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SSIGL 3
NATIONAL GUIDELINES
For Small
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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
National Guidelines for Small Scale Irrigation Development in Ethiopia

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SSIGL 3: Hydrology and Water Resources Planning
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National Guidelines for Small Scale Irrigation Development in Ethiopia

First Edition 2018
© MOA 2018

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Ministry of Agriculture
Small-Scale Irrigation Development Directorate
P. O. Box 62347
Tel: +251-1-6462355
Fax: +251-1-6462355

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
eDMS (intranet): MoA SSID DMS (http://172.28.1.188:8080/DMS/login.jsp)
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DISCLAIMER
Ministry of Agriculture through the Consultant and core reviewers from all relevant stakeholders included the
information to provide the contemporary approach about the subject matter. The information contained in the
guidelines is obtained from sources believed tested and reliable and are augmented based on practical
experiences. While it is believed that the guideline is enriched with professional advice, for it to be 
successful, needs services of competent professionals from all respective This document
disciplines. It isis...
believed, the

guidelines presented herein are sound and to the expected standard.UsefulHowever, we hereby 
Not disclaim
useful any
liability, loss or risk taken by individuals, groups, or organization who does not act on the information
contained herein as appropriate to the specific SSI site condition.

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National Guidelines for Small Scale Irrigation Development MOA
FORWARD
Ministry of Agriculture, based on the national strategic directions is striving to meet its commitments in
which modernizing agriculture is on top of its highest priorities to sustain the rapid, broad-based and
fair economic growth and development of the country. To date, major efforts have been made to
remodel several important strategies and national guidelines by its major programs and projects.
While efforts have been made to create access to irrigation water and promoting sustainable irrigation
Download now several barriers are still
development, of 100 the implementation
1 hindering  Search and the performance 
process document of
the schemes. The major technical constrains starts from poor planning and identification, study, design,
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construction, operation, and maintenance. One of the main reasons behind this outstanding challenge,

in addition to the capacity limitations, is that SSIPs have been studied and designed using many ad-
hoc procedures and technical guidelines developed by various local and international institutions.
Despite having several guidelines and manuals developed by different entities such as MoA (IDD)-
1986, ESRDF-1997, MoWIE-2002 and JICA/OIDA-2014, still the irrigation professionals follow their
own public sources and expertise to fill some important gaps. A number of disparities, constraints and
outstanding issues in the study and design procedures, criteria and assumptions have been causing

huge variations in all vital aspects of SSI study, design and implementation from region to region and
among professionals within the same region and institutions due mainly to the lack of agreed standard
technical guidelines. Hence, the SSI Directorate with AGP financial support, led by Generation
consultant (GIRDC) and with active involvement of national and regional stakeholders and international
development
PubPrivatePart-2 partners,
Role of Public these Water
new andYou're Reading a Preview
comprehensive
Policy and national
11 March 2010guidelines have
Water been developed.
Institutions VERY IMPORTA
The SSID guidelines have been developed by addressing all key features in a comprehensive and
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participatory manner at all levels. Theyour documents
guidelines to download.
are believed to be responsive to the prevalent study
and design contentious issues; and efforts have been made to make the guidelines simple, flexible and
adaptable to almost all regional contexts including concerned partner institution interests. The outlines
of the guidelines cover all aspects of irrigationOR development including project initiation, planning,
organizations, site identification and prioritization, feasibility studies and detail designs, contract
Become scheme
administration and management, a Scribd member
operation, for full access.
maintenance Your
and management.
Enforceability, standardization, social firstand

14 days are free. safeguard mechanisms are well
environmental
mainstreamed in the guidelines, hence they shall be used as a guiding framework for engineers and
other experts engaged in all SSI development phases. The views and actual procedures of all relevant
diverse government bodies, research and higher learning institutions, private companies and
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development partners has been immensely and thoroughly considered to ensure that all
stakeholders are aligned and can work together towards a common goal. Appropriately, the guidelines
will be familiarized to the entire stakeholders working in the irrigation development. Besides, significant
number of experts in the corresponding subject matter will be effectively trained nationwide; and the
guidelines will be tested practically on actual new and developing projects for due consideration of
possible improvement. Hence, hereinafter, all involved stakeholders including government & non-
governmental organizations, development partners, enterprises, institutions, consultants and
individuals in Ethiopia have to adhere to these comprehensive national guidelines in all cases and at all
level whilst if any overlooked components are found, it should be documented and communicated to
MOA to bring them up-to-date.
Therefore, I congratulate all parties involved in the success of this effort, and urge partners and
stakeholders to show a similar level of engagement in the implementation and stick to the guidelines
over the coming years.

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H.E. Dr. Kaba Urgessa
State Minister, Ministry of Agriculture
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SMALL SCALE IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT VISION
OR
Transforming agricultural production from its dependence on rain-fed practices by creating reliable irrigation
system in which smallholder farmers have access to at least one option of water source to increase
production and productivity as well as enhance resilience to climate change and thereby ensure food
security, maintain increasing income andfirst 14 economic
sustain days aregrowth.
free.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The preparation of SSIGLs required extensive inputs from all stakeholders and development partners.
Accordingly many professionals from government and development partners have contributed to the
realization of the guidelines. To this end MOA would like to extend sincere acknowledgement to all
institutions and individuals who have been involved in the review of these SSIGLs for their
comprehensive participation, invaluable inputs and encouragement to the completion of the guidelines.
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There now of 100 to name exhaustively
1 involved
are just too many collaborators  Search documentindividually, as
and congratulate 
many experts from Federal, regional states and development partners have been involved in one way
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or another in the preparation of the guidelines. The contribution of all of them who actively involved in
the development of these SSIGLs is gratefully acknowledged. The Ministry believes that their
contributions will be truly appreciated by the users for many years to come.
The Ministry would like to extend its appreciation and gratitude to the following contributors:
Agriculture Growth Program (AGP) of the MoA for financing the development and

publication of the guidelines. 

The National Agriculture Water Management Platform (NAWMP) for overseeing, guidance

and playing key supervisory and quality control roles in the overall preparation process and
for the devotion of its members in reviewing and providing invaluable technical inputs to
enrich the guidelines.
Federal
 Government You're Reading a Preview
Water
andPolicy and States
Regional 11 March 2010 andWater
organizations Institutions
their staff VERY IMPORTA
for their untiring effort
Private… Related… and providing
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constructive - Bangladesh… CHECKLIST
recommendations and MI
comments.
National and international development partners for their unreserved efforts in reviewing the

guidelines and providing constructive comments which invaluably improved the quality of the
guidelines. OR
Small-scale and Micro Irrigation Support Project (SMIS) and its team for making all efforts to


have quality GLs developed as envisioned by the Ministry.
The MOA would also like to extend itsfirst

high14 days are
gratitude and free.
sincere thanks to AGP‘s multi development
partners including the International Development Association (IDA)/World Bank, the Canada
Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD), the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID), theContinue forthe
Netherlands, Free
European Commission (EC), the Spanish
Agency for International Development (AECID), the Global Agriculture and Food Security Program
(GAFSP), the Italy International Development Cooperation, the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).
Moreover, the Ministry would like to express its gratitude to Generation Integrated Rural Development
Consultant (GIRDC) and its staff whose determined efforts to the development of these SSIGLs have
been invaluable. GIRDC and its team drafted and finalized all the contents of the SSIGLs as per
stakeholder suggestions, recommendations and concerns. The MoA recognizes the patience,
diligence, tireless, extensive and selfless dedication of the GIRDC and its staff who made this
assignment possible.
Finally, we owe courtesy to all national and International source materials cited and referred but
unintentionally not cited.

Ministry of Agriculture This document is...
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 : Identified. Bench Maji SSPI (2015) ................................................................................. 3

Table 3-1: Gap filling methods and their applicability ..................................................................... 11
Table 3-2: Different areal rainfall methods...................................................................................... 13
Table 4-1: Selected methods for estimating open evaporation ...................................................... 18
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4-2: Selected ETo estimation 1 methods  Search document 
of 100 ................................................................................ 19
Table 5-1: Recommended return periods for design of hydraulics structures ................................ 21
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Table 5-2: Suggested rainfall-runoff methods for estimation of design flood.................................. 24
Table 5-3: Runoff coefficient for rural catchment ............................................................................ 25
Table 5-4: Runoff coefficient for urban catchment .......................................................................... 25
Table 5-5: T-year multipliers of runoff coefficient (C ) ..................................................................... 26
Table 5-6: Retardance Coefficients of Kerby Equation................................................................... 27
Table 5-7: Hydrologic soil group (HSG) classification according to SCS (1972) ............................ 29

Table 5-8: Cultivated agricultural land* ........................................................................................... 30
Table 5-9: Other agricultural lands1 ............................................................................................... 31
Table 5-10: Arid and semi-arid rangelands* ................................................................................... 31
Table 5-11: Runoff curve numbers- urban areas* ......................................................................... 32
PubPrivatePart-2 RoleRainfall
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seasons ............................................. 32
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ratio (%) ..................................................................................... 36 MI
Table 5-14: Steps to construct complex hydrograph ...................................................................... 37
Table 5-15: The Composites the triangular hydrographs to a single hydrograph ........................... 39
Table 5-16: Example of developing synthetic unit hydrograph ....................................................... 40
Table 5-17: Example for Flow duration curve using gauged data with daily data set ..................... 44
Table 5-18: Example for flow duration curve using gauged data with monthly data set ................. 46
Table 5-19: Finally the monthly different dependable flows for Giligel Abay at Merawi Station ..... 47
Table 5-20: Regionalized FDC adopted from (Tsedey T. and Zelalem H. 2007) .......................... 48
Table 5-21: Flow regime based FDC adopted from (Berhanu B. et.al, 2015) ............................... 49
Table 6-1: Procedure with Example for spring flow analysis .......................................................... 52
Table 8-1: C-factor per different crop type ...................................................................................... 61
Table 8-2: P-factor with different land management options .......................................................... 62
Table 9-1: Elevation-Storage-discharge relation for Arjo-Dedessa reservoir ................................. 68
Table 9-2: Working table for Arjo-Dedessa reservoir ...................................................................... 68
Table 9-3: Routing table of Arjo-Dedessa Reservoir ..................................................................... 68
Table 10-1: Example for Scheme water balance (lt/sec) ................................................................ 73
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Sequential steps of catchment delineation in different tools ......................................... 4

Figure 2-2: Terrain preprocessing sequential steps using ArcHydro ................................................ 5
Figure 2-3: Functions and steps in watershed processing in ArcHydro Tools .................................. 6
Figure 2-4: Example for catchment delineation: Petu SSIP Sites at Bench Maji Zone ..................... 6
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2-5: Longest flow computation1 inofwatershed
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site .................................... 7
Figure 2-6: Flow parameters computation watershed processing tools at Petu site ........................ 7
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Figure 3-1: Examples of rainfall inconsistency test chart................................................................ 12
Figure 5-1: SCS triangular hydrograph ........................................................................................... 33
Figure 5-2: Hourly distribution of daily rainfall profile ...................................................................... 35
Figure 5-3: Composite Hydrograph developed with complex hydrograph approach ...................... 39
Figure 5-4: Composite hydrograph developed with complex hydrograph approach ...................... 40
Figure 5-5: Flow duration curve of Meki River at Meki village Gauging station in normal graph .... 45
Figure 8-1: Annual soil loss for Mojo catchment ............................................................................. 63 
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ACRONYMS
AGP Agricultural Growth Program

cms cubic meter per second
DEM Digital Elevation Model
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EFA now of 100
Environmental Flow1 Assessment  Search document 
EMA Ethiopian Mapping Agency
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ERH Rainfall Excess Hyetograph
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDC Flow Duration Curve
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIS Geographic Information System 
GPS Global Positioning System
HFR High Flow Requirement
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Soil Database11 March 2010 Water Institutions VERY IMPORTA
IDF Private… Related…
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ITCZ Inter-tropical Convergence Zone

LFR Low Flow Requirement
MAF Mean Annual Flow
MOWIE Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity
NCEP National Center for Environmental Prediction
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
RFE Rainfall estimates
RSCZ Red Sea Convergence Zone
RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
SDR Sediment Delivery Ratio
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region
SSI Small Scale Irrigation
SSID Small Scale Irrigation Development
SSIGL Small Scale Irrigation Guideline
SSIP Small Scale Irrigation Project
SSIS Small Scale Irrigation Scheme
STJ Subtropical Jet 
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SY Sediment Yield
TEJ Tropical Easterly Jet
TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
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PREFACE
While irrigation development is at the top of the government‘s priority agendas as it is key to boost
production and improve food security as well as to provide inputs for industrial development.
Accordingly, irrigated land in different scales has been aggressively expanding from time to time.
To this end, to enhance quality delivery of small-scale irrigation development planning,
implementation and management, it has been decided to develop standard SSI guidelines that
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must be nationally applied. In September 2017 the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) had entrusted 
Generation Integrated Rural Development Consultant (GIRDC) to prepare the National Small-
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
scale Irrigation Development Guidelines (SSIGLs).
Preparation of the SSIGLs for enhancing development of irrigated agriculture is recognized as one
of the many core initiatives of the MoA to improve its delivery system and achieve the targets in
irrigated agriculture and fulfill its mission for improving agricultural productivity and production. The
core objective of developing SSIGLs is to summarize present thinking, knowledge and practices to
enable irrigation practitioners to properly plan, implement and manage community managed SSI
schemes to develop the full irrigation potential in a sustainable manner.
As the SSIGLs are prepared based on national and international knowledge, experiences and
PubPrivatePart-2 Role
practices, of Public
and You're
Water
describe current and Reading
Policyrecommended
and apractice
11 March Preview
2010 and set
Water Institutions
out the nationalVERY IMPORTA
standard
guides and procedures for SSI development, they serve as a source of information and provide MI
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guidance. Hence, it is believed thatyour documents
the SSIGLs to download.
will contribute to ensuring the quality and timely
delivery, operation and maintenance of SSI schemes in the country. The SSIGLs attempt to
explain and illustrate the important concepts, OR
considerations and procedures in SSI planning,
implementation and management; and shall be used as a guiding framework for professionals
BecomeIllustrative
engaged in SSI development. a Scribd examples
memberfromfor full access.
within Your have been added to
the country
enable the users understand the contents, methodologies presented in the SSIGLs.
The intended audiences of the SSIGLs are government organizations, NGOs, CSOs and the
private sector involved in SSI development. Professionally, the SSIGLs will be beneficial for
Continue
experienced and junior planners, experts, for Free
contractors, consultants, suppliers, investors, operators
and managers of SSI schemes. The SSIGLs will also serve as a useful reference for academia
and researchers involved and interested in SSI development. The SSIGLs will guide to ensure
that; planning, implementation and management of SSI projects is formalized and set procedures
and processes to be followed. As the SSIGLs provide information and guides they must be always
fully considered and applied by adapting them to the local specific requirements.
In cognizance with the need for quality SSIGLs, the MoA has duly considered quality assurance
and control during preparation of the guidelines. Accordingly, the outlines, contents and scope of
the SSIGLs were thoroughly discussed, reviewed and modified by NAWMP members (senior
professionals from public, national and international stakeholder) with key stakeholders in many
consultative meetings and workshops. Moreover, at each milestone of SSIGL preparation,
resource persons from all stakeholders reviewed and confirmed that SSIGLs have met the
demands and expectations of users. 
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 Federal,
Moreover, the Ministry has mobilized resource persons from key Useful National Not usefulStates
Regional
level stakeholders and international development partners for review, validation and endorsement
of the SSIGLs.
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Several hundreds of experienced professionals (who are very qualified experts in their respective
fields) from government institutions, relevant private sector and international development partners
have significantly contributed to the preparation of the SSIGLs. They have been involved in all
aspects of the development of SSIGLs throughout the preparation process. The preparation
process included a number of consultation meetings and workshops: (i) workshop to review
inception report, (ii) workshop on findings of review of existing guidelines/manuals and proposed
contents of the SSIGLs, (iii) meetings to review zero draft SSI GLs, (iv) review workshop on draft
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SSI GLs, (v) small group review meetings on thematic areas, (vi) small group consultation 
meetings on its final presentation of contents and layout, (vii) consultation mini-workshops in the
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National States on semi-final versions of the SSIGLs, and (viii) final write-shop for the appraisal
and approval of the final versions of SSIGLs.
The deliberations, concerns, suggestions and comments received from professionals have been
duly considered and incorporated by the GIRD Consultant in the final SSIGLs.
There are 34 separate guidelines which are categorized into the following five parts concurrent to
SSI development phases:
Part-I. Project Initiation, Planning and Organization Guideline which deals with key considerations
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and procedures on planning and organization of SSI development projects.
Part-II. Site Identification and Prioritization Guideline which treats physical potential identification
and prioritization of Upload your documents
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projects. It presents SSI site selection process and
prioritization criteria.
OR
Part-III. Feasibility Study and Detail Design Guidelines for SSID dealing with feasibility study
and design concepts, approaches, considerations, requirements and procedures in the
study and design Become a Scribd member for full access. Your
of SSI systems.
Part-IV. Contract Administration and Construction Management Guidelines for SSI development
presents the considerations,first 14 days are
requirements, andfree.
procedures involved in construction of
works, construction supervision and contract administration.
Part-V. SSI Scheme Management, Operation and Maintenance Guidelines which covers SSI
Scheme management and operation.
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Moreover, Tools for Small Scale Irrigation development are also prepared as part of SSIGLs.
It is strongly believed and expected that; the SSIGLs will be quickly applied by all stakeholders
involved in SSI development and others as appropriate following the dissemination and
familiarization process of the guidelines in order to ensure efficient, productive and sustainable
irrigation development.
The SSIGLs are envisioned to be updated by incorporating new technologies and experiences
including research findings. Therefore, any suggestions, concerns, recommendations and
comments on the SSIGLs are highly appreciated and welcome for future updates as per the
attached format below. Furthermore, despite efforts in making all This typesdocument
of editorialis... 
works, there
may still errors, which similarly shall be handled in future undated versions.
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UPDATING AND REVISIONS OF GUIDELINES

The GLs are intended as an up-to-date or a live document enabling revisions, to be updated
periodically to incorporate improvements, when and where necessary; may be due to evolving
demands, technological changes and changing policies, and regulatory frameworks. Planning,
study and design of SSI development interventions is a dynamic process. Advancements in these
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aspects are necessary to cope up 1with of
the100
changing environmentand Search document
advancing techniques. Also, 
based on observation feedbacks and experiences gained during application and implementation of
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the guidelines, there might be a need to update the requirements, provisions and procedures, as
appropriate. Besides, day-by-day, water is becoming more and more valuable. Hence, for efficient
water development, utilization and management will have to be designed, planned and
constructed with a new set up of mind to keep pace with the changing needs of the time. It may,
therefore, be necessary to take up the work of further revision of these GLs.
This current version of the GLs has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Ethiopia and
reflects the experience gained through activities within the sub-sector during subsequent years.
This is the first version of the SSI development GLs. This version shall be used as a starting point
for future update, revision and improvement. Future updating and revisions to the GLs are
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Water Policy and 11 March
of strengthening the2010
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design,
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Completion of the review and updating of the GLs shall be undertaken in close consultation with
OR other stakeholders in the irrigation sub-sector
the federal and regional irrigation institutions and
including the contracting and consulting industry.

In summary, significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to
technological changes, new policies orfirst 14 days
revised laws are free.
should be incorporated into the GLs from their
date of effectiveness. Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the
GLs may be accumulated and made periodically. When changes are made and approved, new
Continue
page(s) incorporating the revision, together forrevision
with the Free date, will be issued and inserted into
the relevant GL section.
All suggestions to improve the GLs should be made in accordance with the following procedures:
I. Users of the GLs must register on the MOA website: Website: www.moa.gov.et

II. Proposed changes should be outlined on the GLs Change Form and forwarded with a
covering letter or email of its need and purpose to the Ministry.
III. Agreed changes will be approved by the Ministry on recommendation from the Small-scale
Irrigation Directorate and/or other responsible government body.
IV. The release date of the new version will be notified to all registered users and authorities.
Users are kindly requested to present their concerns, suggestions, recommendations and
comments for future updates including any omissions and/or obvious errors by completing the 
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following revisions form and submitting it to the Ministry. The Ministry shall appraise such requests
 Useful
for revision and will determine if an update to the guide is justified  Not
and necessary; and useful
when such
updates will be published. Revisions may take the form of replacement or additional pages. Upon
receipt, revision pages are to be incorporated in the GLs and all superseded pages removed.
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Suggested Revisions Request Form (Official Letter or Email)
To: ---------------------------------------------------------------
From: -----------------------------------------------------------
Date: -----------------------------------------------------------
Description of suggested updates/changes: Include GL code and title, section title and #
(heading/subheading #), and page #.
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GL Code and Date
1
Sections/
of 100
Explanation
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Comments (proposed

Related titles Title Heading/Subheading/ change)

Pages/Table/Figure
Note that be specific and include suggested language if possible and include additional sheets for
comments, reference materials, charts or graphics.
GLs Change Action

Suggested Change Recommended Action Authorized by Date 
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Director for SSI Directorate: _______________________Date: ________________
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The following table helps to track initial issuance of the guidelines and subsequent Updates/Versions and
Revisions (Registration of Amendments/Updates).
Revision Register OR
Version/Issue/Revision Reference/RevisedDescription of Authorized Date
No Sections/Pages/topics
revision by
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for full access. Your
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3 RAINFALL ANALYSIS
3.1 CLIMATIC MECHANISMS AND WEATHER SYSTEM IN ETHIOPIA
Rainfall is the core element of the hydrological cycle that drives energy circulation in the
atmosphere (Kumar et al., 2006). Many studies highlight the importance of the spatial and
Download nowvariability of precipitation1 (Fiener
temporal of 100and Auerswald, 2009;
 Search document
Haile et al., 2009), which has 
been proved to affect the accuracy of runoff prediction in gauged and ungauged catchments
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
(Goodrich et al., 1995; Schuurmans and Bierkens, 2007). Rainfall in Ethiopia is the result of multi-
weather systems that include Subtropical Jet (STJ), Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), Red
Sea Convergence Zone (RSCZ), Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ), and Somali Jet (NMA 1996). The
intensity, position, and direction of these weather systems lead the variability of the amount and
distribution of seasonal and inter-annual rainfall in the. Moreover, the spatial distribution of rainfall
in Ethiopia is significantly influenced by topographical variability of the country (NMA 1996;
Camberlin 1997) and this makes the rainfall system of the country more complex. The influence of
the ITCZ movement in led to the classification of Ethiopian climate into four main seasons as
described below.
PubPrivatePart-2 Role ofThe

March-April: Public Water Policy
ITCZ is located southand 11 March
of Ethiopia and2010 Water Institutions
moving northwards and this VERY
causeIMPORTA
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tropical Private… Related…
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components: (i) the TOR.doc
moist - Bangladesh…
easterly and CHECKLIST
southeasterly air currents in MI
eastern and southern parts of the country, and (ii) dry northerly air currents in the northwestern
quadrant.
May-July: In May, the ITCZ starts moving rapidly northwards, and during June and July, it reaches
its northern most position. Hence, the southeastern Ethiopia air masses are in general subsiding
and dry when blowing towards the Horn, after losing their moisture on the East African Highlands.
August-October: In August, the ITCZ starts moving rapidly south from its north position. It is
located in central and south-central Ethiopia in September and October. In southwest the
contribution of the Atlantic equatorial westerlies to autumn rainfall is more than their contribution to
spring rainfall. Hence, the southeast part of Ethiopia receives the year‘s secondary maxima rainfall
in autumn from the Indian Ocean easterlies.
November- February: In November, the ITCZ shifts southwards towards the equator and in
December-February, the main pressure systems which determine surface air circulation and
direction in Ethiopia are the anticyclones over Egypt and Arabia, and the low pressure area over
the Lake Victoria-southwest Ethiopia. It leads to dry climatic situation in Ethiopia.
3.2 SOURCES OF RAINFALL DATA IN ETHIOPIA
I. Ground observed data set

 Sources: Ethiopia National Meteorological Agency5

 Spatial Extent: randomly distributed above 1,200 rainfall gauged stations

 Temporal extent: vary according to the year establishment 

 Time Scale: commonly available with daily and monthly This document is...
Quality: observed data is realistic but has temporal and spatial coverage gaps

5
5
www.nma.gov.et
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SSIGL 3: Hydrology and Water Resources Planning for 14 days 9

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II. Blending Grid data

 Sources: Ethiopia National Meteorological Agency

 Spatial Extent: Evenly distributed 4km Spatial Resolution grids

 Temporal Extent: available since 1980

 Time Scale: Daily, Monthly and Annually

 Quality: fill coverage gaps of observed data
Download
III. now of 100 (RFE) data set  Search document
1 estimates
Satellite observed Rainfall


 Sources: FEWS NET Data Portals6
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

 Spatial Extent: Evenly distributed 8km Spatial Resolution grids


 Time Scale: Daily, Decadal, Monthly and Annually

 Quality: requires bias correction
IV. Satellite observed Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)
Sources: NASS portal7



 Spatial Extent: Evenly distributed in 8 km Spatial Resolution grids


 Temporal Extent: Starts from 1998

 Time Scale: Daily, Decadal, monthly and Annually

V. Satellite
Private… observed CMORPH
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 Sources: National Centre for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) 8

 Spatial Extent: Evenly distributed in 28 km Spatial Resolution grids

 Temporal Extent: Starts from 2002

 Time Scale: 3hr and daily

VI. Satellite based Reanalysis CFSR data set

 Sources: National Centre for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)9

 Spatial Extent: Evenly distributed 38 km Spatial Resolution grids


 Time Scale: Daily and sub-daily data with 3, 6, 12 hr data set

 Quality: requires bias correction; Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT) has a bias
corrected dataset
Note
While all remote sensing based rainfall datasets have good coverage and even distribution, the
data has to be bias-corrected and validated with ground observed dataset with local scale before
their use for any scale and type of project design
3.3 CHECKING ADEQUACY OF RAIN GAUGES AND DATA RECORD
The basic instrument for point rainfall measurement is rain gauge. To compute areal rainfall for a
given project area, there should be an optimal number of rain gauges. Statistics has been used in
determining the optimum number of rain gauges required for a given catchment. The basis behind

6
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http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/fews/rfe.shtml
7
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precipitation-60s-60n
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such statistical calculations is that a certain number of rain gauge stations are necessary to give
average rainfall with a certain percentage of error. If the allowable error is more than the calculated
error, lesser number of gauges will be required.
The optimum number of rain gauges (N) can be estimated using Equation 3.1:
2
 C V 
N   
Download now  E 
1 of 100  Search(3.1)
document 
Where: Cv = Coefficient of variation of rainfall based on the existing rain gauge stations
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
E = Allowable percentage error in the estimate of basic mean rainfall
The allowable percentage error (E) should be limited to below 20% or the case of project work
while the maximum allowable percentage of error for research work should not exceed from 10%.
In addition the number of data records in the given rain gauges also has significance important. If
the number of observation increases then the standard deviation and mean value decreases.
Therefore, a data series could be considered reliable and adequate if the coefficient of variation,
CV is less than or equal to 10%.
 p
 of Public Water Policy and 11 March 2010 Water Institutions VERY IMPORTA
cv 
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Where δP is the standard deviation and μ is the mean
Note
To get optimal rain station network for the given project area, it is possible to combine the
observed gauge stations‘ data with satellite data or re-analysis data grid stations if the quality of
the satellite dataset is validated and the bias correction done.
3.4 FILLING DATA GAP
Rainfall data records occasionally are incomplete due to different reasons like the absence of
observer, instrumental failure and social disorders. In such cases, one can estimate the missing
data by using the nearest stations rainfall data. There are a number of methods to fill the gaps of
the records. The following four methods are suggested for different conditions. Optimal
distribution
Table 3-1: Gap filling methods and their applicability

Name Formula Condition of Applicability
1 For the coefficient of variation among
1. Arithmetic mean P X   P 1  P
2  P 3  .....P m 
stations less than 10%
M
N  P 1 P P P 
P X    2  3  ..... m  If the amount of variation has no significance
2. Normal Ratio M N
 1 N 2
N 3
N m 
if the stations are in the same rainfall
regimes)
n 2
1 / d
3. Inverse distance P x 
wi pi wi  i 
If the amount of variation has no significance
This are
document is...
n
weightage i 1
 1 / d i
2
and the stations in short distance
4. Regression
i 1
Locally developed If there are significant correlation
equation
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3.5 TEST FOR CONSISTENCY
Rainfall data a station may not be consistent over the period of observation. Inconsistency may
occur due to due to different reasons: shifting of the rain gauge to new location; changes in the
ecosystem due to calamites, such as forest fires, landslides…etc.; significant construction works
that may change the surrounding or occurrence of observational error of a certain data. Therefore,
testing and adjusting the inconsistency have to be made in the rainfall data processing, which is
Download
often now of 100technique. The double
1 curve
carried out with double mass  Search
massdocument
curve technique is a 
graphical approach where the accumulated rainfall at the doubtful gauge will be plotted as ordinate
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
versus the concurrent accumulated mean rainfall of nearby
Procedures
 Arrange the data with inverse chronological order (the latest data first) and compute the
cumulative amounts of annual rainfall for suspect gauge (gauge X)
 Compute the mean annual rainfall of the nearby stations with reliable dataset (gauges 1,
2, 3 …..n) 
 Arrange the mean annual data with inverse chronological order and compute the
cumulative amounts of mean annual rainfall of the group of stations
 Plot cumulative rainfall for suspect gauge on y-axis versus mean cumulative rainfall for
PubPrivatePart-2 theofcheck
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in x-axis (Figure
Policy and 3-1) 11 March 2010 Water Institutions VERY IMPORTA
 Attempt
Private… to construct a straight
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FINAL the data points;
TOR.doc if there is consistency
- Bangladesh… on the MI
CHECKLIST
suspect gauge, all points will fall on a straight line. Accept the data as it is.
 Uploadfrom
If there is a divergence youra documents
straight line, itto download.
indicates an inconsistency in the data of
suspect gauge and the data has to be corrected.
 The year where the divergence started OR is marked and slopes before divergence (S1)
and after (S2) are computed. A correction factor (k) that adjusts the slope to S1 is
computed by dividing slopes (k=s1/s2)
 Correct theBecome a Scribd
annual rainfall of themember for fullafter
suspect station access. Yourof consistency test by
the break
multiplying the value by the first 14 days
correction are tofree.
factor avoid the inconsistency in the observed
data set
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Figure 3-1: Examples of rainfall inconsistency test document is...
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5 STREAM FLOW ANALYSIS

Stream flow or discharge is the volume of water that moves through a specific point in a stream
during a given period of time and is given in units of cubic meter per second (cms). Stream flow
varies with the volume of water, precipitation, surface temperature, and other climatic factors.
Stream flow is important in irrigation project for determining the design flow through the peak flow
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analysis 1
and dependable flow estimating of the
100land area to be irrigated.
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5.1 DATA SOURCES AND AVAILABILITY
Data on stream flow are obtained by recording the water level at a gauging station on the river and
by relating this level to the corresponding rate of flow using rating curve of the station. The
precision of water level measurements and the sensitivity of the site to changes in water level
when flow rate varies are factors which govern the accuracy and reliability of the data. The
Hydrology Directorate of the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity is responsible for

collecting, processing, quality assurance and dissemination of stream flow data in Ethiopia.
Currently, there are about 570 operational stream flow gauging stations in the country but their
distribution is skewed. Expanding such stations is expensive and technically complex. Therefore, it
prefers to of Public
estimate stream flows You're Reading a Preview
Waterusing
Policyrainfall-runoff
and 11 March 2010
methods. Water Institutions VERY IMPORTA
5.2 PEAK DISCHARGE AND FREQUENCY RELATIONSHIP
Magnitude of peak discharge is a function of its expected frequency of occurrence, which in turn, is
related to the magnitude of the potential damage OR and hazard. Engineers are interested in the
development of a flood versus frequency relationship and peak discharges versus the probability
Become a Scribd
of its occurrence or exceedance member
as well as for full
in the flood access.
volume and Your
time distribution of runoff.
Sometimes, there might be a requirement to use flood hydrographs to route floods through
drainage or flood storage structures. This is especially important when an embankment is built
across a floodplain and flood compensation storage area is required to be provided to compensate
for the lost natural floodplain storage area taken up for the road embankment and to mitigate the
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flood risk to the upstream areas.
5.3 DESIGN FLOOD
Design flood is the flood magnitude, which is expected to occur with a certain return period during
the design period of a hydraulic structure. The selection of the return period is genearly made
based on safety, econmy, size and category of the scheme, and it should be greater than the
design period of the structures. With the national and international expriance, the criteria of design
flood and the methods of flood estimation are recommended in this below.
Table 5-1: Recommended return periods for design of hydraulics structures
Types Return Period (Years)
Field drainages 5
Cross drainage works Side Ditches 10
Pipe Culverts 10 
Culverts with 2m<span<6m This document25 is...
Short Span Bridges 6m<span<15m 50
Medium Span Bridges15m< span<50m Useful  100 Not useful 
Long Span Bridges spans>50m 200
Diversion weirs 50
Spillways 1 000
Spillways 1,000
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5.3.1 Gauged stream flow
Gauged flow data commonly used for computing design flow if the target location coincides with
the point of the gauging stations or if it there is possibility to transfer the gauge data to target area
with homogenous region. The stream flow data has to be tested for its trend and stationary and
homogeneity before we use the flow data to compute design flood
Download
Trendnow
test for stream flow 1 of 100  Search document 
A steady increase or decrease of the time series characteristics is known as trend. Natural and
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
man-made changes like deforestation, urbanization, large scale landslide, and large changes in
watershed conditions are the possible causes for the introduction of trend in stream flow time
series data. Test for the presence of trend can be done with turning Point test and Kendal‘s Rank-
Correlation test.
Turning point test


If a value, Xi is either greater or less than both preceding and succeeding values, turning point
occurred. The procedure of testing turning point is outlined below.
 Arrange the data in order of their occurrence (time chronological order)
 Apply either of the conditions, Xi-1 < Xi > Xi+1 or Xi-1 > Xi < Xi+1 and count how many
turning points areWaterYou're Reading a Preview
there Policy
in the and
series. 11
LetMarch 2010numberWater
the total Institutions
of turning points beVERY
P. IMPORTA
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E ( P ) 
 Expected number Upload your
of turning documents
points is to download.
3 , where N is the total number of
data
(16
N  29)OR
Var ( P ) 
 Variance of P is, 90
Become a Scribd member Z 
for
{ P full access.
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0.5
{Var ( P )}
 first 14form
Expressing P in standard normal days are free.
 Test it at 5% level of significance, and if Z is less than ±1.96, there is no any trend on
the dataset.
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Kendal’s rank-correlation test
 Arrange the data in order of their occurrence (time chronological order)
 Pick up the first value of the series X1 and compare it with the rest of the series, X2,
X3,….Xn. Count the number of times it is greater than the rest, name as P1ex. Repeat
it for X2, X3, ….. Xn and name them P2ex, P3ex ….Pnex.
 Find the sum, P= P1ex +P2ex +P3ex ……….Pnex .
n (n  1)
P max 
 Maximum value of P can be 2 , it is for checking the previous analysis, the
previous sum should be less or equal to it.
n (n 1)
E ( P ) 
 Expected number of turning points, 4 ,
 4 P  
     1 
 Kendal‘s τ is computed as  n(n  1)   , E(τ) shouldThis document is...
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 (2(2n  5)) 
Var (  )   
 Variance of τ,  9n(n  1) 

Z  0.5
{Var
( )}
 Standard test for statistics of
 Test for the hypothesis at 5% level of significance, if Z is less than ±1.96, there is no any
trend on the data set
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Note:
1 of 100  Search document 
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And Excel Add-ins called XLSTAT is available on line that can easily handle both statistical


tests
 If there is a trend in the dataset, the trend has to be removed before using for the computation
of design flood.
Stream-flow data transfer

There is no research in delineating hydrological homogenous regions in Ethiopia. Most of the
researches are limited to defining flow regimes and catchment similarity characterizations, which

do not fully support data transferring from gauging stations to ungagged catchments. Therefore, in
situations where there are not sufficient rainfall data to use rainfall-runoff relations, it is suggested
PubPrivatePart-2 You're
Water Reading
to use generalized data transfer equation of Admasu Gebeyehu (1986) for Ethiopian basins.
Role of Public 11 March 2010 Water Institutions VERY IMPORTA

Qu  Q g AuUpload 0 .7
/ A g your documents to download.
(5.1)
Where: Qu = mean annual daily maximum flow at ungauged site (m 3/s
Au= ungauged catchment area (km2) OR
Qg = mean annual daily maximum flow at gauged site (m 3/s),
Become aarea
Ag = gauged catchment Scribd member for full access. Your
(km2),
Peak flow Analysis
Once the daily stream flow data is accessed or obtained for the gauge station and transfers to the
target ungauged catchment is made,Continue for Free
the procedures of frequency analysis used in rainfall
analysis is followed based on annual maximum series.
5.3.2 Estimation of design flood using rainfall-runoff relationship
In the absence of gauged stream flows at or near a target site, an accepted practice to estimate
peak runoff rates and hydrographs is using rainfall-runoff methods. There are a number of rainfall-
runoff methods that can be used for estimation of peak flow but all don‘t give reasonably accurate
estimate for a given catchment. In addition, averaging of results of several methods is not
recommended. Therefore, one has to select a method that most expresses the given catchment.
Each method has a range of application and limitations, which the engineer should clearly
understand prior to using them. The hydrologist or engineer must ensure that the selected
hydrologic method is appropriate for target catchment specific conditions and the availability of
inputs data to perform the required calculations using the method selected. If possible, the method
should be calibrated to local conditions and flood history. 
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5.3.2.2 Rational method
The Rational Method is logical, generalized and often reasonable. The Rational Method is most
accurate for estimating design storm peak runoff for areas up to 50 hectares (0.5 square km) and
presented from the perspective of each of the three ―independent‖ variables ; runoff coefficient,
rainfall intensity and catchment area. Therefore, the peak flow can generally be expressed as
Equation 5.2 with variables in SI units. However, numerical coefficients will be different for other
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units of these variables. 1 of 100  Search document 
Q P  0.00278
* CIA
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
Where Qp= Peak runoff rate (m3/s) A= Catchment area (ha)
I = Rainfall intensity (mm/hr) C= Runoff coefficient (decimal)
Runoff Coefficient (C)

The run off coefficient (C) can be expressed in two ways, one as scientific parameter that
expresses the abstractions (infiltration, interception, detention storage, etc.) and diffusion, the
tendency for a hydrograph to spread in time and attenuate in peak as it moves downstream. It is
also expressed as empirical parameter that quantify based on best watershed observation. In both
PubPrivatePart-2 Role of Public You're Reading a Preview

perspectives, runoff coefficient can be determined from catchment characteristics, land use/cover,
Water Policy and
slope and soil type (Tables 5-3 and 5-4).
Upload
Table 5-3: Runoff coefficient for ruralyour documents to download.
catchment
Slope factor Cs Soil permeability factor CP Land use/cover Cv
Well drained soil e.g.OR
sand and
< 3.5% Flat 0.05 0.05 Dense forest/thick bush 0.05
gravel
3.5% - 10% Soft to Fair drained soil e.g. sand and 0.1 Sparse forest/dense
moderate Become
0.1 a Scribd member
gravel with fines for full access. Your
grass
0.1
10% - 25% Rolling 0.15 first 14

Poorly drained soildays are free.0.15 Grassland/scrub
e.g. silt 0.15
Impervious soil e.g. clay, 0.25
25% - 45% Hilly 0.2 Cultivation 0.2
organic silts and clay
>45% Mountainous 0.25 Rock Continue for Free 0.4 Space grassland 0.25
Water-logged black cotton soil 0.5 Barren 0.3
C= Cs+Cp+Cv
Source: Chow, 1964, p. 21-38; ASCE, 1996, p. 590
Table 5-4: Runoff coefficient for urban catchment

Runoff Runoff
Description of Area Description of Area
Coefficients Coefficients
Business: Downtown areas 0.70-0.95 Neighborhood areas 0.50-0.70
Residential: Multi units,
Residential: Single-family areas 0.30-0.50 0.40-0.60
detached
Residential: Multi units, attached 0.60-0.75 Suburban 0.25-0.40
Residential (0.5 hectare lots or
0.30-0.45 Apartment dwelling areas 0.50-0.70
more)
Industrial: Light areas 0.50-0.80 Industrial: Heavy areas 0.60-0.90

Parks, cemeteries 0.10-0.25 Playgrounds This document is...
0.20-0.40
Railroad yard areas 0.20-0.40 Unimproved areas 0.10-0.30
Street : Asphalt 0.70-0.95 Concrete 
Useful Not useful
0.80-0.95 
Drives and walks 0.75-0.85 Roofs 0.75-0.95
Source: Chow, 1964, p. 21-38; HEC No. 19, 1984, ASCE, 1996, p. 590,
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In addition to the catchment characteristics, the runoff coefficient is affected by the return period of
the design flood to be estimated. The return period of less than 25 years does not have significant
change on the runoff coefficient, but return periods of 25 year and above have effect on the runoff
coefficient and this can be expressed with the multiplier presented in Table 5-5.
Table 5-5: T-year multipliers of runoff coefficient (C )

Return Period < 25 25 50 100
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Multiplier 1 1 of 100
1.1 1.2  Search
1.25 document 
Source: Viessman & Lewis (1996), p. 315
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
To avoid a value of runoff coefficient (C) of more than unit due to multiplier effect, a modification
equation is proposed by Chow (1964) and Singh (1988) to adjust the value of runoff coefficient.
0.07 5
 T r 
C  C
10 0  
 100  (5.3)
Where Tr is return period in years, C100 is C for the 100-year event


As many catchments are not of a single land treatment, an area-weighted composite C has to be
computed
PubPrivatePart-2 using
Role Equation 5.4
of Public for catchments
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n
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2010treatments.
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i 
i
C comp  i 1
n
Upload your documents to (5.4)
download.
 Ai
i 1 OR
Where Ccomp= Composite C Ai= sub-catchment area i
Become
n= number a Scribd memberCi=C
of sub-catchments for of
full access. Youri
sub-catchment
Rainfall Intensity (I) first 14 days are free.

As discussed in Chapter 3, the rainfall intensity of a catchment is from the time of concentration
(tc) of a catchment and the maximum rainfall for the different return periods.
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Time of concentration (tc) is the time required for an entire watershed to contribute to runoff at the
point of interest for hydraulic design, which is calculated by the time of travel of runoff or flow from
the most hydraulically remote point to the point under investigation. Time of travel is function of
length and velocity of flow for a particular watercourse. There may be multiple paths to consider in
determining the longest travel time. The hydrologist/engineer must identify the flow path along
which the longest travel time is likely to occur. Roussel et al. 2005 recommended the use of Kerby-
Kirpich approach for estimating watershed time of concentration. The Kerby-Kirpich approach
requires comparatively a few input parameters, straightforward to apply, and produces readily
interpretable results. The Kerby-Kirpich approach produces time of concentration by adding the
overland flow time (Kerby) and the channel flow time (Kirpich):
t c  T ov  T Ch (5.5)

Where: Tov = overland flow time and T ch = channel flow time

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Kerby Method
Kerby method is provided in Equation 5.6 for estimating overland flow time from small catchments
where overland flow is an important component of overall travel time.
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 K  L  N  0.23 5

0.46 7
T ov S
(5.6)
Where: Tov is as defined above and is given in minutes
L = the overland-flow length, in meters
K = units conversion coefficient
K = 1.44 for SI units
N = a dimensionless retardance coefficient
Download Snow 1
= the slope of terrain conveying ofthe
100
overland flow  Search document 
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
Table 5-6: Retardance Coefficients of Kerby Equation
Generalized terrain Retardance Generalized terrain Retardance
description coefficient (N) description coefficient (N)
Pavement 0.02 Smooth, bare, packed soil 0.10
Deciduous forest 0.60 Pasture, average grass 0.40
Poor grass, cultivated row crops, 0.20 Dense grass, coniferous forest, 0.80
or moderately rough packed surfaces or deciduous forest with deep litter

Kirpich Method
For channel-flow, Kirpich equation is:
PubPrivatePart-2 Role of Public 0.38 5 You're

Water Reading
ch  KL
0.77 0
T
Private… S Related… FINAL TOR.doc - Bangladesh…(5.7) CHECKLIST MI

Upload
Where: Tch is as defined above andyour documents
is given in minutes to download.
L = the overland-flow length, in meters;
S = slope of main channel (m/m) OR
K = a unit conversion coefficient (K = 0.0195 for SI units)
For the existence of a low slope or a transitional slope condition, an adjusted slope should be
used in calculating the time of concentration.
Example on computation of peak flood using rational formula

Continue
Data is from Shewu Small Scale Irrigation Project, for Free
Bench Maji Zone, SNNPR
The drainage area = 21ha more 60% land covered with cultivation
The main flow length = 641.39m Soil Hydrological Group = B
 Upstream Elevation (Elvus) = 1419m Downstream Elevation (Elv ds) = 1368m
Maximum daily rainfall for 25 year return period (P24) = 197.54mm
Computation of Time of Concentration

Slope (S) = ( El us – Elds)/L = (1419-1368)/641.39 = 0.08
For over land flow use Kerby‘s retardance coefficient, N= 0.2 for cultivated land and K= 1.44 for SI
unit.
For the channel flow use the Kirpich ‗s K= 0.0195 for SI units

K  L  N  This-0.235
document is...
0.4 6 7
0.2 3 5
T o v  S 0.467
= 1.44*(641.39*0.2) *(0.08) ) = 25.16min
T ch  KL 0.770
0.38 5
S  Useful  Not useful
= 0.0195*(641.39) 0.77 *(0.08)-0.385 = 7.49 min
tc = Tov + Tch = 25.16 + 7.49 = 32.65 min
Runoff coefficient
Runoff coefficient
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Values for catchment characteristics:

S = 8%; CT = 0.1; Cs = 0.1 for hydrological soil group B; Cv =0.2 for cultivated land
C= CT +CS+CV = 0.1+0.1+0.2 = 0.4
Rainfall Intensity
24hr maximum precipitation = 197.54mm; it implies I 24 = 197.54/24 = 8.23mm/hr
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Time of concentration = 32.65min 1 of 100b=0.33 and n=0.9  Search document
(0.544hr), 
I = (b+24)/(b+tc)^n *I24 = (0.33+24)/(0.33+0.544)^0.9 *8.23 = 226.04mm/hr
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tc

Peak Runoff rate will then be
Qp = 0.00278CIA = 0.00278*0.4*226.04mm/hr*21 ha = 5.278 m3 /sec
5.3.2.3 SCS-CN method
The SCS method is widely used for estimating floods on small to medium-sized ungauged
catchments around the world. The method was developed based on 24-hr rainfall and runoff data
in USA. Its derivation assumed that no runoff occurs until rainfall equals an initial abstraction, I a
(losses before runoff begins) and satisfies cumulative infiltration, F (the actual retention before
runoff begins) Water Policy
or water retained in theand You're Reading a Preview
11 March
catchment, 2010 Ia. The
excluding Waterpotential
Institutions VERYbefore
retention IMPORTA
Private…
runoff begins Related…
(S) is the value F + Ia that would FINAL TOR.doc
be attained - Bangladesh…
in a very long storm. The SCSCHECKLIST
runoff MI
equation is therefore a method of estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or daily storm rainfall. The
relationship is given Equation 5.8 below:
 P  I a 2 OR
Q (5.8)
 P  I a   S
Where: Q = accumulated Become a Scribd
direct runoff, mmmember for full access. Your
P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm;
Ia = initial abstraction (surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior to runoff), mm;
S = potential maximum retention, mm.
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The relationship between I a and S was developed from experimental data is given as I a =
0.2STheredfore, Equation 5.8 is given as Equation 5.9 below.
 P  0.2S

2
Q
P  0.8S (5.9)
S is related with soil and land cover through the empirical value called Curve Number (CN), the
values which ranges 0 - 100. The relationship between S and CN is expressed as in Equation 5.10
 100  1 
S  254  
 CN  (5.10)
Curve number depends on land use/cover, treatment practices and the soil in the catchment. Land
use/cover of the catchment area refers all the cover types, including agricultural and non-
agricultural uses, vegetation, water bodies, roads, roofs, etc. The treatment practice address
different land practice on the cultivation and non-cultivated process it includes cultivation practice
as straight, contour or seeding practice as closed seeded, row and other related practices. 
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Similarly, soil properties influence the relationship between rainfall and runoff by affecting the rate
 Useful
of infiltration. The SCS has divided soils into four hydrologic soil groups based on Not usefulrates
infiltration
(Groups A, B, C, and D) as presented in Table 5.6. The determination of runoff curve number has
also considered the effects of land-treatment measures in cultivated land use including mechanical
g
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Example
No Procedure Remark
(Arjo Catchment)
Round to whole number as
8 Compute time of peak as Tp = 0.5D +T la 11.91≈12 hr
multiple of D
Time of base for the unit hydrograph
9 60
(Tb) = 5(Tla +0.5D)
Compute the peak discharge (q p) of the Unit
Downloadhydrograph
now in m3/sec/mm as
10 q p
1 of 100
0.208 A

3
 Search document
95.15m /sec/mm

T p
Related titlesWhere A is drainage area in(km2), Tp is peak time in hr

Plot the UH with a smooth line with the three know values, Tp, Tb, and qp
The volume of 1 mm runoff in the catmint area should be equal to the volume of the UH. Therefore,
13
using an iterative process in Excel, adjust the ordinates of the UH until the two volumes are equal. .
Read the ordinates of the UH from the iteratively developed UH as given below.
Time 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Quh
Time 32
0 9
34
18
36
34
38
52
40
76 95.15 86
42 44 46
64
48
48
50
38
52
33
54
29
56
26
58
23
60
20

Quh 18 14 13 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.18 0
Consider the daily rainfall distribution to get the rainfall excess. If the distribution of the rainfall excess

rainfall using S-UH.
You're Reading a Preview
15 duration is different from the duration of the UH, the UH has to be converted to the duration of excess
The 24hr peak rainfall has to take from the regional IDF of 175.2 In this example, take 100
Upload based
16 the site or it can be computed your documents
on the frequency to download. year return period
analysis.
17
Compute the 0.5hr MRF using exponential equation OR 0.5
α0.5= 1-exp(-125/(Rday +5)).
Become aProcedural note for column 18 -22

Scribd member for full access. Your
The time for the rainfall distribution is taken based on the rainfall duration computed in synthetic UH
18
and it has to be extended up to thefirst 14lag
time of days
of theare free. UH
synthetic
The intensity of the rainfall is computed based on the 24hr peak rainfall and 0.5hr MRF is computed in
step 16 and 17 using the following intensity exponential equation.
19 Continue for Free
The infiltration rate of the catchment is computed based on the Horton equation, with parameters
given below for the following soil hydrological groups:
HSG fo (mm/hr) fc (mm/hr) K (1/hr)
A 127.00 25.40 0.20
B 105.00 15.24 0.18
20 C 81.28 12.70 0.17
D 71.12 10.16 0.16
In the example catchment, is the dominant hydrological soil group is B for which the Horton equation
-0.18t
fp = 15.24 + 89.76e . Then the infiltration rate at each time is computed as presented above. If a
catchment has different hydrological soil groups one has to compute the weighted average values of
the parameters based on the area proportion covered by each hydrological soil group.
21
The rate of excess rainfall can then be simply computed by subtracting the infiltration rate from rainfall 
intensity. (i.e., column 19 – column 20) This document is...
To get the excess rainfall depth, multiply the excess rainfall rate with the time of excess rainfall, 2hr in
22
the current example,
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Computed values with Arjo Example data

18 19 20 21 22
Time Intensity Infiltration Rate Excess Rainfall rate Excess Rainfall
(hr) (mm/hr) (mm/hr) (mm/hr) (mm)
2 0.00 105.00 0.00 0.000
4 82.14 77.86 4.27 8.546 The only excess rainfall
Download 6 now43.63 58.93 1 of 1000.00  Search document
0.000 
8 29.19 45.72 0.00 0.000
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
10 21.90 36.51 0.00 0.000
12 17.52 30.08 0.00 0.000
Steps 23 -28 computation of stream flow using the synthetic unit hydrograph and Excess rainfall
Time distribution based on the rainfall excess duration up to the base time of the unit Hydrograph
23
(i.e., 60hr , ref. row 9)
24 Use the computed UH with reference in column 14

Use the excess rainfall computed in column 22 and multiply the excess rainfall for each UH ordinate. If
25
there is two or more excess rainfall multiply with keeping the lag time.
You're Reading a Preview

Compute the direct runoff by summing all the ordinate in the same row; for the current example, there
PubPrivatePart-2
26 Role of Public Water Policy and 11 March 2010
is only one time excess rainfall so the sum is the same.
Private… Related… FINAL TOR.doc - Bangladesh…
Compute the base flow based on the relationship fixed for the river basin CHECKLIST MI
using UH sequential
27
approach, for example,Upload your
the dry flow documents
observed at UH to download.
Compute the total discharge by adding the direct runoff and the base flow to get the stream flow with
28
peak rainfall for the given catchment.
OR

23 24 25 first 14 days
26 are free. 27 28
Excess Rainfall
Time UH Direct Runoff Base Flow Total Runoff
3 (mm) 3 3 3
(hr) (m /sec/mm) (m /sec) (m /sec) (m /sec)
8.546 Continue for Free
0 0 0.00 0.00 45.12 45.12
2 9 76.91 76.91 54.12 131.03
4 18 153.83 153.83 63.12 216.95
6 34 290.56 290.56 79.12 369.68
8 52 444.39 444.39 97.12 541.51
10 76 649.50 649.50 121.12 770.62
12 95.14 813.15 813.15 140.26 953.33
14 86 734.96 734.96 131.12 866.08
16 64 546.94 546.94 109.12 656.06
18 48 410.21 410.21 93.12 503.33
20 38 324.75 324.75 83.12 407.87
22 33 282.02 282.02 78.12 360.14
24 29 247.83 247.83 74.12 321.95
26 26 222.20 222.20 71.12 293.32 
28 23 196.56 196.56 This document
68.12 is...
264.68
30
32
20
18
170.92
153.83
170.92
153.83
 Useful
65.12
63.12
Not useful
236.04
216.95
34 14 119.64 119.64 59.12 178.76
36 13 111 10 111 10 58 12 169 22
36 13 111.10 111.10 58.12 169.22
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23 24 25 26 27 28
Excess Rainfall
Time UH Direct Runoff Base Flow Total Runoff
3 (mm) 3 3 3
(hr) (m /sec/mm) (m /sec) (m /sec) (m /sec)
8.546
38 11 94.01 94.01 56.12 150.13
40 10 85.46 85.46 55.12 140.58
Download
42 now9 76.91 1 of 10076.91  Search document
54.12 131.03 
44 8 68.37 68.37 53.12 121.49
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
46 7 59.82 59.82 52.12 111.94
48 6 51.28 51.28 51.12 102.40
50 5 42.73 42.73 50.12 92.85
52 4 34.18 34.18 49.12 83.30
54 3 25.64 25.64 48.12 73.76
56 2 17.09 17.09 47.12 64.21
58 1.189 10.08 10.08 46.31 56.47
60 0 0.00 0.00 45.12 45.12 
The peak discharge is 953.41m3/sec and this can be the design discharge

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5.4 DEPENDABLE
Private… FLOW
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Dependable flow is definedUpload your
as the flow of documents to different
stream flow with download. probability of exceedence (60-
90%) in a flow duration curve under a quasi-natural flow condition. A-thumb-of-rule 75%, 90% and
100% dependable flow for irrigation, power supply OR and drinking water supply respectively. The
dependable flow can be approximated by the computed value from monthly simulated discharge
BecomeAa popular
as a first order approximation. Scribd method
member of for full access.
studying Your
the dependability of stream flow is
through flow duration curves which can be regarded as a standard reporting output from
hydrological data processing. A flow-duration curve is a plot of discharge against the percentage of
time the flow was equaled or exceeded. This may also be referred to as a cumulative discharge
frequency curve and it is usually applied to daily mean discharges.
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5.4.1 Understanding of flow-duration curve
Characteristics of the flow duration curve

 The virgin-flow duration curve when plotted on a log probability paper follows as a
straight line at least over the central region. From this property, various coefficients
expressing the variability of the flow in a stream can be developed for the description
and comparison of different streams.
 The presence of a reservoir in a stream considerably modifies the virgin-flow duration
curve depending on the nature of flow regulation.
 The chronological sequence of occurrence of the flow is masked in the flow-duration
curve. A discharge of say 1,000 m3/s in a stream will have the same percentage Pp
whether it has occurred in January or June. This is a serious handicap and must be kept
in mind while interpreting a flow- duration curve.
The slope of a flow duration curve depends on the interval of data selected. For 
This document is...

example, a daily stream flow data gives a steeper curve than a curve based on monthly
data for the same stream.  Useful  Not useful
 For a flow-duration curve plotted on a log-log paper, a steep slope of the curve indicates
a stream with a highly variable discharge whereas a flat slope indicates a slow response
of the catchment to the rainfall and small variability
of the catchment to the rainfall and small variability.
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 At the lower end of the curve, a flat portion indicates considerable base flow while a flat
curve on the upper portion is typical of river basins having large flood plains and large
snowfall during a wet season.
Flow-duration curves find considerable use in water-resources planning and development
activities. Some of the important uses are:
I Evaluating various dependable flows in the planning of water-resources engineering


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Evaluating the characteristics of the hydropower potential of a river;


Related titles Design of drainage systems and flood-control studies;


In Computing sediment and dissolved solids load of a stream; and

Comparing adjacent catchments with a view to extend the stream flow data

5.4.2 Flow Duration Curve for Gauged Stream
The first step in developing flow duration curve is collecting all available stream flow data. This will
then be followed by developing the flow duration curve with different approach and cases. 
Case 1: flow duration curves from daily flow data
Steps
PubPrivatePart-2i. Role of Public
Choose a constant width You're Reading a Preview
Water class
Policy interval
and 11 March
(ci) 2010
that can result Water
in Institutions
about VERY IMPORTA
25 to 30 classes with
the ranges
Private… of the available data
Related… sets FINAL TOR.doc - Bangladesh… CHECKLIST MI
ii. Develop the classes from upper to lower class ranges for each class and arrange them in
their descending orderUpload your documents to download.
iii. Count total number of days in each class equal and greater than the lower bound
iv. Cumulate the number of days in each class OR interval to get the number of days above the
lower limit of each class interval.
v. Compute the probabilities of exceedence dividing the quantities obtained from step (iv) by
the total number Become a Scribd
of days in the recordmember for full
(for example, 365access. Your
if one year record is considered for
the construction of flow duration curve).
vi. Multiply the probabilities of exceedence obtained from step (v) by 100 to get percentage
exceedence.
vii. Plot the probabilities of exceedence in percentage against the corresponding lower bound
of class interval on linear graph Continue
paper.for Free
Sometimes, the flow duration curve better
approximates to a straight line if lognormal probability paper is used in place of linear graph
paper.
Example
A daily flow data from Mike River at Mike village gauging station from 2 Jan, 1985 to 23 Dec, 2010
with a total of 7054 data set is used to develop flow duration curve at the gauged station. The data
set has a maximum of 139.68m3/sec and a minimum of 0 m3/sec discharge. With class interval of
5, 28 classes are constructed.
Table 5-17: Example for Flow duration curve using gauged data with daily data set
Number of days Cumulative Probability
Upper Lower
in the class (m) (m/(N+1)*100
140 135 1 1 0.014
135 130 0 1 0.014

130 125 0 1 This document is...
0.014
125 120 1 2 0.028
120 115 1 3
Useful  Not useful
0.043

115 110 1 4 0.057
110 105 1 5 0.071
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to have sediment load measurement at least one season with 50-60 sample data depending on
project duration.
a) Selection of sampling site:
The following general requirements shall be fulfilled in selecting a sampling site for measurement
of sediment.
Download now
The  1
site should be located ofin100
a straight reach forover
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fivedocument
channel widths) both 
upstream and downstream from the measuring location.
Related titles It should be located in a stable section (no erosion or deposition) to take highest


discharge within banks.

 It should have uniform bed slope
 The water flow should have sufficient depth with respect to the dimensions of the
sampling equipment (minimum one meter).
 The site should be accessible and clear of natural and/or artificial obstacles (frees,
bridge piers, etc.).
 It should have well defined geometrical dimensions (local depth, width and position). 
b) Measurement of suspended sediment discharge
Standard methods of measurement require the entire cross-section to be subdivided into a number
of vertical
PubPrivatePart-2 Rolesections.
of Public Normally, the
Water You're Reading a Preview
number
Policy and of 11
subdivisions
March 2010 is in the order
Water of 5 to 7. VERY
Institutions Sediment
IMPORTA
discharge passing
Private… through each section
Related… is obtained by taking
FINAL TOR.doc measurements
- Bangladesh… along tile vertical MI
CHECKLIST
within the portion of section it represents for measurement of stream flow as well as sediment
Upload
load. However, for small scale your systems
irrigation documentssmall to download.
streams are usually developed to supply
the required amount of water, and adoption of the standard methods of sediment measurement
will not be technically and economically feasible.OR
Selection of measuring Become a Scribd

vertical: memberoffor
For streams full where
SSIS access.theYour
strength of flow at the
measuring section is highly variable in the section, tile measuring section should be divided into a
minimum of three subsections – one containing the main current and the two tile containing the
secondary currents on either side. Measuring verticals for each subsection may be taken at the
middle of the subsection where velocity and depth of flow are also recorded instantaneously. If the
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pattern of the flow is symmetrical about the middle of the channel, only measuring vertical for the
main current and for one of tile secondary currents can be considered. For streams which have no
significant difference in strength of the flow on the measuring cross-section, the transverse
distribution of sediment is expected to be fairly uniform, and one measurement of vertical located
at the middle of the section can be taken to be representative.
Sampling by selecting sampling points:-The commonly used standard methods consider a

minimum number of three points on a vertical in a stream of ordinary size. Simplified methods are
usually adopted for lessening tile work involved in taking and processing samples. The simplest of
all the commonly used simplified methods is to take sample at one point at a relative depth (ratio
of depth of sampling point to stream depth of 0.5 or 0.6). Time integrated sample should be taken
at this point using a sampler that can be easily handled.
Sampling by depth integration: Sediment samples can be also collected by depth integration by 
This document is...
round trips of lifting and lowering the sampler or only by a single trip from the surface to the bottom
or from the bottom to the surface of the stream. The volume  ofUseful  Not
sample at each useful
point shall be
proportional to the local velocity. This can be achieved if the intake velocity of the nozzle is
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approximately equal to the local velocity of the stream. The sample bottle shall not be allowed to
fill completely.
c) Computation of sediment discharge
For point samples:
Sediment discharge per unit width: qs = CsiVid
Where: Csi = the sediment concentration at the measuring point as determined in the laboratory;
Download now g/1 or kg/m3; 1 of 100  Search document 
Vi= the velocity at the measuring point recorded simultaneously as the sediment water
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
sample is being taken; m/s; and
d = depth of flow; m.
N
Sediment discharge of the entire cross-section, Q   q si b j
i 1
Where j = No of the sampling Vertical;

qsi = sediment discharge per unit width at the j sampling vertical
bj = channel width represented by J the vertical 
For depth integrated samples:
Sediment discharge in the vertical, q s = Csqq
PubPrivatePart-2 Role of C
Where Public
sq = averageWater
sediment You're Reading a Preview
Policyconcentration
and 11 March 2010
in the Water
vertical; g/1 Institutions
or kg/m; VERY IMPORTA
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Related… FINAL
3
per unit width, m /s/m TOR.doc - Bangladesh… CHECKLIST MI
Sediment discharge of the entire cross - section is computed by the same method used for point
samples.
OR
d) Bed Load Estimation
Become
It is customarily assumed that athe
Scribd
total member for full
sediment load access.
consists Your
of suspended and bed load.
Furthermore, certain relationships showfirst 14 days are free.
the existing bed load in relation to suspended load and,
hence, for such small scale reservoirs 15% up to 20% is considered to account for the bed load as
percentage of the suspended load
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e) Grain Size Analysis of Sediment
Grain size distributions of the sediment samples should be determined for a better understanding
of the sediment transport of various size groups. Standard procedures of sieve analysis for coarse
grains and hydrometric analysis for fine grains of sediment have to be employed.
f) Frequency and Timing of Sampling

Timing and frequency of sampling depends on the runoff characteristics of the catchment. For
many streams, an average of 70 to 90% of the annual sediment load is carried down the river
during the flood season. During rainy seasons, sampling of sediment should be made at two hour
intervals or at lesser intervals based on occurrence of flood to obtain a reliable estimate of
sediment concentration. During the rest of the year, sampling frequency can be reduced to daily or
even weekly sampling.
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8.2.2 Estimation of sediment using reservoir capacity survey
Reservoir Capacity Survey is a direct measurement carried out periodically to assess the volume
of deposit along with its location in the reservoirs. This method, however, indicates the total
sediment yield of the entire catchment but not for sub-catchments for which sediment yield is
required as sediment sampling of the different streams is necessary. The main survey methods
are the contour method and the range line method. The contour method of survey is generally
Download nowfor all types of reservoir1shapes
applicable of 100  Search itdocument
and this guideline recommends to be used. In contour 
method, a contour map of the reservoir with suitable scale and contour interval is prepared, from
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
which the capacity of the reservoir at the time of survey is computed. The difference in capacity
between two surveys indicates the loss of capacity due to sediment deposition during the
intervening period.
Computational procedure for capacity survey

The contour map of the reservoir is prepared and the successive areas enclosed by the contours
are computed using any spatial analysis tools (ArcGIS, Global mapper, AutoCAD 3D, etc). Starting
from the lowest contour, a submergence area-elevation curve is first prepared. From this curve the
area between different elevations can be obtained. The capacity can then be computed using
either Contour area interval method, or Modified prismoidal formula
Water Reading
Contour area interval method
The capacity between two successive elevations/contours can be obtained arithmetically by taking
the average submergence area and multiplying by the unit height.
Modified prismoidal formula OR

The capacity between the successive unit elevations can also be estimated by the modified
prisrnoidal formula: Become a Scribd member for full access. Your
 A  4 B  C first

 Vy 14 days are free.
H
V s 
3 (8.1)
Where Vs = capacity between middle and top contours;
H = contour interval between A Continue
and B; for Free
A = area of the bottom contour;
B = area of the middle contour;
C = area of the top contour; and
Vy = capacity between middle and bottom contours previously determined.
The capacity below the lowest contour may be computed by the contour area interval method
which provides Vy. After finding the volume below the lowest contour, this formula can be used
progressively for each succeeding higher contour. The cumulative value of the capacity between
the successive unit elevations will give the new capacity of reservoir at different elevations. The
difference between the old capacity and the new capacity at any elevation will provide the
accumulation of silt deposit between the surveys.
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8.2.3 Estimation of wash load from catchment erosion
8.2.3.1 Estimation of Catchment Erosion
Soil erosion takes place mainly in cultivated lands, sparsely vegetated non-cultivated lands,
grazing lands and road construction sites. The amount of eroded soil in a catchment can be fairly
estimated by delineating the different sources of erosion and identifying their relative importance in
Download now to the total erosion. Usually
contributing 1 of 100
cultivated lands form 
theSearch
major document
source of sediment as
cultivation is the main disturbing activity in a catchment. Soil erosion from the sources takes place

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as sheet-rill erosion, gully erosion and stream bank erosion. Erosion in cultivated lands takes place

mainly as sheet-rill erosion and forms the major contribution to the soil eroded in a catchment. The
contribution from other types of erosion is relatively low compared to that from sheet-rill erosion.
The rate at which soil is eroded from a given area is expressed in volume or weight units per unit
area and time. Usually, it is given as m 3/km2/year or tons/ ha/ year.
I Sheet-Rill Erosion
Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) computes average annual erosion from field

slopes in tons/ha/year (Renard, 1997)

A = R*K*(LS)*C*P
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Where A = Average AnnualRelated… FINAL TOR.doc
Soil Loss (tons/ha/year) - Bangladesh… CHECKLIST MI
R = Rainfall-RunoffUpload
Erosivity your
factordocuments to download.
(MJ*mm*ha-1*hr
-1
) K = Soil Erodibility Factor
LS = Slope Length-Steepness Factor C = Land Cover-Management Factor
P = Conservation Practice OR
R factor: The R-Factor is the rainfall and runoff factor spatially distributed by geographic location,
as the greater intensity and duration of the rainstorm has higher the erosion potential. There was a
first 14R-factor
well-known empirical relationship between days areandfree.
annual precipitation proposed by Hurni
(1978) but it was found to give overestimates the R-factor. Therefore, empirical equation
developed by Kurt Cooper (2011) is evaluated and recommend adopting for Ethiopian condition
(Berhanu B. et.al, 2015), which use theContinue
mean annualforrainfall
Free (P) in mm as input.
R = 0.01523P1.36 , (8.3)
Example with Mojo catchment

 Define the target watershed and available rainfall stations with mean annual rainfall
within and at the surrounding of the catchment. Moji Watershed with 12 rainfall stations
of mean annual data is used in this example.
 Interpolate areal rainfall using IDW/Co-Krkining or Thesisen Polygon. Here, IDW is used
to interpolate the annual rainfall of the stations.
 Compute R-factor using the above formula
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Santosh Nepal (2012) Evaluating Upstream-Downstream Linkages of Hydrological


Dynamics in the Himalayan Region, Dissertation, submitted to the Faculty of Chemical

and Earth Sciences of the Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, JENA
Sauer, V. B., Thomas, W. O., Stricker, V. A., and Wilson, K. V. 1983.Flood

Characteristics of Urban Catchment areas in the United States -- Techniques for

Estimating Magnitude and Frequency of Urban Floods.U. S. Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 2204
Download nowSCS (1954) National Engineering

1 of 100Handbook, Section  4, Search
Hydrology
document
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Technical Release No. 55 (2nd Edition)


Related titles Basin
Tsedey Teshome Zelalem Hailu (2007) Regionalization of flow duration curve for Abbay


using GIS technique , MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia
US Department of Agriculture (1972) SCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4,

Hydrology
USDA Soil Conservation Service TP-149 (SCS-TP-149), ―A Method for Estimating

Volume and Rate of Runoff in Small Watersheds,‖ revised April 1973.

Water Resources Council Bulletin 17B (1981) Guidelines for determining flood flow

frequency

Wischmeier, W. H. and Smith, D. D. (1978) : Predicting Rainfall Erosion Losses – A

guide to Conservation Planning, Agriculture Handbook No. 537, USDA-Agricultural

Research Service, Washington, DC,
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SUGGESTED READING
Baxter E. Vieux (2004): DISTRIBUTED HYDROLOGIC MODELING USING GIS, Water

Science and Technology Library, Volume 48 2004, ISBN: 978-1-4020-2459-7

(Print) 978-1-4020-2460-3 (Online)
Bras, R. L. (1990). HYDROLOGY -AN INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGIC SCIENCE,

Download now Addison-Wesley Publishing 1 Co.of 100  Search document

Chong-yu Xu (2002) TEXTBOOK OF HYDROLOGIC MODELS , Uppsala University,


Related titles Department of Earth Sciences and Hydrology

Chow, V. T., Maidment, D. R., Mays, L. W. (1988) APPLIED HYDROLOGY, McGraw-

Hill Book Co.

Keith J. Beven (2009), ENVIROMENTAL MODELING: AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE? 1ST

Edition, ISBNI3: 978-0-415-46302-7, Routledge, 2 park Square, Milton park, Abingdom

Keith J. Beven (2012), RAINFALL-RUNOFF MODELLING: THE PRIMER, 2nd Edition,

ISBN: 978-0-470-71459-1, 488 pages, February 2012, Wiley-Blackwell

McCuen, Richard H (1998). HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN, 2ed, Prentice

Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 074


Paul J. Wood, David M. Hannah , Dr Jonathan P. Sadler (Editors)(2007)

HYDROECOLOGY AND ECOHYDROLOGY: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE, 1st

Edition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Paul

Water
Schiariti, P.E., CPESC,You're Reading a Preview
PolicyBasic
and Hydrology,
11 March 2010 Water
Runoff Curve Institutions
Numbers, Mercy VERY IMPORTA
County
Private…
Rao A. Ramachandra (2000) FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS, CRC Press. Boca MI
 Related… FINAL TOR.doc - Bangladesh… CHECKLIST
Raton, London New Upload
work,your documents
Washington D.C. to download.
Yen, B. C. and Lee, K. T. (1997). ―UNIT HYDROGRAPH DERIVATION FOR

UNGAUGED WATERSHEDS BY STREAM-ORDER LAWS,‖ J. Hydrologic Engrg.,

ASCE, 2(1), 1-9. OR

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