Map Projections

Map projection is a basic principle of map making in that when projected on to a flat
map, objects on the earth's surface are distorted in some way, either in size, shape
or in relative location (Maling, 1980). When the information is digitised from a map,
the recorded locations will be often based on a rectangular coordinate system
determined by the position of the map on the digitising table (star and Eastes, 1999):
In order to determine the true earth locations of these digitised entities, it is
necessary to devise the mathematical transformation required to convert these
rectangular coordinates into the positions on the curved surface of the earth as
represented on the map. Mathematical formulae to convert map units into latitude
and longitude are available for most common projections (Snyder, 1987). Such
mathematical transformation functions are normally built into projection as it is
mathematically produced and is a two-fold process. First by, an obvious scale
change converts the actual globe to a reference globe based on the desired scale.
Secondly, the reference globe is mathematically projected on to the flat surface
(Robinson et al ,1995). In this process of projection there is a change in scale. The
representative fraction for the reference globe called the principle scale, can be
calculated by dividing the earth's radius by the radius of the globe. The scale divided
by the principle scale, is by definition 1.0 at every location on the reference globe .
The process of transformation of three-dimensional space into a two dimensional
map inevitably distorts at least one of the properties, namely, shape, area, distance
or direction, and often more than one. Therefore, the scale factor will differ in
different places on the map (Robinson et. ai, 1995).
A special emphasis is laid on transforming the satellite data on to a map. One of the
requirements of the remotely sensed data is its ability to process an image from a
generic coordinate system on to a projected coordinate system. Projecting imagery
from line and pixel coordinates to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is an
example in this regard. This is particularly critical when different trends of information
from a Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are to be combined. The imagery
must be accurately projected and rectified. By applying relevant map projections, a
few basic concepts essential to the understanding of map projections (Fig 1.7) are
reviewed in this section.
To transfer the image of the earth and its irregularities on to the plane surface of a
map, three factors are involved, namely, a geoid, an ellipsoid or a datum with
ellipsoid, and a projection. The geoid is a rendition of an irregular spheroidal shape.
The variations in gravity are accounted for at this level. The observations made on
the geoid are then transfered to a regular geometric reference surface, the ellipsoid.
Many countries and organisations have calculated a variety of ellipsoids over the
years. Variation in ellipsoid calculations are in part due to different observations on
the geoid from different points upon the earth. The geographical relationships of the
ellipsoid, still in a three-dimensional form , are transformed into two-dimensional
plane of a map by a process called 'map projection' or simply projection. As
illustrated in Fig. 1.8, the vast majority of projections are based upon cones,
cylinders and planes. Each of these formats has advantages and disadvantages in
terms of distortions and accuracy. Every flat map misrepresents the surface of the
earth in some way. No map can rival a globe in truly representing the surface of the
entire earth. However, a map or parts of a map can show one or more, but never all-
of the following : True shapes, true directions, true distances, true areas.

Grouping of Map Projections

All the map projections are grouped into four main families. They are, (i) the family of
planar projections (ii) the family of cylindrical projections (iii) the family of conical
projections, and (iv) the family of azimuthal projections.
If we wrap a sheet of paper round the globe in the form of a cylinder, transfer the
geographical features of the globe on to it, and then unroll the sheet and,lay of on a
flat surface, we would achieve a cylindrical projection. The resulting graticule would
be rectangular. In conic projection, if we repeat the above process, by wrapping the
sheet of paper round the globe in the form of a cone, the resulting graticule would be
fan shaped. The cone can be either tangent to a chosen parallel or it may intersect
the plane along two parallels. Conic projections are specially suited to mapping
areas having east-west extents, such as, Canada, USA and China. If a sheet of
paper is laid tangent to a point on the globe and transfer the geographical features of
the globe on to it, we would achieve azimuthal projections that appear as straight
lines intersecting at the designated centre point, and parallels that appear as
concentric circles round the centre point. A combination of any two of the above
projections forms an hybrid projection.
The classification of map projections should follow a standard pattern so that any
regular projection can be described by a set of criteria, and, conversely, a set of
criteria will define a regular projection. Thus a classification scheme may follow a
number of criteria subdivided into classes. Adler (1968) have named five basic
criteria, as follows: (i) Nature of the projection surface as defined by geometry, (ii)
Coincidence or contact of the projection surface with the datum surface, (iii) Position
or alignment of the projection surface with relation to the datum surface, (iv)
Properties of cartographic requirements, and (v) Mode of generation of datum
surface and coordinate systems.
The datum surface of the earth is usually an ellipsoid of revolution, but sometimes it
is also approximated by a sphere. Although this assumption that the earth is a
sphere can be used for small-scale maps to maintain the accuracy, for large scale
maps the earth must be treated as a spheroid. Coordinate systems are necessary for
the expression of position of points upon the surface, be it on an ellipsoid or a sphere
or a plane. For the ellipsoid or the sphere the system of longitude and latitude is
expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc. For the plane a system of
rectangular X and Y coordinates, sometimes referred to as Northings and Eastings,
is usually applicable. Some of the commonly used map projections are described
below.
Though several conventional and non conventional map projections exist and are
used, only a few projections with specific advantages are considered here.
Mercator Projection
This is used for navigation for maps of equatorial regions. Any straight line on map is
a thumb line (line of constant direction). Directions along a thumb line are true
between any two points on a map, but a thumb line usually is not the shortest
distance between points. Distances are true only along equator and are reasonably
correct. Special scales can be used to measure distances along other parallels. Two
particular parallels can be made correct in scale instead of the equator. Areas and
shapes of large areas are distorted. Distortion increases as distance increases from
the equator and is extreme in polar regions. The map, however, is conformal in that
angles and shapes within any small area (such as that shown by a USGS
topographic map) are essentially true.
Transverse Mercator
This is used by USGS for many quadrangle maps at scales from 1 :24,000 to 1
:250,000. Such maps can be joined at their edges only if they are in the same zone
with one central meridian. Transverse Mercator is also used for mapping large areas
that are mainly north-south in extent. Distances are true only along the central
meridian selected by the map maker, or else along two lines parallel to it, and all
distances, directions, shapes, and areas are reasonably accurate. Distortion of
distances, directions, and size or area increases rapidly outside the defined distance.
Since the map is conformal, shapes and angles within any small area are essentially
true. Graticule spacing increases away from central meridian. Equator is straight.
Other parallels are complex curves concave towards the nearest pole. The Central
meridian and each meridian 900 from it are straight. Other meridians are complex
curves concave toward central meridian.
This projection is a transverse cylindrical case, in which the scale will be kept exact
along the central meridian and along the equator. The mapped area may be
extended without limit in the north-south direction. This projection is also an
orthomorphic projection with small shapes and angles maintained accurately. The
scale distortions are systematic and can be predetermined.
Oblique Mercator Projection
This is used to show regions along a great circle other than the equator or a
meridian. These regions have their general extent oblique to the equator. This kind
of map can be made to show as a straight line, the shortest distance between any
two pre-selected points along the selected great circle.
Distances are true only along the great circle (the line of tangency for this projection),
or along two lines parallel to it. Distances, directions, areas, and shapes are fairly
accurate within 15° of the great circle. Distortion of areas, distances, and shapes
increases away from the great circle. It is excessive toward the edges of a world map
except near the path of the great circle. The map is conformal, but not perspective,
of equal area, or equidistant. Graticule spacing increases away from the great circle,
but conformity is retained. Both poles can be shown. Equator and other parallels are
complex curves concave towards the nearest pole. Two meridians 180 apart are
straight lines, all others being complex curves concave towards the great circle.
Polyconic Projection
This projection has generally been accepted as the best for a small, regular shaped
area, such as, the standard quadrangle. Survey of India uses this projection for
making topographical maps of Scale 1 :250,000 and more. Although this projection is
not conformal, the scale is not uniform, shapes and areas not being retained exactly.
It comes closer to compliance with most of these projections. It cannot be used on a
large area without noticeable distortion, and although two or three adjacent sheets
can be matched continuously in one direction, two or more strips cannot be matched
for any great distance without developing gaps along the abuting edges.
Lambert Conical Orthomorphic Projection
This projection portrays a portion of the earth's surface on the developed surface of a
secant cone. It is used along the parallel of latitude at orthomorphic projection with
two standard parallels by countries having predominant east-west directions for
topographical mapping. In India we use this pr\ojection for geographical maps. When
using two standard parallels, in the area between these parallels, the map scale will
be too small and in the area outside the parallels it will be too great. The mapped
area may be extended without limit in the east-west direction, but restricted within
narrow limits in the north-south direction. The principal advantages of this projection
is that the scale distortions are systematic and can be predetermined, and that a
map sheet of any portion of a zone can be matched perfectly with an adjoining sheet
in the same zone. However, a map of one zone cannot be matched with a map of an
adjoining zone.