilibirium with each other.

1.1 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS


The first law of thermodynamics is essentially the law of conservation of energy. It
states that if a closed system absorbs a net amount of energy (heat) Q from its surroundings and
does an amount of work (W), the quantity (Q-W) is used in raising the internal energy (µ ) of
the system.
Mathematically, first law of thermodynamic can be expressed as
Q  W  u ___________________(l)
Where u is the change in internal energy of the system.

NOTES:
(i) Heat added to the system is positive
(ii) Heat released by the system is negative
Work is said to be done when any boundary of a system undergoes a displacement
under the action of a force. Let us consider a system consisting of a gas under pressure P
enclosed in a cylinder and piston unit [see Fig. 1]

The work (dW) done by the gas when the piston moves to the right under pressure P
such that the volume of the gas increases by dV is
dW = PdV ___________________(2)
If the piston moves through a finite distance, then the work done is given as
V2

W   pdV ___________________(3)
V1

NOTES:
(1) Work done by the system is positive
(2) Work done on the system is negative

1.2 HEAT ENGINES


A heat engine is a device which produce work from a supply of heat. A common
example of heat engine is the PETRO (or Gasoline) engine.
The working cycle for the petrol can be closely approximated by OTTO cycle which
consists of four main processes namely;
1-2 Adrabatic compression of air-petrol mixture
2-3 Heating at constant volume to state 3
2-4 Adiabatic expansion to state 4
The above four processes can be represented by the following figure.
The net work produced by the engine is given by
QA – QR = W -----------------------------------------------------(4)
where QA is the heat added to the system while QR is the heat removed from the system.

We define thermal efficiency of a heat engine as the ratio of the work done by the engine to the
heat added to the system i.e.
W Q  QR
e0   A
QA QA
or
QR
e0  1  ------------------------------------------------------------------------(5)
QA

1.3 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS


The second lar of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to construct an engine which
absorbs heat from a reservoir at a single temperature and converts all of the heat to work. The
term “reservoir” is used to represent any part of a system which can absorb or release a large
amount/quantity of heat without showing an appreciable change in temperature.
Based on the 2nd law of thermodynamic it is impossible to build an engine with 100%
efficiency, however, it is of interest to know the MAXIMUM possible efficiency that can be
attained. The Carnot engine is an idealized engine that can produce about 100% efficiency. It
consists of four REVERSIBLE processes (i.e. a process that can be made to reverse itself
without external aid); these processes include:
1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression
2-3; Reversible isothermal expansion during which, heat QA is absorbed
From heat reservoir, TH
3-4 Reversible adiabatic expansion from TH to Tc
4-1 Reversible isothermal compression during which heat, QR is rejected.
For a Carnot engine
TC QR
 _________________________(6)
TH QA
The efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
TC
eC  1  __________________________(7)
TH

1.3 Solved Problems


(1) A Carnot engine is operated between two (2) heat reservoirs at temperature 400k and
300k. If the engine receives 200cal from 400k reservoir, (a) how many calories does it reject
to the lower temperature reservoir? (b) What is the thermal efficiency of the engine?

Solution: For a Carnot engine


Tc = QR
TH QA
(a) QR = QA
Tc
Th
QA = 2000 cal, Tc = 300, TH = 400

QR = 2000 x 300
400
= 1,500 cal.
(b) Thermal efficiency, e = 1- Tc
TH
= 1 – 300
400
= 0.25 or 25%
(3) What is the maximum efficiency of an engine which operated between two
reservoirs at temperatures of (a) 25oC and 40oC, and (b) 25oC and 100oC?

Solution: The maximum efficiency in the Carnot efficiency.


(a) ec = 1 – Tc/TH, where Tc = 25oc = 25+273
= 298k, TH = 40oC = (40+273)K = 313K
e
:: c = 1 – 298
313 = 4.79%
e
(b) c = 1 – Tc
TH, where Tc = 298k, TH = 373
e
::: c = 1 – 298
373 = 20.11%

1.5 HEAT CAPACITY


The heat capacity of a body, such as a lump of metal, is the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of such body by 1K. It is measure in J/K.
Assume that a small quantity of heat, dQ, is transferred between a system of mass m
and its surrounding, If the system undergoes a small temperature change, dT, the specific heat
capacity, c, of the system is defined as
1 dQ
c . _______________________(8)
m dt

From Eq. 8, it is easy to show that the heat dQ needed to raise the temperature of mass, m, of
material by an amount dT is
dQ = mcdT __________________(9)
c is measured in J/Kg/K e-g c for water is 4200J/kg-1k-1, or 4.2 Jg -1K-1

2.1 The Concept of Temperature


The concept of temperature plays an important role in both biological and physical
sciences because the temperature of an object is directly related to average k.e of the atoms and
molecules composing the object. The temperature of a body is therefore define as the property
of the body that determines whether or not the body/system is in thermal equilibrium with
another body.
2.2 Temperature Scales
Some of the commonly encountered temperature scale include: Fahrenheit scale,; OoC
and 100oC on the Celsius scale; and 273.15k and 373.15 on the Kelvin scale.
The Celcius temperature Tc, is related to Fahrenheit, Tc, according to the equation:
Tc = 5/9 (TF – 32)
The Kelvin temperature, Tk is an absorbent temperature scale, it is related to the celcius
temperature, TF, by the equation.
Tk = Tc + 273.15 __________________(2)
Furthermore, the Fahrenheit temperature is related to the Celcius temperature according
to the equation.
9
TF = /5 (Tc) + 32 ___________________(3)
NOTE: In order to convert from Fahrenheit to Kelvin temperature scale, one needs to convert
the o F to oC and finally from oC to K.

2.3 WORKED EXAMPPLES


(1) Calculate the equivalent of 98.6oF in oC.
Solution: TF = 98 6oF, Tc =?
We know that Tc = 5/9 (TF – 32)
5
= /9 * (98.6-32)
5
= /9 * 66.6oF
= 37.0oC.
(2) The reading on the pressure scale at steam and ice points are 800mm and 200mm
respectively. Determine the equivalent
Temperature (in oC) when it reads 450mm.
Solution. P = 300, P100 = 800, P = 450mm
The temperature  in oC is given by
= P - Po x 100 oC
P100-Po
= 450 – 300 x 100
800 – 300
= 30oC

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