Lecture #8

Famous quote
Biomass, biofuels, biogas and
bioenergy are sustainable with
nature due to maintaining their
productivity and usefulness to the
society indefinitely without
disturbing eco-system unlike
conventional fuels.
G.N. Tiwari & M.K. Ghosal “Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Sources”
 Biofuel production processes
• Biomass is the primary
source to produce
biofuels.
• Adequate and specific
technologies are needed
to convert biomass into
efficient energy forms
(biofuels).
 Biofuel production processes
• Conversion is
particularly
important
because the
energy content of
many biomass
feedstocks are
very low and converting them into high energy
content ones requires technological
advancements.
 Biofuel production processes
• Biomass materials are either burnt directly or
upgraded physically or chemically to produce
better fuels, giving a higher calorific value.
 Biofuel production processes
Problems with biomass:
• Biomass have only a
modest thermal content
with fossil fuels.
• They have a high moisture
content resulting in the
inhibition of their ready
combustion, causing
significant energy loss on
combustion.
 Biofuel production processes
Problems with biomass: Moisture content
 Biofuel production processes
Problems with biomass:
• They usually have a low-bulk density which
requires the use of relatively large equipment
for handling, storage and burning.
 Biofuel production processes
Problems with biomass:
• The physical form is
often not
homogeneous which
poses difficulties in
vehicular
transportation and
feeding to the end-use
equipment.
 Biofuel production processes
Purpose of conversion:
• Reduction of water content
of biomass, resulting in the
simultaneous increase in its
thermal value and ensure
its preservation.
 Biofuel production processes
Purpose of conversion:
• Improving the
handling
characteristics of the
material, for example
converting them into
fluid which may b e
either gas or liquid.
 Biofuel production processes
Conversion routes:
• Physical Densification Briquettes/rods
• Agrochemical Fuel extraction Liquids/oils
Biofuel production processes

Equivalent energy content by volume of unprocessed materials.

Source: Preto (2007)
 Biofuel production processes
The low density of biomass materials poses a challenge for the handling,
transportation, storage and combustion processes.

These problems may be addressed through densification, a process that produces

either liquid or solid fuel with denser and more uniform properties than the raw
biomass.

The main advantages of biomass densification for combustion are:

simplified mechanical handling and feeding
uniform combustion in boilers
reduced dust production
reduced possibility of spontaneous combustion in storage
simplified storage and handling infrastructure, lowering capital requirements at
the combustion plant
reduced cost of transportation due to increased energy density

The major disadvantage to biomass densification technologies is the high cost

associated with some of the densification processes.
 Biofuel production processes
Conversion routes: Direct comb. Gases
• Thermochemical Carbonization Liquids
Pyrolysis Oils
Gasification Charcoal

Al. Fermentation Ethanol

• Biochemical Anaerobic digestion Biogas
Bioelectrolysis Hydrogen
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion:
• The simplest method of physical
conversion of biomass is through the
compression of combustible
material.
• Following processes are
commercially used:
1. Briquetting Briquettes
2. Palletization Rods
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Briquetting:
• This is brought about be compression bailing i.e.
squeezing out moisture and breaking down the
elasticity of the wood and bark.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Briquetting:
• If elasticity is not sufficiently removed, the
compressed wood tends to regain its pre-
densifying volume.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Briquetting:
• Densification is performed in a die under high
pressure and temperature.
• The phenolic compounds in wood aid in
densification by acting as natural glues under
given conditions.
• Sometimes waxes (From external sources) Are
also used to bind the wood.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Briquetting:
• Briquettes are made from
paddy husk or sawdust.
• Dimensions: 66mm dia and
96mm thickness
• They are cheap and effective
fuel for the tobacco curing
industry.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Briquetting:
• Machines: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHxef19C85w

Reciprocating ram Screw press

 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Palletization:
• Palletization is a process in which wood is
compress and extracted in the forms of rods.
• Dimension of rods are: 5-12mm dia and 12 mm
length.
• Rods are found more facilitating its use in
steam power plants and gasification systems.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Palletization:
• Palletization process involves several stages:
I. Wood chips are
reclaimed from
storage and
crushed to
reduce the chips
to a specific
particle size.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Palletization:
• Palletization process involves several stages:
II. Sized particles
are passed
through a drying
process, which
reduces
moisture
content to
approx. 7-10%
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Palletization:
• Palletization process involves several stages:
III. Material is forced under pressure through an
extrusion device. Resulting friction heats the
wood fiber and softens its lignin (wood’s
natural “glue” which holds the cellulose fiber
together). Final pallet is formed but still “hot”.
IV. Hot pallets then pass through an air cooling
device to make them stored and then to
transport.
 Biofuel production processes
Physical conversion - Palletization:
• Since most moisture is removed from the wood
waste, approx. 2 tons of green wood chips are
required to produce 1 ton of pallets.
 Biofuel production processes
Agrochemical conversion:
• Agrochemical conversion or fuel extraction
describes the production of fuels from plants
while the plant usually remains alive and
unharmed.
 Biofuel production processes
Agrochemical conversion:
• Occasionally liquid or
solid fuels may be
obtained directly from
living or freshly cut
plants (similar to the
production of natural
rubber latex).
 Biofuel production processes
Agrochemical conversion:
• Some of the plants
forms oxygen free
hydrocarbons.
• In such plants, the oil of
the plant itself can
directly be used as
energy source.
 Biofuel production processes
Agrochemical conversion:
• Examples include:
(i) Seeds: Sunflower with 50% oil
(ii) Nuts: oil palm; coconut copra to 50% by mass
of oil
(iii) Fruits: olive
(iv) Leaves: eucalyptus with 25% oil
etc.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Direct combustion
• The direct combustion
of biomass to produce
heat is the simplest
route of utilization of
the material.
• This is the oldest
thermochemical
method of
bioconversion.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Direct combustion
• The main biomass which has been used over
the years for combustion is wood.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Direct combustion
• It is burnt to provide heat for cooking, comfort
heat (space heat), crop drying, factory
processes and forming steam for electricity
production and transport.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Carbonization
• It is the process whereby wood is heated with
restricted air flow to form a high carbon
product by removing volatile materials from it.
• The product is
known as
“Charcoal” which
is extensively
used as a
domestic fuel.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Carbonization
• Charcoal contains 20-25% volatiles
and 75-80% fixed carbon on
moisture free basis.
• It burns smokelessly.
• It can be preserved for
longer periods.
• Charcoal stoves have a higher overall efficiency
than wood burning stoves.
 Biofuel production processes
Volatile matter is one of the most common parameters measured in coal.
Volatile matter is essentially a measure of the non-water gases formed from a coal
sample during heating.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• “Pyrolysis” is a general
term for all processes
whereby organic
material is heated or
partially combusted
with restricted supply
of air to produce
secondary fuels and
chemical products.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• The input may be wood, biomass residues,
municipal wastes or indeed coal.
• The products are
gases, condensed,
vapors as liquid, tars
and oils and solid
residue as char
(charcoal) and ash.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is similar to carbonization, but:
– the process temperatures are higher, and
– The energy rich gaseous products of the
processes are restored in addition to
charcoal.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• The useful combustible products obtained from
the pyrolysis of wood are:
– Charcoal (25%)
– Wood gas (20%)
– Pyroligneous acid (40%)
– Tar or wood oil (15%)
excluding the moisture content.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• The rate of pyrolysis depends on several factors
like:
– Composition of the material
– Heating rate
– Residence time
– Temperature level
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• Usually slow pyrolysis is adopted to maximize
solid char while fast pyrolysis is used for
getting more of liquid and gaseous products.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• Very slow pyrolysis process parameters:
– Residence time: hr-days
– Heating rate (⁰C/min): <<1
– Temp. Range (⁰C): 300-400
– Products: Char
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• Slow pyrolysis process parameters:
– Residence time: up to 30 min
– Heating rate (⁰C/min): 5-100
– Temp. Range (⁰C): 400-600
– Products: Char, bio-oil gas
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• Flash pyrolysis process parameters:
– Residence time: 0.5-5 sec
– Heating rate (⁰C/min): 100
– Temp. Range (⁰C): 450-650
– Products: Bio-oil chemicals, fuel
gas
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Pyrolysis
• Ultra pyrolysis process parameters:
– Residence time: <0.5 sec
– Heating rate (⁰C/min): 1000-10000
– Temp. Range (⁰C): 700-1000
– Products: Chemicals, fuel gas
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification
• Gasification of biomass involves thermal
decomposition in the presence of controlled
air.
• In other words, it is the partial combustion of
bio mass.
• It is the conversion process of solid, carbon-
containing fuels into combustible gas mixtures,
normally known as “Producer gas” (or wood
gas, water gas, synthesis gas).
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification
• Producer gas contains, by weight:
– Hydrogen (10-20%): combustible
– Carbon monoxide (15-30%): combustible
– Nitrogen (45-60%): non-combustible
• Heating value: 4.5-6 MJ/m3
• Producer gas can be burned directly in a
furnace to generate process heat or it can fuel
IC-engines, gas turbines etc.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification
Where does the combustible gas comes from?
• Lets do an experiment. Light a wooden match;
hold it in horizontal position and notice that
while the wood becomes charcoal, it is not
actually burning but is releasing a gas that
begins to burn brightly a short distance away
from matchstick.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification
Where does the combustible gas comes from?
• Notice the gap between the matchstick and
luminous flame; the gap contains the wood
gas, which starts burning only when properly
mixed with air (which contains oxygen).
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification
• Agricultural wastes
like rice husk,
bagasse, coconut
husk, cereal straw
etc. can now be
utilized because
gasification offers
flexibility of
applications.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Gasifiers
• The gasifiers are generally classified according
to:
– the method of contacting fuel
– direction of air and gas movement
– types of bed
– types of fuel used
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Gasifiers
• Types of gasifiers include:
– Fixed bed gasifier
• Up-draft type gasifier
• Down-draft type gasifier
• Cross-draft type gasifier
– Fluidized bed gasifier
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Up-draft
• Also called
counterflow gasifiers.
• Simplest as well as
first type of gasifier
developed.
• In this gasifier, air
enters at the bottom
and the gas is drawn
off at the top.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Up-draft
• It was the natural
evolution from:
– Charcoal kilns: which
yielded smoky yet
flammable gas as a
waste product.
– Blast furnace: which generated product gas
that reduced ore to metallic iron.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Up-draft
• These gasifiers achieve
highest efficiency as the
hot gas passes through
the fuel bed (due to more
heat transfer time) and
leaves the gasifier at low
temperatures (more
energy per unit volume
of product gas).
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Up-draft
• The resulting gas is rich in
hydrocarbons (tars) and is
suitable only for the direct
heating purposes in
industrial furnace.
• If it is to be used for
electricity generation by IC
engines, it has to be
cleaned thoroughly.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Down-draft
• Also called cocurrent
gasifiers.
• In these gasifiers, air
enters at the combustion
zone and the gas
produced leaves near the
bottom of the gasifier.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Down-draft
• This type of gasifier is most commonly used for
engine applications because of its ability to
produce a relatively clean gas.
• A disadvantage of this type of gasifier is that
slagging of ash may occur due to the
concentrated oxidation (combustion) zone.
• Gasifier efficiency is less than updraft because
gas leaves at higher temperature.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Cross-draft
• In these gasifiers, the
flow of air and gas is
across the gasifier,
although not
necessarily in the
horizontal plane.
• It operates at very high
temperatures.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Cross-draft

• Because of the short-

path length for the
gasification reactions,
this type of gasifier
responds most rapidly
for changes in gas
production.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Cross-draft
• Ash formed due to high temperature fall to the
bottom and does not hinder operation.
• The high exit temperatures of the gases and low
CO2 reduction results in poor quality of the gas
and low efficiency.
• Due to these reasons, they have very few
applications.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• A simple fluidized
bed gasifier consist of
a chamber containing
a bed of inert
particles such as sand
or limestone
supported by a
distributor plate.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• These gasifiers takes advantage of excellent
mixing characteristics and high reaction rates of
gas-solid mixture.
• Pressurized air is passed through distributor
plate and the velocity of air is progressively
increased so as to support the entire weight of
the bed by the fluid drag on the bed particles
due to upward flowing air.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• The bed is said to be “Fluidized” and it exhibits
fluid-like properties above this particular
velocity, called “Minimum fluidization velocity”.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• The moving mass of solid
particles is called “Fluidized bed”.

• The turbulence of the bed increases with

velocity, above minimum fluidzation velocity.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• In the conversion process, the fluized bed is first
heated externally close to the operating
temperature.
• The bed material usually sand, absorbs and
stores the heat while the turbulence and mixing
of the bed keeps the temperature very uniform
throughout the bed.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• When biomass fuel is introduced into the
fluidized bed, the high heat and mass-transfer
characteristics of the bed permits the rapid
conversion at practically isothermal conditions.
• The high surface area available in fluidized bed
and the constantly moving area per unit volume
on which reactions occur, result in good
conversion efficiency and lower operating
temperature when compared to fixed beds.
 Biofuel production processes
Thermochem. conv. – Gasification: Fluidized bed
• Uniform temperatures and high heating
capacities of sand media permits a wide range
of low-grade fuels of even non-uniform size and
varying moisture content is to be converted to
desired products.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the decomposition
of organic waste to gaseous fuel by bacteria in
an oxygen-free environment.
• The process occurs in stages to successively
break down the organic matter into simpler
organic compounds.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• The final product is “Biogas”.
• It is also called swamp gas, sewer gas, fuel gas,
marsh gas and wet gas.
• It is the mixture of:
– Methane (CH4)
– Carbon dioxide (CO2)
– And some trace gases.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Biogas can thus be produced by
fermenting organic materials in
absence of air (or oxygen) with
the help of bacteria (micro-
organisms) to breakdown
materials into intermediate
such as alcohols and fatty acids
and finally to methane, carbon
dioxide and water.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Natural gas is also
produced by the action
of anaerobic bacteria in
plants and animals that
were buried thousands
of years ago and is one
of the fossil fuels, often
found in association
with oil and coal.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Biogas is produced in a digester by anaerobic
fermentation.
• Digester is a sealed tank or container in which
the biological requirements of anaerobic
digestion are controlled to achieve fermentation
and to produce biogas.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• In a digester, smallest living organisms such as
bacteria, yeasts and fungi transforms organic
wastes into valuable source of fuel through the
process of anaerobic fermentation.
• The process is simple, cheap and widely
recognized.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
Phases:
• Hydrolysis phase
• Acid phase
• Methane phase
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Hydrolysis phase:
Covers breakdown of large molecules into
smaller ones by enzymes that are
decomposable by bacteria.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Acid phase:
Complicated molecules such as proteins, fats
and carbohydrates are decomposed by acid-
forming bacteria into organic acids, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia and some
impurities.
Organic acids are normally short chain fatty
acids.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion
• Methane phase:
The methane forming bacteria convert fatty
acids into methane.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Factors
Following factors influence the biogas yield:
• pH value of feedstock
• C : N ratio of feedstock
• Loading rate
• Temperature
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Factors
pH value of feedstock
• Bacteria thrive in a slurry with a pH value of
around 7.
• So, if the input slurry has a pH close to 7,
fermentation proceeds more smoothly.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Factors
C : N ratio of feedstock
• Carbon is the major chemical element in organic
wastes which bacteria digest releasing finally
methane with carbon dioxide.
• However, microorganisms require certain
amount of nitrogen in the feed to perform their
function.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Factors
C : N ratio of feedstock
• A high C : N ratio means that nitrogen will be
exhausted before carbon is digested.
• A low C : N ratio results in high ammonium
concentrations which tend to become toxic to
anaerobic bacteria.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Factors
C : N ratio of feedstock
• It is possible to adjust C : N ratio in a biogas
digester by adding another material to
supplement.
• For example: Saw dust which has a high C : N
ratio can be added to poultry droppings which
have a low C : N ratio.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Factors
Temperature conditions
• For the optimum production of biogas, 30-35⁰C
is the desirable operating temperature set in a
digester.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
There are two basic designs of biogas digester
plants:
• Floating gasholder digester type plants
• Fixed dome digester type plants
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Floating gasholder digester type plants:
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Floating gasholder digester type plants:
• It is comprised of an underground brick
masonry digester connected with an inlet and
outlet and covered by a floating steel gasholder
for gas collection.
• Gasholder move up and down guided by a
central guide pipe depending upon
accumulation and discharge of gas.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Floating gasholder digester type plants:
• The floating gasholder helps to keep the
pressure constant.
• Floating gasholder made of steel alone accounts
for some 40% of the total plant cost.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Floating gasholder digester type plants:
• The gasholder rises when the pressure is
increased due to production of gas and allows
the generated gas to let out through the gas
supply pipe.
• It lowers when pressure is decreased to stop the
supply of biogas.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Fixed dome digester type plants:
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Fixed dome digester type plants:
• In this type, the gasholder and the digester are
combined.
• Gas is stored in upper part of the digester.
• Upper portion of digester pit itself acts as
gasholder.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Fixed dome digester type plants:
• Displaced level of slurry provides requisite
pressure for release of gas for its subsequent
use.
• The pressure inside the digester varies as the
gas is collected.
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Energy available from a biogas digester:
E = ηHbVb [MJ/day]
Where,
η = Burner efficiency (~60%)
Hb = Heat of combustion per unit volume
biogas (~20MJ/m3)
Vb = Volume of biogas (m3)
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Energy available from a biogas digester:
E = ηHmfmVb [MJ/day]
Where,
Hm = Heat of combustion per unit volume
methane (~56MJ/kg or 28MJ/m3)
fm = Fraction of methane in biogas (~70%)
Hence,
Hb = Hmfm
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Volume of biogas:
Vb = cmo [m3/day]
Where,
c = Biogas yield/Dry mass input (0.2-0.4m3/kg)
mo = Dry mass input/day (e.g. 2 kg/day)
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Volume of fluid per day or flow-rate of digester:
Vf = mo / ρ [m3/day]
Where,
ρ = Density of dry matter in fluid
(e.g. 50kg/m3)
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Volume of digester:
Vd = Vf tr [m3]
Where,
tr = Retention time (10-50 days)
 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Problem: Calculate volume and power available
from a biogas digester. Given that, cow = 8,
retention period = 20 days, temperature of
fermentation = 30⁰C, dry matter consumed per
cow per day = 2kg, burner efficiency = 0.7 and
methane proportion = 0.7.

Ans. Vd = 6.4m3, E = 510 W

 Biofuel production processes
Biochem. conv. – Anaerobic Digestion: Digesters
Solution:
• Total mass of dry input (mo) = 2 x 8 = 16 kg/day
• Vf = 16/50 = 0.32 m3/day
• Vd = Vf x tr = 0.32 x 20 = 6.4 m3
• Vb = 0.2 x 16 = 3.2 m3/day
• E = 0.7 x 28 x 0.7 x 3.2 = 43.90 MJ/day = 510 W