Read and Write

Friday, August 20, 2021

2:00 - 3:00 PM

DESCRIPTION
- SENSORY
- LOOK
- REALISTIC
- DETAIL
- QUALITY

II. Description
- the pattern of development which goes into details about a specific object, person, or location,
in order to set its appearance

What does it look like?

What are its characteristics?

Characteristics of Description
 has a clear focus and sense of purpose
 uses sensory s and precise words
 presents details in a logical order

Varieties of Description
1. Objective Description
o looks into factual and scientific characteristics of what is being described as objectively
as possible

o writer stays away from emotional impressions or responses and instead, describes the
scene as it is.

Example
The Acer barbatum is a small medium-sized, deciduous tree usually ranging 15 to 25 m. (50 to
80 ft.) tall when mature. Its bark is light gray and smooth on younger trees. and it becomes
ridged and furrowed with age. Leaves are opposite and shallowly deeply palmately lobed, with a
few blunt teeth but no serrations. The leaf sinuses are rounded, unlike those red maple (Acer
ruburn) which are sharply V-shaped. Also, the sides of terminal leaf lobes are more or less
parallel, while those of red maple are widest at the base, tapering to the tip.
 2. Subjective Description
o a sort of description that the author normally uses to "paint a picture" of how' he sees a
character, or how he wants the reader to see a character
o also used in a literary discourse when there is stereotyped in-mage that can be
attributed to a person, place, or an event.

Read and Write

Monday, August 22, 2021
2:00 - 3:00 PM

Definition of Exemplification / Illustration

 Exemplification means "giving examples"
 Illustration means "making ideas clearer by giving examples or by using diagrams or pictures".
 Exemplification/ illustration is simply proving or supporting your point. or thesis with examples.
 In this type of essay, examples act as supporting material to explain or clarify the generalization.

It uses a of:
 Facts
 Event
 Statistics
 People
 Samples
 Quotations
 Anecdotes (brief stories)
 Other kinds of specific items to make a general statement understandable, more clear, and/or
more convincing.
 Writers use exemplification to create interest. clarify ideas or convince.

Features of Exemplification/ Illustration

 The structure of these essays usually begin with a topic sentence or main idea, and then use
more and more vivid examples to prove the point to be true.
 Effective examples should enhance your writing, giving your essay vitality and intensity.

Examples that Illustrate

Muslim women are active, assertive and engaged in society. In Qatar, women make up the majority of
graduate-school students. The Iranian parliament has more women members than the U.S. Senate.
Throughout the world. many Muslim women are educated and professionally trained; they participate in
public debates, are often catalysts for reform and champions for their own rights.

Types of Examples
 Examples that illustrate - use concrete examples to illustrate an idea.
 Examples that explain - give an explanation to illustrate a concept.
  Examples that tell a story - use a short story to illustrate a point.
 Examples that describe – use examples to make help the reader visualize a scene or a thing.

Examples that Illustrate

Muslim women are active, assertive and engaged in society. In Qatar, women make up the majority of
graduate-school students. The Iranian parliament has more women members than the U.S. Senate.
Throughout the world. many Muslim women are educated and professionally trained; they participate in
public debates, are often catalysts for reform and champions for their own rights.

Examples that Describe

In Berkeley, there are wheelchair users on ever corner. Propped in sagging hospital-issue chairs. Space-
age sports chairs. Motor-driven dreadnoughts.

Examples that tell a story

One day, rushing into the Office of a magazine I was writing for with a deadline story in hand, I was
mistaken for a burglar. The office manager called security and, with an ad hoc posse, pursued me
through the labyrinthine halls, nearly to me editor's door.

Length of Examples
Essays often combine both brief and extended examples.
 Brief. These examples appear rather frequently within the essay, and they usually function as
concrete examples of straightforward ideas.
 Extended. These examples contain more detail. Such detail is needed because extended
examples function as concrete illustrations of ideas that are too complex to be made clear by a
brief example.
 
1. Decide on a topic. Basically, what generalization do you want to exemplify?
2. Determine a purpose. What angle of the generalization do you want to present to the reader?
Having a clear purpose will help you choose examples and write your thesis.
3. Think about your audience. How do you think members of the audience feel about the
generalization that you are discussing?

CLASSIFICATION WRITING
Definition
 Classification Writing - writing that breaks a large subject into smaller groups (called categories)
 Categories - help writers and readers understand the larger subject

Important Features
 Categories should
 belong together, but should not overlap
 be on the same level—they should match.
 Three-four categories per paragraph
 Each category is distinguished clearly from the others—the writer explains -
what is unique about each
Important Features
 Emphatic order— a method of organization that places ideas in their order of importance
a. Least important
 b. Second important
c. Most important
 Use these transitions to add information to your classification:
 Also
 And
 Besides
 First (second, third)
 Furthermore
 In addition
 Like-wise
 Moreover
 Too

Examples
 Biological taxonomy—grouping plants and animals into species, genus, and family to
understand them
 Book/movie genres—grouping books/movies according to content

Comparison and Contrast

Comparing
How something is the same or similar.
Contrasting
How something is different.

Signal Words
compare
(similarities)
also, too similar, similarly alike both, in the same way
contrast
(differences)
differ, but however, in contrast different, on the other hand

Patterns of Development in Writing Across Disciplines

(Cause and Effect)
Cause is why something happened. Effect is the result of what happened. Because effects always have
causes and causes always lead to effects. we rarely see one without the Other.

- The cause is the first thing that happens.

- It makes the second thing (the effect) happen.
- The part of the sentence after the word because is the cause.
Example:
I stayed from school because I had the flu.
The effect is the second thing that happens.
The effect answers the questions:
What happened?
What was the result?
Example:
—Jaime was going too fast and fell off his bicycle.

Understanding Cause and effect Relationships

- In some paragraphs. the cause-and-effect relationship is not directly stated.
- In these cases. you have to — “read between the lines.”
- Use clues from the paragraph to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
- You use and effect every day when you solve problems and make
- As a result. understanding causes and effects is extremely important in day-to-day living.
- Learning to identity cause and effect relationship`s helps you understand what is happening in
the world around you

Clue Words for Cause

These expressions indicate cause –
- Because
- Cause
- Reason
- so that
- Unless
- Cause
- The main reason…

Let's see this works —

As a result of his bad fall. Professor Green is wearing bandages and a cast.
I’m all bandaged up because of my fall

Clue Words for Effect

These expressions indicate effect –
- As a result of
- Consequently
- Effect
- Therefore
- Thus

What caused so many people to die from the bubonic plague?

- Lack of sanitation and poor medical knowledge account for the continuous plague epidemics.
- The dead were buried without the usual prayers.
- Italy was constantly at war.
A. The victims got large bruises or sores on the face.
Practice Question
1. Marcia was a skilled and capable driver. She had driven all the way from new Mexico in her
brand-new car without any problems. Suddenly, because she hit a long patch of frozen ice, she
lost control and the car ended up in a ditch. As she climbed out, she realized that the car was
demolished.
What was the cause of Marcia’s accident?
A. She was very tired from long drive
B. The road was icy
C. The car was new
D. She landed in a ditch

2. The simple sneeze is actually a complex reaction. The impulse to sneeze comes from irritation of
a group of nerves in back of the eyes. When the signals reach the brain, the body takes a quick
breath, then muscles contract violently. Finally, the sound “achoo” comes out.
A. Nerves are irritated
B. The brain is signaled
C. Eyes are irritated
D. Muscles contract violently

3. Carlos Palomino was a champion boxer. Yet he gave up boxing and earned a degree ion
recreation. He chose this field because he wanted to work with kids. Not everyone can become
a paid athlete, he says. That’s why school is so important for all young people. Carlos hopes his
example will help others set high goals in education as well in sports.
4. Why did Carlos get the degree in recreation?
A. He had earned many honors’
B. He wanted to work with kids.
C. Not everyone can become a paid athlete
D. He was an ideal boxer

Properties of a Well-Written Text

[Organization]
I. ORGANIZATION
o It is said that ideas are well-developed when there is a clear statement of purpose,
position, facts, examples, specific details, definitions, explanation, justifications, or
opposing viewpoints.
o Organization is achieved when these ideas are logically and accurately arranged.
 
Organization refers to the arrangement of ideas in a text. You can easily follow good organization when
you create an outline of your ideas before you start. An outline is like the skeleton of the human body—
the latter gives the body form while the former gives your writing basically the same thing.
Outline Format
Title/ Topic
I. Introduction
A. An opening sentence about your topic.
B. Something interesting to pull the reader in.
II. Question 1 opening sentence
A. Detail #1
B. Detail #2
C. Detail #3
III. Question 2 opening sentence
A. Detail #1
B. Detail #2
C. Detail #3
IV. Question 3 opening sentence
A. Detail #1
B. Detail #2
C. Detail #3
V. Conclusion
A. Refer back to your opening sentence. What is your purpose?
B. An interesting sentence to end your report.

A paragraph is a group of sentences. A good paragraph has the following: (1) a single main idea, (2)
topic sentence, and (3) supporting details that further explain or elaborate the main idea.

Main Idea: Exercise helps improve one's life.

Supporting Details:
1. Exercise helps reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by improving blood circulation.
2. Daily exercise helps burn fats and keep weight under control.
3. It helps improve and or maintain your good cholesterol
4. It prevents depression.
5. It helps boost the flow of blood to the brain. resulting in an improvement to the cognitive
functions of an individual.

STRUCTURE OF A TEXT
 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION?
It is also known as arrangement and is achieved when ideas are logically and accurately
arranged with focus on the arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidence, or details in a definite order in a
paragraph, essay, or speech.
 A. PHYSICAL FORM
o It is seen in how the text physically appears like headings and subheadings, bullet points
or font emphasis.
o Marxist ideology has three main theories. Historical materialism purports that all the
features of society can historically be traced back to economic activity. Social class in
capitalist societies is what produces unjust structures of power that exist today.
Socialism would be the next rational step for the development of human society.

B. SIGNAL WORDS
o These are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can "signal" the
transition from one point to another, the ordering of events and concepts, or the
writer's chosen text type.
Chuck Palahniuk's novel Fight Club greatly influenced me as a fictional writer. First. his
use of the unreliable narrator fascinated me, and I have written similar characters in my
works. Second, the theme of patriarchal oppression can also be found in the stories I write.
Third. the novel's stunning twist is something that I have been trying to recreate. Thus, I am
extremely grateful to have encountered Palahniuk's genius early in my writing career.
C. STRUCTURE
The structure provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It consists of the
following:
o Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook
o Middle: supporting details
o End: conclusion, summary, final message.
Ancient philosophies believe that a person has an "aura," this appears as a rainbow• of light
around the body that can be seen by individuals with clairvoyant abilities. The colors change depending
on one's mood. health. and thoughts. Some scientists believe that the existence of the aura has
something to do with the electromagnetic fields produced by cells and tissues in the human body. auras
are real or not, the fact remains that there are forces everywhere that are real even though we cannot
see them.

PARAGRAPH ARRANGEMENTS:
1. Chronological Order
first, second, later, before. next. as soon as. after. then. finally. meanwhile. following. last,
during. in. on. until
2. Order of Importance
less, more, primary, next, last, most important. primarily. secondarily
3. Spatial Order
above, below, beside, next to, in front of, behind, inside, outside, opposite. within, nearby
4. Definition Order
is, refers to, can be defined as, means, consists of, involves. is a term that, is called
5. Classification
classified as, comprises, is composed of, several, varieties of, different stages of, different groups
that
6. Process
first, next, then, following, after that. last, finally
7. Cause and Effect
 Causes: because. for. since. stems from, one cause is, one reason is, leads to. causes. creates,
yields, due to, breeds, for this reason
Effects: consequently. results in. one result is. therefore. thus. as a
8. Comparison and Contrast
Similarities; both, also. similarly. like. likewise. too. as well as. resembles. correspondingly. in
the same way. to compare. in comparison, share
Differences: unlike. differs from. in contrast. on the other hand. instead. despite. nevertheless.
however, in spit of. whereas. as opposed to
9. Listing
the following, several, for example, for instance, one, another. also, too, in other words, first.
second, numerals (1, 2, 3...), letters (a, b, c...)
10. Clarification
in fact, in other words, clearly
11. Summary
in summary, in conclusion, in brief, to summarize, to sum up, In short, on the
12. Example
for example, for instance, to illustrate

WHAT IS COHESION?
Cohesion refers to the unity of ideas in a paragraph. Every detail in a paragraph should
support the main idea. Cohesion is the connection of ideas in the sentence level. Did it use
pronouns properly? Did it use transitions? Did it do repetition of subject matter?

1. ORGANIZATION
 Strong organization constitutes proper paragraphing and logical order of presentation of ideas.
 Ostrom (1978) averred that it is a way of making visible to the reader the stages in writer's
thinking.
 Paragraphing is dividing a text into paragraphs.
 The unity and coherence of ideas among
 sentences is what makes the paragraph.
 It is essentially a unit of thought not of length.

COHERENCE AND COHESION

Characteristics of Good Writing:
1. Focus and Coherence
- Coherence is achieved when sentences and ideas are connected and flow together smoothly. It
keeps to the topic and its clear and supported by well- chosen details.
2. Organization
- A well organized paper has a clearly recognizable plan that is ideas move from sentence to
sentence
3. Development of Ideas
- The ideas are clearly defined, logically developed, supported by appropriate details, and
connected in an interesting manner.
4. Convections
- It refers to the correct use of all spelling, punctuation, capitalization, usage, and and sentence
structure rules.
Coherence
describes the way that the elements in our sentences and paragraphs hang together to produce
meaning. Usually when we write rough drafts, we are concerned mainly with getting our thoughts on
paper, not with making sure that they interconnect well so that a reader can process our reasoning
easily.
Refers to the specific ways in which writers guide readers through a piece of writing
Techniques include choosing certain words and constructing sentences that stick together.

Coherence
A paragraph is coherent when all the sentences are related to one main idea. Each sentence
follows logically to the next.
It the quality of being logical, consistent and able to be understood.

Original Paragraph
People made different sorts of clothing in colonial America. There was also a variety of furniture.
Women planted flax, harvested the crop, and woven the flax into linen. Women also wore woolen cloth
from sheep. They colored the fabrics with dyes made from barks, berries, roots, or walnut h The
colonies often made shoes or leggings from leather made from deerskin or cows.

Revised Paragraph
Making clothing was a normal and necessary process in colonial households, For instance, women
planted flax, harvested the crop, and woven it into linen cloth, They also wove woolen cloth from yarn
spun the fleece of sheep. For the coloring of fabrics, they used dyes made from barks, berries, roots, or
walnut hulls. Colonial men tanned cow hide and deerskin for leather for shoes and leggings,

Text without Coherence and Cohesion

Amelia Earhart was a legendary woman who made her name in aviation by setting various records. In
1928, she became famous as the first woman who flew across the Atlantic Ocean. She was only a
passenger; with pilot Wilmer Stultz and co-pilot/mechanic Louis Gordon manning the controls. In 1932,
slue flew on her own over the Atlantic. She flew from Honolulu Hawaii to Oakland California She became
the first person to flyover both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Between 1930 and 1935, Earhart set seven
women's speed and distance aviation through different aircrafts. She disappeared in 1937 while
attempting to fly around crew member, Fred Noonan. Extensive search efforts were notable to find a
trace of both aviators.

Text with Coherence and Cohesion

Amelia Earhart was a legendary woman who made her name in aviation by setting various records, ln
1928. she became famous as the first woman who flew across the Atlantic Ocean, However, during this
trip she was only a passenger. with pilot Wilmer Stultz and co- pilot/ mechanic Louis Gordon manning
the controls. In 1932, she finally got to fly on her own over the Atlantic. She set another record when
she flew from Honolulu Hawaii to Oakland California in 1935, thus becoming the first person to fly over
both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Between 1930 and 1935. Earhart set seven women's speed and
distance aviation through different aircrafts.
Transitions
Spatial Order
Use transitional words and phrases like these when describing details according to their position in
space (front to back, near to far, top to bottom, and others).

above Beside to the right of past

below Down In the other direction Over
behind in front of near under
beneath in back Of on top Of to

Cause Signal Words and Phrases

 for
 because
 since
 as
 to result from
 to be result of
 due to
 because of
 the effect of
 the sequence of
 as a result of
 as a consequence of

Language Use
LANGUAGE USE
 The Importance of Language
- Language isn't just thinking what you say, it is also important to know how to say
it. To communicate effectively, it is not enough to have well organized ideas expressed in complete
sentences. We must also think what the style, tone, and clarity of his/her writing is.

Characteristics of Effective Language Use

 Concrete and Specific, not vague and abstract
 Concise, not verbose
 Familiar, not obscure
 Precise and Clear, not inaccurate or ambiguous
 Constructive, not destructive
 Appropriately Formal
Language use concrete and not specific not vague and abstract
CONCRETE and SPECIFIC not Vague and Abstract
Note: Read This Passage Below, notice the Words
 He is a bad roommate
 He is lazy and discourteous
 He is untidy and unclean
 He doesn't clean up his own messes
 He leaves his dirty dishes on the kitchen counter

 Vour relationship with John is unacceptable

 You do not get along well with John
 You and John have a lot of argurnentS
 You and John insult each other too much
 You and John call each other derogatory names

Language Use
Concise, not Verbose
To have an effective language use, we must express our own words as few words
as possible. Concise means expressing something that is directed to the point of
what the speaker would want to tell.
.
Consider me Following Example Below
(1) It is widely discussed by employees that many of them will be of the be forced to change jobs and
take on new responsibilities when merger takes place between the two companies.

One way to reduce wordiness is to eliminate redundant words or phrases.

Consider example one above. The phrases "to change jobs” and “take on new
responsibilities are redundant. and could be into one short phrase to be
expressed more concisely.

Consider example two above. The phrase “…should be sure to carefully think about, ponder and reflect
on...” contains three ways of saying the same thing. This
Sentence could be improved by using only one of the key phrases: -...to reflect on…”

Language Use
Familiar, not Obscure

PRECISE and CLEAR, not Inaccurate or Ambiguous

 Mechanics of Effective Writing
Properties Of a written text
organization
coherence and cohesion
language use
mechanics of writing

It is one of the properties of a well- written text and is characterized as a set of conventions on how to
spell, abbreviate, punctuate and capitalize a composition

Rules for Proper Mechanics

1. Always use Standard English.
- A Standard English is a variety of language that is used by governments, in the media, in schools
and for international communication.
2. Avoid contractions
- A contraction is a combination of two words as one, such as "don't," "can't," and "isn't." The use
of contractions is inappropriate in formal legal writing. Replace them with the two-word version
of the contraction.
3. Avoid exclamation marks unless they are part of a direct quotation.
More Punctuation Rules:
1. Rule Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise. ...
2. Rule An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence. ...
3. Rule Avoid using an exclamation point in formal business
4. Rule Overuse of exclamation points is a sign of undisciplined
4. Mention the full name of an institution or organization with the abbreviation in parenthesis in
the first mention. Thereafter, use the abbreviation.
5. Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled out while numbers higher than ten should be
written in figures.
6. Generally, citations are used in academic and formal texts. However, they are sparingly used
in business texts.

Mechanics conventions for writing include rules for grammar, usage, punctuation, spelling, and even
word order.

Text without Mechanics

Pluto was demoted to a dwarf planet in 2006 after the General Assembly of the IAU, as it only me 2 out
of the association's three requirements to quality as a Planet (Library of Congress). The dispute started
when Caltech Astronomy prof Mike Brown discovered an Asteroid bigger than Pluto in 2005 ( Cain,
2012). The science community went wild! Brown's findings sparked a debate on whether this new
planet, which he named eris, should be added to the roster of 9 Planets. The controversy prompted the
International Astronomical Union to meet up delineate what a 'planet' isThey came up with three
requirements to classify a celestial body as aplanet and removed the Planet Status of Pluto based on the
new definition.
 Text with Mechanics
Pluto was demoted to a dwarf planet in 2006 after the general assembly of the International
Astronomical Union (IAU), as it only met two out of the association's three requirements to quality as a
planet (Library of Congress). The dispute started when Mike Brown, a professor of astronomy at the
California Institute of Technology (Caltech), discovered an asteroid bigger than Pluto in 2005 (Cain,
2012). Brown's findings sparked a debate on whether this new planet, which he named Eris, should be
added to the roster of nine 'planets' is. They came up with three requirements for classifying celestial
bodies as planets and removed status of Pluto on the new definition.

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to•

1. find out the rules in mechanics;
2. identify the errors in a text; and
3. appIy the mechanics in writing.

Analyze these 2 sentences:

a. I hear somebody calling, Evelyn.
b. I hear somebody calling Evelyn.

We have studied about some formal and informal writing in our previous lesson.

Precise writing follows

 spelling
 punctuation
 italics

mechanics
 punctuation
 capitalization
 spelling
 abbreviation

PUNCTUATION
1. comma
a. Use a comma to separate items in a series. A series is made up of three or more nouns, verbs,
modifiers, or phrases
Example:
Oral Communication, EAPP, and 21st Century Literature are core subjects in the Senior High School.
b. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are two or more
adjectives that equally modify the same noun.
Example:
The asymptomatic, COVID positive patient was rushed to the hospital.
c. Use a comma to separate long clauses joined by conjunctions such as by, and, but, or, for, yet,
and so; although it is omitted if the clauses are short.
Example:
 Last week was my sister's wedding, so I prepared to go to the salon for my haircut.
d. Use commas after introductory clauses, phrases, or words that come before the main clause.
Example:
While I was waiting for the rain to subside. suddenly there was a bolt of lightning split the sky.

e. Set off introductory elements (words that introduce a sentence with a comma) Common
introductory phrases are: participial And infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential
appositive phrases, long prepositional phrases of four or more words
Example:
 Being on time. I have received an incentive from my boss (participial phrase)
 To travel outside the region, you need to secure necessary documents. (infinitive phrase)
 Ms. Rodriguez, wrote many English was of my favorite teachers. (appositive phrase)

f. Use commas to set off dates (except the month and day). geographical names, items in dates
(except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name). and titles in
names.
Examples:
 Kadayawan festival is celebrated in Auqust
 On March 31.2011. Panabo became a city.

2. semicolon
a. Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no words.
Example:
I am excited to go home;
I wanted to stay there for good.

b. Use a semicolon when joining two independent clauses together with one of the following
conjunctive adverbs
(adverbs that join independent clauses):
however. moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus,

3. colon
a. use a colon for separating chapter from verse in Bible reference. separating volume from page in
bibliography reference, writing a salutatory greeting in professional writing and giving the time.
Example:
 My favorite verse is Psalm 23:1.
 Majority of the references that I cited were taken from the Academic Journal 11 :23 (volume 11,
page 23)

b. Use a colon to introduce a formal list.

Example:
 Three things I have accomplished today: answered modules, e-mailed documents, and
researched enrichment activities.
 The Davao Crocodile Park is a must-see destination in Davao City.

c. Capitalize the pronoun “I” and the interjection “O”.

Example: O God, I thank you.
 d. Capitalize professional titles when used before a personal name.
Example: General Tione was arrested for alleged graft.

e. Capitalized academic title and their abbreviations when they follow a personal name
Example: Noemi Pales, M.D

f. CapitaIize brand names

Example:
My dream car is Toyota Fortuner.

g. CapitaIize the first word in a letter's greeting or close.

Example:
Sincerely yours,

h. Capitalize the days of the week. months of the year, and holidays.
Examples:
The opening of classes is in October.
l always prepare gifts for Christmas.

Spelling

Abbreviation
- shortening of words
a. OnIy abbreviate well-known terms. e.g. TV for television
b. Abbreviations that use capital letters are called initialisms. It is required to put a period after
each letter.
c. ln formal writing, it is recommended not to abbreviate the dates only if needed, especially when
used in tables or charts.
e.g. Mon., Oct. 5
d. Latin abbreviations should not be capitalized.
e.g. - means "for example
i.e - means "that is”,”in other words" and more
 Claims of Fact
CLAIM
- a single statement.
- the topic of an argument.
- not a question
- phrased against the status quo.
- The centra argument or thesis statement of the text. It is what the writer tries to prove in the
text by providing details, explanations, and other types of evidence.

Three Kinds of Claim

 Claim of fact
 Claim of Value
 Claim of policy

Guidelines in Writing and Defending Claims of Fact

Claims of fact risk the problem that the factual map is constantly being drawn. New data always force us
to give our conclusion.

Claims is a statement is not considered accepted by all. A claim may be unverified or controversial to
certain degree. It is usually related to one side of an issue.

Claims the main idea or the thesis which attempts to present or defend an issue.

Claims of fact are often qualified by such terms as generally, probably, or as a rule. Define terms that
may be controversial or ambiguous.

Claims of fact rely on upon reliable authorities or they are worthless. Especially in the age of the
Internet, teachers must explain that a sources reliability is often ambiguous and debatable.

Claim
 it is your opinion or stand on an issue.
 It must be debatable!
 Claims have differing reactions on it
(positive or negative feedback).

In Argumentative Text…
 Claim is the last sentence of the introduction.
 It is the POSITION of the writer or speaker in relation to the topic.
 The claim is either an agreement or disagreement to the issue.

Claim of Fact
is a statement of øometm.ng that has existed (past). exist (present) or exist (future)
Examples:
1. The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy
2. The death penalty does not deter crime.
 CLAIM OF FACT
A claim of fact makes an assertion about something that can be proved or disproved with factual
evidence. However, keep in mind the basic quality of claims, that they have to be debatable, and offer
an assertion about an issue. So a claim of fact for a logical argument cannot simply consist of a statistic
or proven fact. It needs, instead, to focus on an assertion which uses facts to back it up, but for which
the evidence might still be debatable.

Example:
 Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions from car exhaust, manufacturing processes, fertilizers, and
landfills, while slowing deforestation, may help slow the process of global warming.

CLAIM OF VALUE
A claim of value argues that something is good or bad, or that one thing is better than another thing.
Examples:
 It's better to apply good nutritional choices at home than teach them at school, because good
nutrition then becomes ingrained in the child's experience.
 Although immunotherapy has produced some good results in fighting cancer, overall it is less
effective than chemotherapy.
 
CLAIM OF POLICY
A claim of policy argues that certain conditions should exist, or that something should or should not be
done, in order to solve a problem.
Example:
 Just as smoking ads have been banned in order to decrease the urge to engage in an unhealthy
behavior, soda ads should be banned for the same reason.

Identify the type of claim for each opinion.

 It is just to force taxpayers to donate to a school. Answer: Claim of Value
 The Phil government should prioritize Filipino Children who choose to study in public schools.
Answer: Claim of Policy
 Public school performance in the Philippines has plummeted over the past 50 years. Answer:
Claim of Fact
 Batangas is better than Baguio. Answer: Claim of Fact
 Capital Punishment needs to be re-implemented to stop the increase in crime rate. Answer:
Claim of policy

Compose a claim for the following debate topics:

1. SOGIE Bill should be passed as a Republic Act.
2. It is good to let China invest in the Philippines.
3. ROTC should be mandatory to SHS & college students.
4. It's good for students to start school at 8AM.
5. Criminal Liability should be lowered to 9 years old.
Guidelines Questions for Claims
 Are the claims presented in the text supported by evidence?
 Are these pieces of evidence valid and sufficient?
 Are the pieces of evidence anecdotal or scientific?
 How does this nature affect the overall credibility of the text?
 Does the text have reference? Are they reliable and recent?
 How does the writer present facts and opinions?

Claim of Policy is an argument which asse the implementation of a certain policy. This is driven by the
need to present a solution to problems that have arisen, sometimes it is given as a response to claims of
policy also incorporates judgment coupled with supporting information.

Guidelines in Writing and Defending Claims of Policy

 Claims of Policy argue that certain conditions should exist.
 When you are defending a claim of policy, you must make your proposal clear. Terms should
be precisely defined.

 Claims of Policy advocate adoption of policies or courses of action because problems have
arisen that call for solutions.
 When you are defending a claim of policy, if necessary, establish that there is a need for
change.

 Almost always "should" or "ought to lor "must" are included in the claim.
 When you are defending a claim of policy, devote the major part of your research paper to
prove your proposal in an answer to the opposing arguments.

 When you are defending a claim of policy, devote the major part of your research paper to
prove your proposal in an answer to the opposing arguments.

READING AND WRITING

 Support your proposal with solid data, but don't neglect moral and /or commonsense reasons,
which may even more persuasive,

implicit vs. explicit information

Explicit information- clearly stated
(direct)
Implicit information- implied, suggested
(indirect)
CLAIM
 central idea
 what the writer tries to prove in the text by providing details, explanations, and other types of
evidence.
 a sentence that summarizes the most important thing that the writer wants to say as a result of
his/her thinking, reading, or writing.
 
Characteristics of a good CLAIM:
1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable.
Example:
Men are better in Math than women.
2. A claim should be specific and focused.
3. A claim should be interesting and engagement
4. A claim should be logical. It should result from reasonable weighing of support provided.

3 Types of claims:
claims of fact
claims of value
claims of policy

A. CLAIMS OF FACT
o refer to a condition has existed(past), exists(present), or will exist (future).
o Inferences made are based on data, documents, documents, and scientific observation,
and research.

Guide questions: (Claims of fact)

 Did it happen?
 Does it exist?
 ls it true?
 How can its truthfulness be verified?
 ls it a fact?

Examples:
 The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy.
 Cancer is not contagious.
 The climate will get warmer in the next few years because of global warming.

How to defend your claims of fact:

 State the claim clearly.
 Define terms that may be controversial or ambiguous so that readers know exactly what you
mean.
 Make sure that your evidence fulfills the appropriate criteria.
How to defend your claims of fact:
 Make clear when conclusions about the data are inferences or not facts.
 Arrange your evidence in order to emphasize what is most important.

B. Claims of Value
 are value judgment made based on morals, standards, and norms.
 require the use of standards of evaluation, presentation of advantages moral standards used,
use of example to concretize abstractions, and use of credible experts.
 based on likes or dislikes/ good or bad.
Examples:
 Death penalty is unjust.
 It is better to have loved and lost, than never to have loved at all.

Guide questions:
(Claims of Value)
 Which claims endorse what is good or bad?
 What qualities should be considered good? Why?
 Which of these values content with others?
 Which ones are more important, and why?
 Whose standards are used?

How to defend your claims of value:

 Try to make clear that the values or principles you are defending should have priority on any
scale of values.
 Keep in mind that you and your readers may differ about their relative importance.
 Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good results in some
specific situation or bad results if respect for the values is ignored.
 Since value terms are abstract, use examples and illustrations to clarify meanings and make
distinctions.
 Comparisons and contrasts are especially helpful
 Use testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable or highly regarded people share your
values.

c. Claims of Policy
 Are specific and measurable actions that need to be done in order to address issues or concerns
presented in an argument or proposition.
 Argue that certain conditions should exist.

Examples:
 A dress code should be introduced for all students.
 President Duterte recalled order allowing kids aged 10 to 14 outside their homes.
 
How to defend your Claims of Policy:
 Convince your audience that a problem exists.
 Make your proposal clear
 Establish that there is a need for a change.
 Consider the opposing arguments.
  Devote the major part of your essay to providing that your proposal is an answer to the
opposing arguments and there are distinct benefits for your readers in adopting your
proposal.
 Support your proposal with solid data, but don't neglect the moral considerations and the
common-sense reasons, which may be even more persuasive.

Quiz Time
1. Winning by cheating is worse than losing honesty.
Answer: Claims of Value
2. The recent earthquake in the Philippines, in January 2021, registered 7.0 on the Richter scale.
Answer: Claims of Fact'
3. Teachers are expected to retire on or before their 60th birthday.
Answer: Claims of Policy
4. Earthquake prediction technology is an important aspect of the Philippine National Defense
strategy.
Answer: Claims of Policy
5. Hospitals will prioritize patients with severe COVID-19 symptoms.
Answer: Claims of Policy
6. The increase of population threatens the environment.
Answer: Claims of Fact
7. Excessive consumption of alcohol is fatalistic
Answer: Claims of Fact
8. Watching television is a wasteful activity.
Answer: Claims of Value
9. Globally, about 1 in 3 women will be beaten or raped in her lifetime.
Answer: Claims of Value
10. The transition of Philippine President's mark significant changes in our culture and
society. Despite the fact that History classes provide a comprehensive discussion on
these salient events, very few appreciate the positive influence, the moral changes,
and the contribution of Presidents in the country.
Answer: Claims of Value

Task 4:
Identify whether the following are claims of fact, or policy by writing CF for claim of fact, and CP
Claim of Policy on the blanks before the claim.
1) "There is a God."
2) "Divorce is causing increased juvenile crime."
3) “Video games lead to the increase of violence among teens,"
4) "Climate change is exacerbated by people."
5) Every other girl in her school has a cell phone.
6) The death penalty must retrieved.
7) A national ID system should adopted.
8) Beauty contest should be banned.
9) The government must devote more funds building schools that building rocks.
10) Zoos should be abolished.
 Claims of Value
Objectives:
 Identify claims explicitly or implicitly made in written text
 Discuss the claims of value and its importance
 Apply the claims in value in the sentences

Claims of value are evaluative statements.

They are statements about which is better, more important, more desirable, more needed, or more
useful.
They may also relate to what is good or bad.

A claim of value argues whether something is good or bad. It is based on judgment and evaluation on
philosophical, aesthetic, moral standpoint.

Guidelines in Writing and Defending Claims of Value

 Claims of Value make a judgment Make clear that the value or principles you are defending
should have priority on a scale of values over competing values or principles others defend.
 Claims of Value express disapproval and or approval. Suggest that adherence to the values you
are defending will bring about good results.
 Some claims of Value are simply expressions of taste, preferences and principles. It is highly
persuasive to use the testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable or highly regarded
people share your values.
 Many claims of value, however, can be defended or attacked on the basis of standards that the
readers will accept.

> Claims of Value require:

1. Establishing standards of evaluation
2. Noting priority of the value in this instance.
3. Establishing the advantage (practical or moral) of your standards.
4. Using examples to clarify abstract value.
5. Using credible authorities or support

Euthanasia, which is also known mercy killing, is an act to end a person's life to alleviate the
suffering brought about by a terminal or grave illness. While it may be supported by some, euthanasia is
not only an unethical medical practice, it is also a crime. After all, on the most basic level, this practice
takes a life. In fact, majority of the countries in the world consider it as homicide. Aside from being s
crime, euthanasia is unethical in the medical context because it violates the one of the tenets of the
Physician's Oath, namely that of "primum noncore" which means "first, do no harm." In the Declaration
of Geneva, doctors have the responsibility of saving lives, not destroying them. In essence, euthanasia is
a violation of life, and it can never be acceptable procedure. Euthanasia, which is also known mercy
killing, is an act to end a person's life to alleviate the suffering brought about by a terminal or grave
illness. While it may be supported by some, euthanasia is not only an unethical medical practice, it is
also a crime. After all, on the most basic level, this practice takes a life. In fact, majority of the countries
in the world consider it as homicide. Aside from being s crime, euthanasia is unethical in the medical
context because it violates the one of the tenets of the Physician's Oath, namely that of "primum
noncore" which means "first, do no harm." In the Declaration of Geneva, doctors have the responsibility
of saving lives, not destroying them. In essence, euthanasia is a violation of life, and it can never be
acceptable procedure.

Three Types of Claim

Claim of Fact, Claim of Policy, Claim of Value

What is a claim?
-A claim is an arguable statement that defines your goal of the essay.
-It is the central statement of a text where the writer tries to prove his points by providing details
explanations and other types of evidence

Examples of claims:
1. Covid— 19 is deadly
2. Covid— 19 and flu spread in similar ways
3. You Will have Covid— 19 if you have low body resistance
4. You should wear face mask and face shield
5. Tawa - tawa is the cure for — 19

Characteristics of a good claim:

 A claim should be argumentative and debatable
 A claim should be specific and focused
 A claim should be interesting and engaging
 A claim should be logical
"Smoking is dangerous to one’s health”

Claims of Fact
 It asserts that a condition existed. exists. or will exist and are based on facts or data
 A claim whether something is true or untrue but there always be potential for controversy.
conflict. or change

Claims of Fact
Questions to answer to check if a claim is a CLAIM OF FACT:
 Can we investigate it through research or interviews?
 Did it happen?
Examples:
1. Covid— 19 and flu spread in similar ways.
2. Teens engaged in unprotected sex will develop STDs. became pregnant. and contract

Claims of Policy
 Statements that argue that something needs to be done May it be making a law or calling for
action
 A claim of policy usually has the modals should, must, and ought to
Claims of Policy
Question to answer to check if a claim is a CLAIM OF POLICY:
 What should be done?
Examples:
1. Marijuana should not be legalized because individuals will abuse it.
2. Legislation must be passed to stop the sale of

Claims of Policy
 A claim that is based on preference such as likes or dislikes. good or bad -
 Usually compares 2 ideas against one another

Claims of Policy
Questions to answer to check if a claim is a CLAIM OF VALUE:
 Is it good or bad?
 Is it valuable or not valuable?
Examples:
1. Animal testing is the worst way to check medical products
2. Abortion is immoral

Cell phones pull students away from learning

- Claim of Fact
TikTok should undergo censorship. privacy. and child safety
- Claim of Policy

Claim of Value
It is totally unethical for Russia to not share the Covid— 19 vaccine with other countries given that its
technology from which it was based has been proven safe

1. The death penalty as applied in the Philippines is immoral.

2. The use of civil disobedience during the Civil rights struggle was reasonable, moral, and necessary.
3. Fetal tissue research is wrong.
4.ReaIitty show is not as entertaining as TV dramas series.

Group Tasks:
Write FACT, VALUE OR POLICY
1. It is better to have loved and lost than not to be have loved at all. - VALUE
2. Sweden is a peaceful country. - FACT
3. Cigarette smoking is dangerous to a person's health. - FACT
4. The level of pollution in this city harms children. - FACT
5. Cancer in not contagious. - FACT
6. The Earth is warming rapidly. - FACT
7. This is a very good school. - FACT
8. The death penalty must be revived. - POLICY
9. Beauty contests should be banned. - POLICY
10. It is better to be feared than loved. - VALUE
 Hypertext Reading and Writing
Objectives:
Discuss the importance of hypertext reading and writing Differentiate the functions and characteristics
of hypertext and hyperlink

A hypertext is when you type a word and attach a link to that word so that upon clicking on that
word, the reader is sent to the site attached. A hypertext looks like this: Google

A hyperlink is when you type the link of the website you would like to quickly send reader. A
hyperlink looks like this: www. google. com or "Facebook" that links to the facebook page.

Hypertext is the foundation of the World Wide Web, enabling users to click on a link to obtain
more information on a subsequent page on the same site or from a website anywhere in the world.
The term was coined by Ted Nelson in 193, but his vision was more expensive than the one way-
links of today's web.

Hyperlinks/ Hypertext
WHAT IS A HYPERLINK/ HYPERTEXT?

 Hyperlink: Link you can follow by clicking or tapping.

 Hypertext: The word you click takes you to the link 

HOW DO YOU MAKE A HYPERLINK?

 To copy/make a direct hyperlink:
 Copy and paste the URL (web address)
 With cursor at the end of the link, press return/enter key.
 That ' It do it!

HOW DO YOU CREATE HYPERTEXT IN A DOCUMENT?

using Google docs:
 Choose the word that you would like the link attached to.
 This will become your hypertext.
 Highlight the word and click the "chain link" icon in the google toolbar.
 Paste the link the space provided.
 Now YOU have hypertext

Intertext Writing
Objectives:
 Identify the context in which a text was developed
 Understand the concept of intertextuality
 Make a connection between a text and t context in which the text is developed

Intertext Writing
Intertextuality is the idea the creation of a text is influenced by other texts.
 
 It is a textual reference within a text that uses the text used reference. Instead of employing
referential phrases from different literary works, intertextuality draws upon concept, rhetoric or
ideology from the texts to be included in the new text. It may be the retelling or writing of an old story in
modern context.
 
Several Ways Intertextuality Occurs:
o Retelling is when an author restates what other texts contain. It could be in the form of a
retelling of a narrative or a re-expression o idea or concept.
 In the Bible, for example, several passages in the New Testament retell stories found in the Old
Testament such as in Acts 13:17, shown here from the New Living Translation.
 "The God of this nation of Israel chose our ancestors and made them multiply and grow strong
during their stay in Egypt. Then with powerful arm he led them our of their slavery. He put up
with them through forty years of wandering in the wilderness. Then he destroyed seven nations
in Canaan and gave their land to Israel as an inheritance. All this took about 450 years. "After
that, God gave them judges to rule until the time of Samuel the prophet. Then the people
begged for a king, and God gave them Saul son, of Kish, a man of the tribe of Benjamin, who
regained for forty years. But God removed Saul replaced him with David, a man whom God said,
I have found David son of Jesse, a man after my own heart. He will do everything I want him to
do.
 William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet", which is a retelling of "Pyramus and Thisbe", a Greek
tragedy.

Allusion is when an directly or indirectly refers to an idea or passage in another text without actually
quoting the text. Allusion is very common example of intertextuality. It is found in both written and
spoken language.
 It is better to have loved and lost than to never have loved at all? My answer is an absolute yes.
An allusion to Lord Alfred Lord Tennyson's famous quote "Tis better to have loved and lost than
not to have loved at all" by author Kristen Mark in The Huffington Post.
 "An eye for an eye" make the whole blind.
 A common text from the anti-death penalty movement alluding to the Mosaic law of retribution.

Quotation
Another very interlinearity is quotation. In this kind of relationship, the author directly lifts a
stirring of words from another text.

 As Nelson Mandera says, Educating is the most powerful weapon which you can cause to change
the world.
Education is the key to eliminating gender inequality, to reducing poverty, to creating a
sustainable planet, preventing needless deaths and illness, and to fostering peace. And in
knowledge economy, education is the new currency by which nations maintain economic
competitiveness and global prosperity.
U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan quoting' Nelson Mandela in an article for USAID
(blog.usaid.gov.)

 Pastiche is a text written in a way that it imitates the style of other properties of an other text,
without mocking the text, as a parody. Sometimes, a text becomes very significant that its style
 or other characteristics is copied by other works. The Ten commandments, for example, is very
significant such that the other ten commandments have been written such as, " The Ten
Commandments of Marriage." Another work which has generated many pastiches is the 12th
century
 "Magna Carta" or Great Charter England. It guarantee rights the safety and of even ordinary
people.

It can be argued that constitution such as the US are pastiches of this great work. In modern time,
pastiches of the Magna Carta include "The Magna Carta of Women." Still another work that has
produced many pastiches is the US Constitution, particularly its section called, "The Bill of Rights."

Intertextuality
what do you think (the term 'intertextuality' means?
Topic: Intertextuality

Inter- is a prefix which means "between", "among", "in the midst of”, “together", and "during".
It is from the Latin word INTERTEXTO which means to intermingle while weaving.
Textuality refers to all of the attributes that distinguish the communicative content under analysis as an
object of study
Intertextuality is the shaping of a text's meaning by another text.
Intertextuality is the interconnection between similar or related works of literature that reflect and
influence an audience's interpretation of the texts
Kristeva developed the term "intertextuality"
Ferdinand de Saussure's semiotics
Mikhail Bakhtin’s dialogism
in each word (heteroglossia)
all works of literature being produced contemporarily are intertextual with the works that came before
it.
"Any text is constructed of a mosaic of quotations; any text is the absorption and transformation of
another."
- Kristeva

The related texts or references influence the reader and add layers of depth to a text
Intertextuality is a literary discourse. strategy utilized by writers in novels, poetry, theater and even in
non-written texts
an author's borrowing and transformation of a prior text
a reader's referencing of one text in reading another
Allusion is a figure of speech, in which an object or circumstance from unrelated context is referred to
covertly or indirectly.
He was lying so obviously, you could almost see his nose growing.
It is alluded to the story of Pinocchio === It's hard being an adult. I wish I were a child forever.

Quotation
Quotation is the repetition of one expression as part of another one, particularly when the quoted
expression is well-known or explicitly attributed by citation to its original source
"The youth is the hope of the fatherland."
Calque
Calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-
word or root-for-root translation.

to “Calque"
- to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its component.

Beer Garden is a calque of the German Biergarten

Adam Apple a calque of the French pomme d'Adam

Translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language• text by means of an
equivalent target-language text.

Calque is word-for- word translation

Translation is translation of the meaning of a text
English version of The Little Prince
a novella originally written in French
Parody
Parody (also called spoof or lampoon) is a work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an
original work. Its subject, author, style, or some other target- by means of satiric or ironic imitation.
The term parody is derived from the Greek phrase parodia which refers to a type of poem which
imitated the style of epic poems but with mockery and light comedy.

Pastiche
Pastiche celebrates rather than mocks, the work it imitates.
Pastiche is a French cognate of the italian noun pasticcio
which is is a pie-filling mixed from diverse ingredients.

Appropriation
Appropriation is a reworking on re-imagination of a well-known text, to change or extend its meaning.

Adaptation
Intertextuality refers to the interrelationship of different literary texts.

Allusion
Quotation
Calque
Translation
parody
pastiche
Appropriation
Adaptation
"No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance, his appreciation is the
appreciation of his relation, to the dead poets and artists. You cannot value him alone; you must set
him, for contrast and comparison, among the dead. I mean this as a principle of aesthetic, not merely
historical; criticism."
(T.S. Eliot, The sacred wood, I '920)

Tasks: 4
Below are some description of different stories. On the line before each number, write I if the context of
each story is in Intertext; write H if it is in Hypertext.
1.As Nelson Mandela says "Educating is the most powerful weapons which you can use to change world.
2."An eye for an eye" make the whole world blind.
3."Le Web Louvre", an online tour of some of the most famous art exhibits in Paris.
4." The Explaratorium" San Francisco famous art exhibit in Paris.
5." The Voodoo Lounge", Yes the Rolling Stones have their own server.
 Logical fallacies
Logical fallacies are flawed, deceptive, or false arguments that can be proven wrong with
reasoning. A formal fallacy is an argument with a premise and conclusion that doesn't hold up to
scrutiny. An informal fallacy is an error in the form, content, or context of the argument.

A false dilemma, also referred to as false dichotomy, is an informal fallacy based on a premise
that erroneously limits what options are available. …This premise has the form of a disjunctive claim: it
asserts that one among a number of alternatives must be true.
If we see the other side of the coin, Lisa too must be thinking on similar lines, something like
'either do or die'. No individual would ever choose to suffer, he would always prefer to be happy. Both
would eventually divorce due to the either-or fallacy.

The appeal to ignorance is a fallacy based on the assumption that a statement must be true if
it cannot be proven false — or false if it cannot be proven true. Also known as argumentum ad
ignorantiam and the argument from ignorance.
This fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no
evidence against it. This fallacy wrongly shifts the burden of proof away from the one making the claim.
Examples: Him: "C'mon, hook up with me tonight." Her: "Why should l?" Him: "Why shouldn't you?"

A slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that
would lead to one major event, usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one
event leads to another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion.
A slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that
would lead to one major event, usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one
event leads to another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion.

A complex question is a fallacy in which the answer to a given question presupposes a prior
answer to a prior question. Also known as (or closely related to) a loaded question, a trick question, a
leading question, the fallacy of the false question, and the fallacy of many questions.

Appeal to Force
Definition
A logical fallacy in which someone uses force or a threat of force to gain acceptance for their
conclusion.
Example
"Tooth fairies are real you better believe me, or I will punch you in the nose!"
 
Appeal to Pity
The hearer is urged to accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.
Example: You owe big time because I really stuck my neck out for you.
Example: Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.

Bandwagon Fallacy
Definition
This logical fallacy occurs when one assumes that something must be true or good based on the
fact that it is popular.
Example
 "Most people believe that there is a God, so it must be true."

Appeal to (False) Authority

Asserts a claim is true
based on the position of an assumed authority
"My friend, who is a nurse, says vaccines cause autism. Therefore, vaccines cause autism"
"The senator says climate change is a hoax. Therefore, climate change is a hoax."
"An actress says eating cheese causes acne. Therefore, cheese causes acne."
 
Hasty Generalization
Example
"My friend has been eating only hamburgers, pizza, and fries for 10 years, and he has no health
issues. Therefore, fast food is not unhealthy for you."
Definition
This logical fallacy occurs when someone draws a conclusion based on just a small sample size.
In other words, the conclusion is supported by insufficient evidence.

False Analogy
A false analogy is a comparison between two things that are different in some essential way.
What is wrong with this comparison?
Using a computer without training is like driving a car without a license.

Accident Fallacy
Definition
Applying a general rule to a situation where the rule does not really apply.
Example
"Birds can fly. Therefore, emus must be able to fly too."

Post Hoc Fallacy

Definition
Assuming that an event must have been the cause of a later event because it happened earlier.
Example
"The rooster crows always before the sun rises, therefore the crowing rooster causes the sun to
rise."

Example of the Wrong Direction

 Lot wife’s = Genesis 19:15-16
o (17) “Do not look behind you”
o (26) “his wife looked back behind him, and she become pillar of salt
 Luke 17:31-32 – “Remember Lot’s wife”
 Luke 9:57-62 – “No one looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God”

Complex Cause
A complex event is shown as having only one cause.
Example:
We lost the game because Gertrude missed the last shot.
This argument is as logical as putting the blame on the first missed shot of the game.
IRRELEVANT CONCLUSION
Ignoratio Elenchi
Consists in proving a conclusion other than the one that should be proved.
It is simply "missing the point' of the dispute
Diverts attention away from a fact in dispute rather than address it directly.

Straw-Man Argument
This argument simply ignores a person's actual position and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated
or misrepresented version of that position.
"The school lunch budget must be examined to cut out waste.”
"This guy wants to STARVE our children!!

DENYING THE ANTECEDENT

If Howard passed the final, then he passed the course.
Howard did not pass the final.
Therefore, Howard did not pass the course.
•An Invalid Argument!

Inconsistency:
• This fallacy occurs when an arguer asserts inconsistent premises, asserts a premise that is
inconsistent with his or her conclusion, or argues for inconsistent conclusions.
Mickey Mantle: Hey, Yogi, what do you say we eat at Toots' tonight?
Yogi Berra: That place is old news. Nobody goes there anymore. It's too crowded.
Why is this a case of inconsistency?