Home Science_XI_Front.

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 UNIT

1
Therapeutic Diets

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

zz To provide a detailed view of the relationship between diet, nutrition and disease.
zz To study the pathophysiology and dietary treatment of various diseases.
zz To study the management of specific diseases and conditions such as gastrointestinal
disorders, liver diseases, obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and kidney disease
in depth.
zz To learn to plan therapeutic diets and to maintain or restore good nutrition in the
patient.

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 digestion, absorption or transportation.
1.1 Introduction
Therefore, normal diet is modified to meet
Good nutrition along with food the requirements of the sick individual.
selection is the corner stone of personal The normal diet may be modified
health and for maintaining good health to: 1. provide change in consistency, as in
during and after diseases. The term “diet fluid and soft diets 2. increase or decrease
therapy” refers to the usage of food and the energy values 3. include greater or
nutrition in controlling symptoms and lesser amounts of one or more nutrients
managing the progress of disease. 4. increase or decrease bulk- high and low
A therapeutic diet is a modified fibre diets 5. include or exclude specific
meal plan. The modification include foods as in allergic conditions and 6. To
increasing or decreasing intake of modify the intervals of feeding.
nutrients and change in texture.
Factors to be considered in
planning therapeutic diets
1.1.1 Objectives of Diet
Therapy 1 The underlying diseased condition
which requires a change in the diet.
1 To maintain good nutritional status. 2 The possible duration of the disease.
2. To correct nutrient deficiencies which 3 The diet which must be altered to
may have occurred due to the disease. overcome these conditions.
3. To afford rest to the whole body or 4 The patients’ tolerance for food by mouth.
to the specific organ affected by the In addition to economic status, the
disease. food preferences, occupation and time of
4. To adjust the food intake to the body’s meals should be considered.
ability to metabolize the nutrients The four attributes of a therapeutic
during the disease. diet are: Adequacy, Accuracy, Economy
5. To bring about changes in body and Palatability
weight whenever necessary.
1.1.3  Routine Hospital Diets
1.1.2 Principles of
The routine hospital diets include
Therapeutic diet
Liquid diet, soft diet, mechanically altered,
A well planned diet provides all fibre restricted diet and regular diet.
the specific nutrients to the body that are
i Liquid Diet
needed to achieve nutritional homeostasis
in a normal healthy individual. However, Liquid diet consists of food that
in disease conditions, body tissues will pour or liquid at normal room
either do not receive proper nutrients temperature. In this diet, nutritive value is
in sufficient amount or cannot utilize low and is used only for limited periods of
the available nutrients owing to faulty time. The liquid diet is used
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 i) to keep fecal matter in the colon at a iii Mechanically Altered Diet
minimum It differs from normal diet in texture
ii) after surgery and seasonings, depending on the needs of the
iii) to replace fluids lost from vomiting patient. Mechanically altered diet is limited to
or diarrhea. soft food for those who have difficulty chewing
food because of missing teeth or poorly fitting
Liquid diets may be clear- liquid or dentures. Eg. Puffed rice, gruels, purees,
full liquid diet. minced meat and desserts like custard.
Clear Fluid Diet: This diet is made up of clear
fluids that leave no residue, and it is non gas iv Fibre Restricted Diet
forming, non irritating and non stimulating
Fibre restricted diet have reduced
to peristaltic action. This diet can meet the
fibre content and are soft in consistency. It
requirement of fluids and some minerals and
serves as a transition to a normal diet in
can be given in 1 to 2 hour intervals and its
fevers, and in gastrointestinal disturbances.
use is typically limited to 24 to 36 hours. This
diet is given during acute infection, following v. Regular Diet
operations of colon or rectum, diarrhea and
The regular diet is the most
vomiting. The foods which can be included
frequently used in hospitals. It should
are barley water, dhal water, whey water, tea
meet the RDA (refer to XI Home Science
and coffee without milk.
Text book) and include all food groups.
Full Fluid Diet: This diet bridges the gap
between the clear fluid and soft diet. In this
diet, foods which are liquid or which readily 1.2  Diet in Fever
become liquid on reaching the stomach Fever may be defined as an
are given. It is used following operations, elevation of body temperature above
in acute gastritis, acute infections and in normal (98.4°F). It may occur in response
diarrhea. This diet is given at 2 - 4 hours to infection and inflammation.
interval. The foods included are kanji, milk
shakes, lassi and soups.
1.2.1 Causes
ii Soft Diet Endogenous factors: Antigen-antibody
It is used in acute infections, following reaction
surgery, and for patients who are unable to Exogenous factors: Infection due to
chew. The soft diet is made up of simple, easily Bacteria or Fungi
digested food and contains no harsh fibre
and no rich seasoned food. In this diet, three 1.2.2  Classification of Fever
meals with intermediate feedings should
be given; Patients with dental problems zzShort duration: as in acute fevers of colds,
are given mechanically soft diet. The foods pneumonia, influenza, measles, chickenpox,
include cooked dhals, double cooked cereals, scarlet and typhoid fevers. All these diseases
custard, and steamed bananas, purees. manifest fever as the first symptom.
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 zzLong duration: as in chronic fevers or handling of food by carriers or by flies,
or infections which may continue are the source of infection.
for months and stretch to years.
Tuberculosis is an outstanding B. Symptoms of Typhoid
example.
The disease is characterized by
zzIntermittent: Malarial fever in which a continued, high inflammation of the
increased body temperature last for intestine, formation of intestinal ulcers,
few hours alternate with periods in haemorrhage and enlargement of spleen.
which the temperature is normal. The patient suffers from

Metabolic Changes in Fever zzDiarrhea or constipation

1 The metabolic rate is increased. zzSevere stomach ache.

The increase in metabolic rate is zzHeadache and anorexia.
proportionate to body temperature
and the duration of fever. An increase Peyer’s patches or flat patches of
of 7 percent in the metabolic rate lymphatic tissue situated in the small
for each degree rise in Fahrenheit intestine but mainly in the ileum
(13 percent for every degree Celsius are the seat of infection in typhoid
rise in body temperature). fever
2 Glycogen stores are decreased.
3 Increased catabolism of proteins. C.  Principles of Diet
4 Nitrogen waste is increased and it exerts A high calorie, high protein, high
an additional burden on the kidneys. carbohydrate, low fat, high fluid, low fibre
5 Water metabolism is also affected. and soft bland diet.
Excessive perspiration and excretion
of body waste increases the loss of D.  Dietary Management
body water. zzEnergy: Energy utilization is high
6 Increased excretion of electrolytes in fevers due to the high metabolic
like sodium and potassium. activities. The calorie requirement
is increased about 50 percent. High
1.2.3 Typhoid carbohydrate drinks and cereal gruels
Typhoid is an infectious disease can be included in frequent small
with an acute fever of short duration. feedings to meet high energy demand.
Salmonella typhi causes typhoid. The zzProteins: In prolonged fever 100 g
duration may be as short as three days or of good quality proteins have to be
as long as three weeks. included. High protein beverages and
soups can be included.
A.  Causes of Typhoid zzCarbohydrate: Glucose can be used
Contaminated drinking water, milk for sweetening beverages. Starchy
and food by intestinal contents of a patient gruels also supply carbohydrates.

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 zzElectrolytes: Sodium chloride, has
to be supplemented. Soups can meet 1.2.4 Tuberculosis
this demand. Fruit juices and milk
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease
beverages can be given in considerable
caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium
quantities.
tuberculosis. It affects the lungs, kidneys,
zzVitamin: The requirement increases alimentary tract, lymph nodes of the neck,
during fever. Vitamin A and ascorbic liver, and spleen and bones and joints of
acid have to be supplemented; B children.
complex vitamin intake has to be
adjusted with calorie intake. A.  Causes of Tuberculosis
zzFluid: Intake must be liberal so as to It is an air borne infection.
meet the additional loss during fever. At Congested dwelling and unhygienic living
least 3-5 litre of fluid intake is essential. conditions are the main causes of this
infection.
E.  Dietary Guidelines
First clear fluid diet is given, B.  Symptoms of Tuberculosis
followed by full fluid and soft diet. Bland, zzWasting of tissues
easily digestible foods must be used.
zzExhaustion
Instead of a four-meal pattern, frequent
small feedings are recommended. zzPersistent cough
zzLow-grade fever
Foods to be
Foods to be included zzLoss of weight
avoided
Cereals, gruels. barley Butter, ghee, zzPain in the chest
water, vegetable oil, zzpoor appetite
Thin dal, milk, curds, irritating fibres, zzfatigue
cottage cheese, milk chilies and other zzSputum coughed up by the patient
shakes, custards, spices, rich may become streaked with blood.
Poached Eggs, pastries, fried
baked fish, double foods, puddings
C.  Principles of Diet
cooked minced meat, and cream soups
A high calorie, high protein, high
vegetable puree,
vitamin, minerals, and high fluid diet is
Steamed vegetable, given.
Fruit juices

D.  Dietary Management

Vegan diet: A diet based on a Energy: High calorie diet is
wide variety of whole plant foods such prescribed. Satisfactory weight can be
as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, maintained with 2500 to 3000 calories. 45-50
legumes, nuts and seeds. kcal/ kg body weight for adults and 90 kcal/
kg body weight for children are suggested.
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 Protein: The daily protein intake of ascorbic acid is essential. Include plenty
80 to 120g or 1.5 - 2 g/kg body weight for of antioxidants in the diet.
adults is suggested.
C.  Dietary Guidelines
Minerals: Calcium should be
provided liberally since it is also essential Easily digestible and good quality
for healing tuberculosis lesions. At least diet reduces strain on the body. During the
one litre of milk should be taken daily. acute stage a high-calorie diet is prescribed.
The iron needs may also be increased if One litre of milk and 3 to 4 eggs per day are
there has been hemorrhage. given. Two or three servings of different type
of fruits are suggested to meet micronutrient
Vitamins: The metabolism
and antioxidant requirement.
of vitamin A is adversely affected in
tuberculosis. The diet should provide
1.3 The Gastrointestinal
vitamin A. The weekly inclusion of vitamin
System
A rich food and dietary supplementation
with vitamin A is essential. Ascorbic acid Introduction
intake should be increased. Large amounts The gastrointestinal tract starts
of citrus fruits or supplementation of from the oral cavity, where food enters the

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 mouth, continuing through the pharynx, ii. Salivary glands
oesophagus, stomach and intestines Salivary glands secrete saliva that
to the rectum and anus, where food is lubricate and protect both the soft and
expelled. Accessory organs such  as liver hard tissues of the oral cavity. Three
and pancreas, salivary glands and the pairs of salivary glands include Parotids,
biliary tract secrete enzymes and bile to Submandibular and Sublingual.
help break down food into is component
nutrients. iii. Oesophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube
1.3.1  Basic Structure which conveys food from oral cavity to
stomach.
The gastrointestinal tract is a
muscular tube lined by a special layer of iv Stomach
cells, called epithelium.
The stomach is a J shaped expanded
bag, located left side of the midline between
i. Oral cavity the oesophagus and small intestine.
In the oral cavity or mouth the The stomach is divided into three
food is mechanical broken down by regions -: the fundus, the body and the
chewing and chopping actions of the pylorus.
teeth. The tongue plays an important role
in chewing, swallowing, and helps the The functions of the stomach
food bolus to come in contact with the include:
teeth. It is also the sensing organ of the zzThe short-term storage of ingested
mouth for touch, temperature and taste food.
using papillae.
zzMechanical breakdown of food by
churning and mixing motions.
zzTemporary storage allowing time for
the digestive enzymes like pepsin to act.
zzLimited absorption of water, alcohol
and some fat soluble drugs.
zzPreparation of iron for absorption
further along the tract.

v. Small intestine
The small intestine is composed
of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It
averages approximately 6m in length. The
lining of the small intestine is made up
of numerous permanent folds, numerous
villi and microvilli.
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 Functions of Small Intestine zzMineral salts, vitamins and some
zzSecretion of intestinal juice and drugs are also absorbed
hormones zzIt has certain types of bacteria which
zzCompletion of chemical digestion of synthesize Vitamin K and folic acid
carbohydrates, protein and fats zzIt helps in mass movement of fecal
zzProvide protection from infection by mass
microbes
zzDigestion and absorption of nutrients 1.4 Diet in Diseases of the
Gastrointestinal Tract
v. Large intestine
The large intestine is horse-shoe 1.4.1  Peptic Ulcer
shaped and extends around the small
intestine like a frame. Peptic ulcer is a localized erosion
on the mucosal lining of those portions of
Functions of Large Intestine the alimentary tract that comes in contact
zzAbsorption of water, by osmosis, with gastric juice. It can occur in any area
continuous until the semi solid of the stomach. The disintegration of
consistency of stools is achieved. tissues can also result in necrosis.
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 B.  Causes of Ulcer
1) Bacterial infection: Infection by
Helicobacter pylori is the chief cause
of ulcer. It colonizes the stomach.
Infection is typically contracted in early
childhood and remains for the rest of
life. Helicobacter pylori is cleared by
antibiotic treatment especially with
amoxicillin.
2 Genetic factors: It is common in
A.  Types of Ulcer persons with blood group ‘O’.
Gastric Ulcer:Gastric ulcer occur 3) Gender: Men are affected 2-3 times
in the stomach, mostly along the lesser more frequently than woman.
curvature of the stomach.
4) Age: The incidence is high between
Duodenal Ulcer : Most duodenal 20 and 40 years
ulcers occur in the duodenal bulb, in an
5) Stress: People who are highly
area immediately below the pylorus.
nervous and emotional are more
Stress Ulcer: Stress ulcer may occur susceptible.
as a complication of severe burns, trauma,
6) Potential irritant substance:
surgery or radiation therapy.
Caffeine,chillies, pepper, ginger,
meat soup and strong tea or coffee
Necrosis is the death of most or all cells and protein rich foods increase
in an organ or tissue due to disease, the secretion of hydrochloric
injury or failure of blood supply. acid
7) Emergency injuries :Stress ulcers
occur in conjunction with emergency
Pepc ulcer injuries such as burns.

Healthy C.  Symptoms of Ulcer

zzEpigastric pain in the upper abdomen
zzHemorrhage-an escape of blood from
a ruptured blood vessel.

Duodenal ulcer zzHypermotility- excessive motility of

the gastrointestinal tract
zzPainful hunger contractions

Stomach ulcer
zzFlatulence.

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 zzWeight loss Fat: Moderate amounts of fat to
zzIron deficiency. help to suppress gastric secretions and
motility.
Carbohydrates: They are used to
D.  Principles of diet
meet the energy needs. Foods containing
High energy, high protein, high fibre and vegetables which are high
moderate fat and low fibre in insoluble fibre are restricted.
Regular balanced diet should be Fibre: Soluble fibre can be given.
given to support the primary medical Certain raw fruits and vegetables high in
management of fibre are restricted.
1) tissue healing and
2) maintenance of structural and
functional integrity of tissues. 1.5 Diarrhoea
Diarrhea is often a symptom of
E.  Dietary Management a systemic disease caused by viral and
Energy: Increased energy intake bacterial organisms. It is defined as
is necessary. If the patient is at bed rest, frequent passage of loose, watery and
energy is not required for activity but unformed stools which may contain blood
needed to make-up the extra demands. or mucous.
Protein: A high protein diet
promotes healing. Milk and milk 1.5.1 Treatment
products should be included as a source Oral Rehydration Therapy: It
of nutrient factor for healing process. is a type of fluid replacement used to
Eggs and other high protein foods can be prevent and treat dehydration, especially
included. that caused due to diarrhea. The World
Health Organization approved Oral
Rehydration Solution (ORS) is given in
Foods to be Foods to be
table below:
included avoided
Rice flakes, puffed Raw vegetables,
rice, well-cooked raw unripe fruits, Table 1  Oral Rehydration Solution
cereals, Cooked Beverages - strong Components Amount g /l
pulses, dairy tea, coffee, cola, Glucose 20
products like milk, processed foods- Sodium chloride 3.5
cream, boiled eggs, pickles, spices, Trisodium citrate 2.9
steamed fish, pastries, sweets, all Sodium carbonate 2.5
Well cooked fried foods,
Potassium chloride 1.5
vegetables Spices -Pepper,
Desserts such as chillies Home made ORS: For one glass
custard boiled cooled water, one pinch of salt and
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 one teaspoon of sugar can be added, to Foods to be
prepare ORS at home. Foods to be included
avoided
Refined cereals (rice, Whole cereals-
1.5.2  Principles of Diet
maida, vermicelli), dalia, whole
A high calorie, high protein, Idli, idiyappam wheat flour,
moderate fat, low fibre, high fluid and Washed/dehusked Whole pulses-
low residue diet is recommended. Initially pulses (moong, rajmah, chole,
liquid diet and followed by soft bland diet. lentil), soyabean, peas,
Milk products - Milk and milk
1.5.3  Dietary Management curd, buttermilk based desserts
Boiled Vegetables like milk shakes
After recovery the following diet is
given. and Fruits -papaya, Muttons, chicken
banana, stewed and fish, fried
Energy: Energy intake is increased
apple (without peel), foods
by 10-20% due to increase in BMR.
strained juice, soups, Nuts and
Carbohydrate: Carbohydrate intake Beverages and Light oilseeds
is increased. to meet the increased energy desserts like custard
requirement,
Protein: The protein requirement
is increased.
1.6 Constipation
Fats: Only moderate amount of fat
should be given. Constipation is a common
Minerals: The requirement of calcium disorder of motor activity of the bowel
and iron is increased during diarrhea. and characterized by the infrequent and
difficult passage of small amounts of
Vitamins: Sufficient amount of fat hard stool. It is the passage of hard stool
soluble vitamin A is required. at infrequent and long intervals with
Dietary fibre: Low fibre diets in difficulty to expel. In constipation there
recommended in diarrhea in order to avoid may be less than 3 motion per week or
stress in GI tract. Foods rich in fibre have painful defecation.
high residue, so it should be avoided. It is
recommended to give low residue food.
Fluid: Plenty of fluid, 3 to 4 litres of 1.6.1  Causes of Constipation
water, ORS, tender coconut water, barley i Systematic/metabolic causes:
water and strained soup. zzLack of exercise,
zzIgnoring urge to defecate,
zzDiet low in fibre,
ORS Day is celebrated every
zzPregnancy,
year on 29th July.
zzSide effect of medication,

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 zzMetabolic and endocrine abnormalities
(uremia, hy p o c a l c a e m i a , What is the role of Fibre in
hypothyroidism). Constipation?
ii Gastro Intestinal cause:
zzCancer in stomach and colon Dietary fibre refers to edible plant
material not digested by the enzymes in the
zzUpper GI tract diseases,
upper digestive tract of humans. It consists
zzIrritable bowel syndrome,
of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, starchy
zzAnal fissures and hemorrhoids, materials, and oligosaccharide that are
zzLaxative abuse. partially resistant to digestive enzymes.
Cellulose is considered insoluble; it helps
1.6.2 Symptoms of move waste through your digestive tract,
Constipation which prevents constipation. Residue
refers to the end result of digestive,
The symptoms are as follows:
secretary, absorptive, and fermentative
zzHead ache processes. High residue (high bulk, high
zzCoated tongue fibre, high roughage) diet is given during
zzFoul breath constipation. Increasing dietary fibre may
result in increased fecal output.
zzLack of appetite
zzAbdominal swelling
Sources:
zzAbdominal bloating
zzNausea
zzFeeling sluggish Guava has a high fibre
content.

1.6.3  Principles of Diet

Whole cereals - whole wheat flour,
Normal energy, protein and fat broken wheat, millets, oats.
requirements are followed. Adequate
Legumes - green gram, Bengal
fat may be given as it increases gastric
gram, Rajma
motility by causing lubrication of mucous
in the GI tract. High fibre and plenty of Roots- carrots, radish
fluid is recommended. Fruits-guava, orange, apricot, dates,
raisins, banana

1.6.4  Dietary Management Green leafy vegetables- amaranth,

fenugreek, drumstick leaves
Fibre: Primary diet consideration is
Vegetables – beans, brinjal,
consumption of both soluble and insoluble
drumstick, gourds
fibre because it remains in the digestive tract
for long duration and contribute to the bulk Fluid: 2-3 litres of fluids including
of diet. warm water with lemon juice is advised to

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 get relief from constipation. Unstrained the blood stream to maintain blood levels
soups (spinach, tomato, chicken and corn) of glucose.
can be given.
ii. Protein metabolism
Potassium: Acutely ill patients who
Metabolism of protein through
are bedridden, may be given vegetable soup
conversion of amino acid into other non-
and fruit juices which are high in potassium
essential amino acid occurs in liver.

iii. Fat metabolism

1.7 Diet in Diseases of The liver synthesizes lipoproteins,
Liver
phospholipids, cholesterol and formation
The liver is the largest glandular of bile.
organ of the body situated in the right
iv. Mineral metabolism
upper side of the abdomen. It is divided
into four lobes. Blood is supplied by 2 The greatest portion of the
sources, the Hepatic artery and Portal vein. body’s iron is stored in the liver in the
About 1500ml of blood gets circulated in form of ferritin. Copper is also stored
the liver. and is necessary for the production of
hemoglobin.

1.7.1  Functions of Liver v. Vitamin metabolism

All fat-soluble vitamins are
Liver has metabolic functions
present in the liver. Vitamin-A, D, E and
related to all major nutrients.
K are stored in the liver. It also stores
considerable amount of Vitamin C and
i. Carbohydrate metabolism
the B vitamins.
The liver is the chief storehouse
of carbohydrates in the body especially vi. Detoxification
glycogen, which is formed from glucose The liver detoxifies substances
(glycogenesis). When glucose is needed which are toxins produced because of
by the body, glycogen is converted to bacterial action, parasitic infection,
glucose (glycogenolysis) and returned to mineral poisons or drugs.

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 Vii. Other Functions
1.7.4  Principles of the Diet
It helps in the formation of blood
coagulation factors. A high protein, high carbohydrate
and moderate fat diet is recommended.
Jaundice is the symptom common Small, attractive meals at regular intervals
to many diseases of the liver and are better tolerated. Over feeding should
disease of the biliary tract rather. be avoided.
It is a condition in which yellow
discoloration of the skin and mucous
membranes occurs due to the 1.7.5  Dietary Management
presence of excessive amounts of the Energy: Increased energy intake.
bile pigments in the blood. A liberal intake of carbohydrates and fat
as tolerated is required to reduce protein
catabolism. Initially liquid, soft bland diet
Hepatitis
should be given.
Hepatitis refers to an inflammation
Proteins: For the liver cells to
and degenerative changes of the liver. The
regenerate, an adequate supply of proteins
most common are hepatitis viruses A, B,
is needed. Protein requirements vary
C, D, E virus
according to the severity of the disease. With
severe hepatitis, 40g, while in mild hepatitis
1.7.2  Causes of Hepatitis 60- 80g of protein is permitted.

zzAcute inflammation of the liver due to Fats: Fats make the food more
infection palatable and increase caloric intake. In
severe cases 20g and in moderate cases
zzInflammation of the bile duct
20-30g of fat is recommended.
zzObstruction of the bile duct
Carbohydrates: High carbohydrate
zzHemolytic anemia
content in the diet is essential to supply
enough calories
1.7.3  Symptoms of Hepatitis
Vitamins: They are essential to
zznausea and vomiting regenerate liver cells. Vitamin C, vitamin
zzhigh fever K and B complex are essential to meet the
daily needs.
zzdark colored urine
Minerals: Oral feeds of fruit juice,
zzloss of appetite
vegetables and meat soup with added salt
zzpale colored stool are given orally to maintain the electrolyte
zzabdominal pain (especially in the balance.
liver region) weakness and fatigue
Sodium: If edema or ascites is
zzweight loss present then restrict sodium to 500 mg to
zzascites 1000 mg. Fluid intake may be limited.
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 Table 2  Dietary Guidelines zzNon-alcoholic fatty liver disease has
a number of causes, including being
Foods to be
Foods to be avoided verweight, diabetes, high blood fats,
included
and high blood pressure.
Cereal porridge, Meat, fish, egg,
double cooked Whole milk and
rice, soups, 1.8.2  Symptoms of Cirrhosis
cream,
Milk, butter milk, Processed foods Gastrointestinal disturbances such as
Roots and tubers -papads, chutneys, anorexia, vomiting, ascites, pain and swelling.
-boiled tapioca, pickles,
potato and sweet Sweet preparations, Ascites: Ascites is the
potato, bakery products, accumulation of abnormal amounts
Fruit juices and Dried fruits and of fluid in the abdomen.
light custard nuts,
Condiments and
spices 1.8.3 Principles of Diet
therapy

A high calorie, high protein, high

1.8 Cirrhosis carbohydrate, moderate or restricted fat,
high vitamin diet helps in the regeneration
Cirrhosis is characterized by loss of
of liver and helps to prevent ascites.
functional cells and nodular regeneration
Vitamin supplementation is given. Sodium
of the liver cells.
is restricted only when there is ascites.
CIRRHOSIS OF THE LIVER
1.8.4  Dietary Management

Energy: A 2000 -2500 kcals per day is

needed. Most patients find it difficult to
consume adequate calories because of
anorexia and nausea. Several small meals
are preferable to three large meals daily.
Carbohydrates: The carbohydrates content
NORMAL LIVER LIVER WITH CIRRHOSIS
of the diet will be high 300 to 400g per day,
in order to provide sufficient calories so
that protein is not used for energy.
1.8.1  Causes of Cirrhosis

zzThe causes include infectious hepatitis, Coconut oil is rich in Medium

chronic alcoholism in association with Chain Triglyceride.
malnutrition.

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 Protein: A high protein diet is adipose tissue in the body resulting in
helpful for regeneration of the liver. an increase of more than 20 percent of
the desirable weight or ideal weight.
Fats: In cirrhosis, 20 g of fat is given.
Overweight refers to person with body
Medium chain triglycerides can be given.
weight in excess of the weight-height
Vitamins and Minerals: Vitamins standard but below the 20% excess
and mineral supplementation is needed in designated as obesity.
all patients.
Sodium: Sodium restriction is
1.9.1  Types of Obesity
prescribed if edema and ascites are present.
Fluids: Fluids may not be severely Android Obesity-: The android or
restricted if sodium restriction is effective in the male pattern is characterized by fat
correcting edema and ascites. distributed predominantly in the upper
Foods to be Avoided - Papad, pickles, body above waist. This pattern may lead
preserved foods such as jams, jellies, sauces. to an “apple-shaped” body.
Gynoid Obesity: Gynoid or female
pattern shows fat predominantly in
1.9 Overweight and Obesity
the lower body that is lower abdomen,
Obesity can be defined as the buttocks, hips and thigh. Gynoid obese
generalized accumulation of excess looks pear shaped.

ADIPOSE TISSUE DISTRIBUTION IN MEN AND WOMEN

Android Obesity Gynoid Obesity

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 the purchasing power and availability of
1.9.2  Causes of Obesity
surplus food.

Genetic Factor How do you assess the Body

Composition?
Age and Sex: The critical periods
for the development of obesity is early Body Weight
childhood and early stages of puberty
because of reduced physical activity and An adult weighing 10% more than
no adjustment of kilocalorie intake and the standard weight is overweight and
no change in food habits. 20% more is obese

Eating Habits Ideal Body Weight

The formula for ideal body weight is
1. Nibbling between meals,
2. Some may eat faster taking less time Height (cm) – 100 = Ideal weight (kg)
for chewing, Body Mass Index: Obesity is
3. People who eat outside home more expressed in terms of BMI. It is also called
frequently are prone to obesity, QUETELET INDEX. It is represented as

4. Non inclusion of fruits and BMI = WEIGHT (kg) / HEIGHT (m2)

vegetables, The following WHO classification
5. People who eat processed, scheme gives the grading of obesity based
concentrated and high fat food are on BMI.
susceptible to obesity,
Table 3  BMI Classification
6. Frequent consumption of fast food
which are rich in fat and low in fibre, Classification BMI
(Kilograms/ m2)
7. Consumption of sugar added beverages
Underweight <18.5
may contribute to weight gain.
Normal weight 18.5-24.9
Physical Activity: Obesity is
found in persons who lead a sedentary Overweight 25-29.9
life with less physical activity. Obesity is Obesity Class 1 30-34.9
seen among school children who do not Obesity Class 2 35-39.9
participate in school games and who use Obesity Class 3 >40
vehicles for commuting to school.

Endocrine Factor: Obesity is found

in hypothyroidism 1.9.3 Strategies For Weight
Loss And Weight
Prosperity and Civilization:
Maintenance Are
Obesity is common among people
from higher socioeconomic status of 1. Diet Therapy
developing countries since they have 2. Physical Exercise

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 Fluid: Fluid can be taken liberally.
Also a glass of water before meal helps to
Golden rate of obesity No
cut down food intake.
fasting No feasting.
High Fibre: High fibre low calorie
foods like green leafy vegetables, fruits,
vegetables salads, whole grain cereals and
1.9.4 
Principles of Diet
pulses can be included in the diet.
Therapy

Low calorie, normal protein,

vitamin and mineral (except sodium), Advantages of High Fibre Food
restricted carbohydrates, restricted fat 1. Low in calorie density
and liberal fluid, high fibre diet 2. Foods like greens provide many
Energy: To lose weight, energy vitamins and minerals (which are
output must exceed energy input. About 20 difficult to meet with restricted
kcal per kg ideal body weight is prescribed foods)
for a sedantary worker and 25 kcal per kg 3. Give satiety
ideal body weight for moderately active
4. Help in regulating bowel movements
worker.
5. Reduce blood cholesterol
Protein: About 0.8-1 g of protein/
6. Promote chewing and decrease rate
kg body weight is prescribed for tissue
of ingestion.
repair.
A paleo diet typically includes lean
Carbohydrates: Include more
meats, fish, fruits, vegetables, nuts and
of complex carbohydrates. High
seeds.
carbohydrate content food like potatoes
and rice are restricted. Sugar which gives
empty calories should be totally avoided.
Fruit rich in carbohydrate like banana The colour Orange is named
should be avoided. after the Orange fruit, but before that,
it was called geoluread (yellow-red)
Fat: Low fat diet should be given to
reduce energy value of food. Foods rich
in fat substances like nuts and oil seeds Physical Exercise
should be restricted or avoided. Skim milk
should be the choice. A low calorie diet accompanied
by moderate exercise will be effective in
Vitamins: Fat soluble vitamins A
causing weight loss.
and D which may be supplemented.
Minerals: Restriction of sodium as zzAerobic exercise directly increases the
common salt is helpful in weight reducing daily energy expenditure
diet as excess sodium leads to retention of zzExercise will also preserve lean body
fluid. mass

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 zzIt helps to regulate appetite and Wasting diseases: Underweight
increases the basal metabolic rate also results from debilitating disease like
zzReduce stress related eating. tuberculosis, diabetes, malabsorption
syndrome or cancer. Infections are
Complications of Obesity common among them.
Poor food Intake: Diminished
zzPhysical disability-: Feet have to carry intake of food resulting due to 1)
extra load complications like flat feet, Psychological factors that cause a person to
osteoarthritis of knee, hip and lumbar refuse to eat 2) loss of appetite or imbalance
spine. of the brain’s hunger, satiety centers or 3)
zzMetabolic disorder- (a) Diabetes. personal poverty and limited food supply
(b) Plasma cholesterol level. Malabsorption syndrome:
(c) Atherosclerosis. (d) Gout. Poor nutrient absorption results from
zzCardiovascular disorders-: High 1) prolonged diarrhea 2) gastrointestinal
blood pressure and varicose veins. disease 3) abuse of laxatives
zzSleep apnea.
zzProne to accidents-: Falling down on Anti obesity day is celebrated
slippery floor and crossing streets. on 26th November.
zzGastrointestinal disturbance: Hiatal
hernias and gall bladder disease. Hormonal imbalance:
zzOsteoarthritis. Hyperthyroidism increase the caloric
zzCancer: Cancers (colon, rectum and needs of the body
prostrate in men, uterus, biliary tract, Energy Imbalance: Greatly
breast and ovary in women), digestive increased physical activity without a
tract diseases (gallstones, reflux, corresponding increase in food brings an
esophagitis) and skin disorders. energy balance deficit
Poor living status: An unhealthy
1.10 Underweight home environment or no home at all
results in irregular and inadequate meals.
According to the WHO
classification of Body Mass Index (BMI) 1.10.2 Principles of Diet
people whose BMI is less than 18.5 are Therapy
considered as underweight.
A high calorie, high protein, high
carbohydrate, moderate fat diet with good
1.10.1 Causes of
sources of vitamins and minerals
Underweight
Starvation: This occurs due to
1.10.3  Dietary Management
famine conditions or an inadequate
diet lacking in proteins or an attempt at Energy: The calorie requirements
reducing weight. vary depending upon the activities. The
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 total calorie intake should be in excess of affects Indians atleast a decade earlier and
the energy requirement. in their most productive years.
Proteins: Instead of 1 g of protein
1.2 g per kg/day is recommended. 1.11.1  Structure of the heart
Fat: Fat is added to increase the It is a muscular organ made up of
calories but it should not exceed the smooth muscles (myocardium) which is
tolerance limits. enclosed in a sac known as the pericardium
Carbohydrate: High carbohydrate is (outside layer). Shaped like an egg, is
to provide primary energy source and should about the size of a person’s clenched fist
be provided in an easily digested form. The and weighs around 300 g in a man and 250
number of meals should be increased. g in a woman.

Vitamins and minerals: Liberal The heart has four chambers, two
amount through proper diet should be given. atria (upper) and two ventricles (lower).
Valves connect the upper and lower
Fluids: Fluid should be taken after
chambers and allows blood to flow only in
meal and not before or during meals.
one direction. The right and left sides of the
heart are totally separated by a muscular wall
1.10.4  Dietary Guidelines and there is no communication between
them.
zzGood food of wide variety, well
prepared, helps to revive lagging The right side of the heart (Right
appetite and increase desire to eat atrium and Right ventricle) receives
zzEnergy dense food is preferred deoxygenated (impure) blood collected
zzFrequent small nourishing meals from different parts of the body through
should be given small and big veins (superior vena cava and
inferior vena cava) which enters the lungs
zzConcentrated food supplements
through the pulmonary artery.
can be given
zzFoods can be seasoned with ghee, In the lungs, blood is oxygenated
butter, sauces and dressings and carbon dioxide and metabolic waste
are removed. The left side of the heart (Left
atrium and Left ventricle) gets oxygenated
1.11 Diet for Cardiovascular (pure) blood from the lungs through the
disease pulmonary vein and supplies it to the entire
body through the major blood vessel aorta
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
and its innumerable branches (arteries and
generally refers to the disease of the
capillaries).
heart and blood vessels, is a major
cause of disability and premature death The left ventricle generates
throughout the world and contributes to considerably greater pressure than the
the escalating cost of health care in India. right ventricle, to enable the blood to be
Compared to the western countries, CVD pumped throughout the body.

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 The heart muscles are supplied with the accumulation of cholesterol and
oxygenated blood by two major coronary other blood lipids along the walls
arteries and their branches which are obstructing the blood flow.
distributed all over the surface of the heart.
The coronary blood flow in a
normal adult averages 200-250 ml/
minutes. In a healthy adult at rest, the heart
pumps approximately 5 litres of blood
every minute. For efficient pumping,
it is necessary for the heart to beat at a
reasonable rate of 60-90 beats/minute
which is achieved through controlled
electrical impulses.
The heart and the blood vessels
together constitute the cardiovascular
system.

1.11.2 Cardiovascular
diseases

The most common forms of

cardiovascular disease are:

1. Atherosclerosis is a process by The fatty fibrous mass thickens over

which arteries are narrowed due to time narrowing the interior of the artery
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 and forms blood clots, which may cut off 4. Blood lipids - Elevated levels of
blood flow causing tissue death called an blood lipids (Cholesterol, LDL &
infarct. When there is no supply of blood triglycerides) is the major risk factor
nutrients and oxygen to the myocardium which is worsened by lack of physical
(heart muscle) due to block in one of the activity, obesity, smoking, stress and
coronary arteries, the event is called an acute excess food intake.
myocardial infarction (MI) or heart attack. 5. Dietary fat- High intake of saturated
2. Stroke / brain attack results when fat and cholesterol in the diet
there is a block in the major artery increases the blood cholesterol levels.
supplying blood to the brain. 6. Obesity - Excess body fat is associated
with increased risk of developing
1.11.3  Risk factors for CVD hypertension, high cholesterol and
diabetes.
Multiple risk factors are involved 7. Hypertension / high blood pressure-
such as: It is an independent risk factor for
Non-modifiable High BP heart attack, stroke, diabetes and renal
risk factors Age
Smoking failure.
Gender
Cardio
Diabetes
mellitus 8. Diabetes mellitus - The risk for
Genec
Vascular Physical heart diseases doubles in individuals
factors Disease inacvity
with diabetes.
Obesity
Race &
ethnicity
High blood 9. Smoking - It is a major risk factor
Cholesterol Modifiable risk
factors that damages the heart and blood
vessels muscles directly by making
Non-modifiable factors - the the heart work faster and harder. It
individual has no control over them. also increases the blood cholesterol
1. Age - Onset increases with advancing and blood pressure.
age: usually between 50-55 years 10. Physical inactivity - Sedentary lifestyle
occurs at an earlier age in individual leads to excess body fat, elevated
with a position family history. cholesterol and high blood pressure
2. Sex - Occurs more in men than resulting in 2 times increase in CVD.
women: but after menopause the risk 11. Stress- Anxiety, depression and lack
increases in a woman due to lack of of social support not only increases
ovarian hormone estrogen. the blood pressure but also damages
3. Hereditary/ family history - A the muscles of the heart.
history of premature death (before
55 years in a parent/grandparent)
increases the risk for CVD.
Heart disease occurs in
Modifiable factors - can be person with diabetes at 2/4 times more
controlled to prevent or delay the than rate of the general population.
onset of CVD
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 Because LDL constantly sends
ACTIVITY 1 cholesterol to the tissues and promotes the
Assess for the presence of risk factors deposition in the arteries, it is called the
for heart disease in your respective “ bad cholesterol”. HDL called the “good
family and discuss the same among cholesterol” transports cholesterol from
your friends and family members. the tissues to the liver for elimination
from the body. It is not found in food but
produced in the body.
1.11.4  Blood lipids and CVD High level of total LDL is a concern
in the development and progression of heart
Lipid is the class name for all fats and diseases while an optimal level of HDL
fat related components. Elevated blood lipids confers protection against heart diseases.
are associated with cardiovascular disease.
Lipids substances involved in the disease ATP III classification of blood lipids
process are cholesterol, triglycerides and Cholesterol reading Classification
lipoproteins- LDL (low density lipoproteins)
Total cholesterol
and HDL (high density lipoproteins).
(mg/dl)
Cholesterol and triglycerides are <200 Desirable
the main forms of lipids in the blood. 200-239 Borderline high
These come partly from the food and risk
partly from the body’s own production
ê 240 High risk
in the liver. Excess cholesterol above that
needed by the body is deposited in the LDL cholesterol
arteries and contributes to atherosclerosis. (mg/dl)
<100 Optimal
Lipoproteins carry fat and
100-129 Near optimal
cholesterol to the tissue for metabolism and
130-159 Borderline high
back to the liver for excretion as needed.
risk
160-189 High risk
ê 190 Very high risk
HDL HDL cholesterol
“GOOD” Cholesterol - HDL
(mg/dl)
The HDL Cholesterol scarapes away necessary
LDL from artery walls, prevenng the formaon
ê 60 Optimal
of plaques. That’s why HDL cholesterol is
commonly called “GOOD”. 40-59 Desirable
<40 High risk
Triglycerides
LDL (mg/dl) Optimal
“BAD” Cholesterol - LDL
<150 Borderline high
LDL, on the contrary, deposits excess cholesterol 150-199 risk
on the artery walls, thus promong plaque
formaon. For this reason, the LDL cholestrol
is defined as “BAD”
ê 200 High risk

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 zzMonounsaturated fat An intake of
1.11.5  Dietary management
20% of monounsaturated fat (MUFA)
Principles of diet reduces the cholesterol and maintains
the HDL levels. These are found in
Low to moderate calorie, moderate
groundnut oil, soyabean oil, olive
fat (less saturated fat, cholesterol
oil as well as nuts like almonds and
and high in unsaturated fats such as
walnuts.
monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated
fatty acids) low carbohydrate, normal
protein and high fibre is recommended.

Energy
The total energy intake should
match the energy expenditure to achieve
a desirable body weight. Reducing the
calorie intake and increasing the physical
activity helps to reduce excess body weight
and blood lipids.

zzPolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

Fat
It is found as n-3 fatty acids and n-6
Dietary fat has been shown to affect fatty acids to be not more than 10% of
blood lipid levels. Total fat intake should total calorie intake. Fish oils, flax seeds,
not exceed 25% of total calories. nuts like walnuts are good sources of
zzSaturated fat to be restricted to 7% n-3 fatty acids while n-6 are present in
of total calories as it promotes an vegetable oils like sunflower, safflower
increase in blood cholesterol which in oils. n-3 fatty acids can help reduce
turn can lead to heart disease. the triglycerides levels in the blood. A
good balance between n-6: n-3 PUFA
Saturated fat is mostly present in
is essential for a healthy heart which is
animals foods like meat, poultry,
possible by appropriate combination
milk and milk products. Processed
of oils. eg, use of mustard oil or soya
foods like cakes, biscuits and pastries
bean oil with other oils will help to
also contain these fats.
achieve this balance.

Consuming 100-200 gm of
fish at least twice a week benefits heart
health.

zzDietary cholesterol Limiting the

dietary cholesterol to less than
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 200 mg/day is associated with reduced the total energy requirement. Complex
levels of total cholesterol and LDL carbohydrates in the form of whole
cholesterol. Egg yolk and organ meats grain cereals are preferred to simple
like brain, kidney and liver are rich in carbohydrates that raise the blood
cholesterol. triglycerides levels.
zzTrans-fats are fats that are found in
baked goods, fast foods and fried Protein
foods have the ability to raise LDL Normal intake of 50-60g/day is
cholesterol. It is advisable to restrict recommended. Usage of animal proteins
the intake to not more than 1% of which are also rich in saturated fats and
calories (approximately 1-3gm/day). cholesterol can be limited or replaced with
vegetable like pulses and nuts proteins.

Heart cancer is very rare

because heart cells stop dividing early
in life.

ACTIVITY 2

List the usage of different oils used in

your home. Justify the level of usage.

Sodium
Sodium is restricted when
hypertension is present.

Grapes have to be consumed

with the seeds and skin as they contain
resveratol - a powerful antioxidant that
protects the heart.

Other dietary factors

In general a nutritionally balanced
Carbohydrate diet helps reduce the risk of CVD.
Carbohydrate intake should Additionally specific dietary strategies also
contribute to not more than 55% of help to protect against heart diseases.
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 Dietary factor Protection against CHD
Soluble fibre (apples and zzLowers blood cholesterol
other fruits, oats, soy, barley, zzLower risk of heart attack
legumes).
zzImproves LDL to HDL ratio
Antioxidants like beta carotene, zzSlows progression of Atherosclerosis
lycopene, vitamin E and zzLowers risk of heart attack in people with CHD
vitamin C present in fruits and
zzDecreases LDL cholesterol
vegetables
Soya (protein and isoflavones) zzLowers blood cholesterol
zzRaises HDL cholesterol
zzImproves LDL to HDL ratio
Nuts ( in small amounts ) zzLowers blood cholesterol
walnut, almond and groundnut

Other lifestyle modifications

Dark chocolate – Moderate intake
Physical activity – Regular aerobic
of dark chocolate (high in cocoa
exercise like brisk walking can help to
content) has antioxidant potential to
strengthen the heart muscle, promote
lower LDL cholesterol.
weight loss or help maintain weight, raise
HDL cholesterol, improve blood glucose
levels and reduce blood pressure.
Approximately ⅓  rd the Smoking and stress – Refraining
requirement of fibre (6-10g out of from smoking and appropriate strategies
30g/day) and antioxidants for adults for coping with stress would help to
can be easily met by taking 5-6 prevent heart disease.
servings of fruit and vegetables per day
(1 serving = 75-100g)

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 Hypertension in adults aged
Case study 18 years and older is defined as systolic
Kumar is a 60 year old executive blood pressure of 140 mm Hg or greater
who is obese. He smokes and and/or diastolic blood pressure of 90 mm
occasionally consumes alcohol. He is Hg or greater.
very ambitious and does not like to It is also called “the silent killer”
do exercise. He has a strong family because it does not exhibit any signs or
history for heart disease. symptoms to indicate its presence. When
1. What are his risk factors? undetected, untreated or uncontrolled
2. What lifestyle modification will can lead to serious consequences like
you advice him? stroke.
Hypertension may be classified as
zzPrimary or essential hypertension
- It refers to the condition where
1.11.6 Hypertension
the specific cause is unknown. It
Hypertension is the number one involves a complex interaction
killer disease in India, with a higher between poor lifestyle choices and
prevalence among the urban adult genes. The lifestyle factors include
population. a poor diet – high sodium, low
The normal pressure of blood against fruit and vegetable intake, obesity,
the walls of the arteries is called blood smoking, lack of exercise and
pressure or hypertension. The normal blood stress.
pressure, when the heart contracts, is called zzSecondary hypertension - This has a
systolic pressure (SBP) and is between 100- known cause and may arise as a result
140 mm of mercury. When the heart relaxes, of another disease. E.g. Individuals
the pressure is known as diastolic pressure with kidney disease have secondary
(DBP) with values of 70-90 mm of mercury. hypertension.

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 with dietary changes in stage 2. Nutritional
A.  C
 lassification of blood
support is important for all types of
pressure
hypertension, along with other nondrug
Category Systolic Diastolic therapies of physical exercise and stress
(mmHg) (mmHg) reduction.
Optimal <120 And <80
Normal <130 <85 B. Risk factors for
High normal 130-139 85-89 hypertension
Hypertension Major risk factors are:
Stage 1 140-159 90-99
zzSmoking. Smoking increases the
Stage 2 160-179 100-109 heart’s workload, raising blood
Stage 3 ≥180 ≥110 pressure as nicotine in cigarette
Source: Indian Guidelines for constricts the small blood vessels.
management of Hypertension II, 2013 zzHigh blood lipids. High blood lipids
Stage 1 Hypertension. Focus is on contribute to both atherosclerosis and
dietary modification (without drugs) to hypertension.
reduce excess weight and restrict sodium. zzPoor diet. Diets rich in saturated fat and
Stage 2 Hypertension. In addition cholesterol with low intake of fruit and
to the diet therapy for stage 1, drugs are vegetable raises blood pressure.
used according to need and usually include zzDiabetes. People with diabetes often
a diuretic agent. Continues use of some, have high blood pressure.
diuretic drugs cause loss of potassium zzGender. Risk of blood pressure is higher
along with the increased loss of water from in men than in-women and the risk is
the body. Potassium replacement becomes higher in post menopausal women.
necessary to avoid irregular heart beat. zzAge. Onset increases with advancing
Stage 3 Hypertension. Vigorous age (>60 years) as old age is associated
drug therapy becomes necessary along with loss of elasticity of the arteries.

RISK FACTORS
FOR
HYPERTENSION

STRESS SALT

AGE

HEREDITARY OBESITY

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 zzHeredity. A family history of Sodium: In sodium sensitive people,
hypertension in women under 65 and restricting sodium to 2-g is sufficient.
in men under 55 significantly raises In severe cases of hypertension, a
the risk of developing hypertension. moderate 1-g sodium level may be indicated.
zzObesity. Excess body fat, especially
How to cut salt intake
abdominal fat, is closely associated
Strategies to cut salt intake include:
with hypertension.
zzLack of exercise. Less active people are zzSelect fresh, unprocessed foods.
twice likely to develop hypertension zzCook with little or no added salt avoid
than their active counterparts. pickles and salted fried.
zzChronic stress. zzPrepare foods with sodium-free spices
zzCertain drugs. Birth control pills may such as basil, bay leaves, curry, garlic,
increase blood pressure. ginger, mint, pepper, lemon juice,
vinegar in place of some or all of the salt
zzCaffeine. Some people, who are
to add flavour .
sensitive to caffeine may experience
an increase in blood pressure. zzRead labels for sodium to select low-salt
or salt-free products when available.
zzAvoid preservatives like monosodium
C.  Principles of diet
glutamate, soyasauce, ketchups,
Low calorie, low fat, low sodium Cheeses, and salted butter.
diet with normal protein is prescribed. zzCanned and instant soups.
zzGelatin, cakes, biscuit and candies.
Energy
Calorie restriction to aid weight loss
is recommended for overweight and obese 2.4g of sodium is
individuals, which significantly reduces approximately equivalent to 6 g sodium
the blood pressure and LDL cholesterol chloride or table salt.
levels. Weight loss along with drug therapy
decreases the dose or number of drugs Other minerals
necessary to control blood pressure.
Minerals like calcium and magnesium
Protein: Adequate intake of 50- 60 are found to be beneficial in controlling
g protein is necessary to maintain optimal blood pressure. E.g. Low fat dairy products,
nutrition. green leafy vegetables and nuts. Increasing
Fats: Fat intake with emphasis on the potassium to replace the loss with
low saturated and high PUFA & MUFA is diuretics. Most of the fruits and vegetables
recommended to facilitate weight control are rich in potassium.
and decrease the risk of CVD.
Exercise
Carbohydrate: Complex
carbohydrate as whole grain helps to Moderate physical activity (30-45
manage high blood pressure. minutes of brisk walking) is recommended

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 as weight loss is associated with reduced
blood pressure values.
Diabetes emerged as India’s
Smoking seventh biggest cause of early death in
2016, from eleventh in 2005. In India,
Smoking or consumption of
about 50.9 million people suffer from
tobacco in any form is the single most
diabetes, and this figure is likely to go
powerful modifiable lifestyle factor for
up to 80 million by 2025, making it the
prevention of cardiovascular diseases.
'Diabetes Capital' of the world.

1.12.1  C
 lassification of
Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 diabetes mellitus accounts for
1.12 Diet in Diabetes 5% to 10 % of all cases of diabetes. Previously
Mellitus called insulin dependent diabetes is caused
by the destruction of the beta cells in the
Diabetes mellitus is a group of
pancreas.
metabolic diseases characterised by high
blood glucose resulting from defects in The onset of type 1 diabetes occurs
insulin secretion, insulin action or both. rapidly in children and adolescence.
Individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus
Diabetes = to pass through ;
require insulin injections for their survival.
mellitus = honey ( sugar in urine)
Insulin is a hormone produced by Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
the beta cells of the pancreas which helps to
The most common form with
transport glucose into the cells and utilize
approximately 90% to 95% of the individuals
them for energy production in the body.
belonging to this category. When the body
It also helps to convert glucose to is not producing enough insulin or the
glycogen to be stored in the liver and muscles. insulin it produces cannot be used (insulin
Alongside it helps to convert glucose to fat resistance) leads to type 2 diabetes mellitus.
that is stored as body fat and promotes the
This form has a strong genetic link
uptake of amino acids by muscles.
and is more prevalent in older, obese,
Individuals with diabetes either inactive individuals. The onset occurs in
do not produce insulin or cannot use the adults above age 40, but is now also being
insulin produced. As a result glucose does diagnosed in children and young adults.
not enter the body cells and builds up in These individuals do not need insulin for
the blood causing an increase in blood survival, but rather rely on diet, exercise,
glucose levels. As the disease progresses, and (usually) oral medications for disease
glucose starts to appear in the urine. management.

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 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
1.12.2 Risk Factors for Type
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) 2 Diabetes Mellitus
is a temporary form of diabetes developed
during pregnancy in woman who do not zzFamily history of diabetes
have diabetes. The blood glucose levels zzAge - 45 years or older
become normalized after delivery. zzObesity (BMI ≥23 kg/m²)
zzPhysical inactivity
Impaired Glucose Tolerance / zzRace/ethnicity- Asians have 2-4 times
Pre-diabetes risk than Europeans
Individuals whose fasting blood zzHistory of gestational diabetes
glucose is above normal (≥ 110 mg/dL), but is zzWoman who has delivered an infant
not high enough to be diagnosed as diabetes weighing more than 4kg
( < 126 mg/dL) fall under this category. It is zzHistory of heart diseases – high
also referred to as pre-diabetes. cholesterol, low HDL, hypertension

RISK FACTORS FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES

BEING HAVING
OVERWEIGHT A FAMILY
HISTORY

BEING BEING
PHYSICALLY 45 AND OLDER
INACTIVE

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 zzUnintentional weight loss in type 1, or
1.12.3  Symptoms of diabetes
weight gain with type 2
The signs are : zzBlurred vision
zzIncreased thirst ( polydipsia) zzSkin irritation or infection
zzIncreased urination ( polyuria) zzGeneral weakness and loss of
zzIncreased hunger ( polyphagia) strength.

THIRST FREQUENT HUNGER

URINATION

WEAKNESS WEIGHT LOSS BLURRED

VISION

NAUSEA SLOW HEALING TINGLING

OF CUTS IN HANDS

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 Glycosylated haemoglobin
1.12.4  Laboratory test
( HbA1C )
The following blood glucose tests Increase in blood glucose levels,
are used to diagnose diabetes: causes the glucose to attach to haemoglobin
( a pigment in the red blood cells) to form
1. Urine test glycosylated haemoglobin.
A urine analysis is done to check
for glucose in the urine. However, a urine
test alone does not diagnose diabetes as
Glycosylated haemoglobin
glucose is excreted in the urine only when
(HbA1C) levels reflect the blood
blood glucose levels exceed 180mg/dL.
glucose control over the previous
2. Fasting blood glucose level 2-3 months. In people with diabetes,
Blood glucose higher than 126mg/ HbA1C is >6.5% of the total
dL on two occasions. Levels between 100 haemoglobin.
and 125 ml/dL are called impaired fasting
glucose or pre-diabetes.
Diagnostic criteria for diabetes

Test
Glycosy Fasting 2 hr
Diagno lated plasma plasma
sis haemo glucose glucose
globin Hb mg/dL after
A1C OGTT
mg/dL
3. Random (non-fasting) blood Diabe Hb A1C ≥ 126 ≥ 200
glucose level tes ≥6.5% mg/dL mg/dL
Blood glucose higher than 200mg/dL Prediab - 100-125 140-199
and accompanied by the classic symptoms etes mg/dL mg/dL
of increased thirst, urination and fatigue. Norm - <100 <140 m
al mg/dL g/dL
4. Oral glucose tolerance test ( OGTT)
A confirmatory test to detect
diabetes after orally administering a 1.12.5 Complications
measured quantity of glucose after 12
hours of overnight fasting. The blood Uncontrolled diabetes can lead to
glucose values before and after the glucose zzBlindness
load is estimated. A diagnosis for diabetes
zzKidney disease
is made when the glucose level is higher
than 200 mg/dL after 2 hours after the zzNerve disorders
glucose load. zzLimb amputations, foot ulcers
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 zzHeart diseases - Atherosclerosis( A. Dietary Management
increase in triglyceride and decrease A balanced diet rich in complex
in HDL cholesterol ) carbohydrates and fibre, low in simple sugars
zzHypertension and saturated fat with moderate protein
zzStroke facilitates good glucose control. Regular use
of fresh foods like fruits and vegetables with
1.12.6 Management of limited use of processed foods is recommended.
diabetes
Lifestyle modifications play an Energy
important role in the prevention and The total energy intake should be
treatment of diabetes than in any other sufficient to meet individual needs for
disease. Balancing diet, exercise and drug normal growth and development, physical
along with appropriate stress coping skills activity and exercise and maintenance of a
will ensure better diabetic management. desirable body weight.
The main modes of treatment are: Even amounts of food should be
zzDiet eaten at regular intervals throughout the
zzExercise day, to prevent fluctuations in the blood
zzDrugs glucose levels, especially hypoglycaemic
zzEducation (low blood glucose levels). Snacks

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 between meals may be needed to prevent Protein
fluctuation in the blood glucose levels.
Consuming protein at levels of 20 %
Carbohydrate of total calories is recommended. Protein
along with carbohydrate will lower blood
An intake of 55-60% of total calories glucose levels.
is recommended to improve glycemic
control. Complex carbohydrates found in
Fat
whole grains, pulses, vegetable and fruits are
preferred. Root vegetables can be taken in No more than 25% of the total
moderation while simple sugars like sugar, calories should come from fat as high fat
honey, jaggery and processed refined cereals diet increases the risk of heart diseases.
should be restricted. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and
Mono unsaturated fatty acids
containing vegetable oils are preferred
Glycemic index to saturated fatty acids that are found in
The extent of rise in blood glucose levels meat and egg.
in response to a food in comparison
with the response to an equal amount Salt
of glucose is known as glycemic index. A moderate to low salt is
Generally, complex carbohydrates are recommended to lower high blood pressure.
considered to have a low or moderate
glycemic index, while simple sugars Food Exchange System
have high glycemic index.
The food exchange system is a
familiar tool to distribute the food in a
Fibre
balanced pattern. In this system, foods
An intake of 25-50g of dietary fibre providing the same amount of calories,
is considered optimal. Fibre present in carbohydrate, proteins and fats are grouped
vegetables, fruits, legumes and fenugreek together. The exchange list helps to
seed is soluble in nature and more effective interchange foods from the different food
in controlling blood glucose and lipid levels groups according to one’s personal choice
(reduce total cholesterol and triglycerides) and preferences. e.g In a cereal exchange,
than the insoluble fibre present in cereals.
Idli - 1½ nos / Dosa -1 no /
High fibre diets also promote weight loss.
Chappathi - 1 no / Upma - ½ katori
provide approximately 100
Medicinal plants for diabetes kilocalories. Similarly vegetable , fruit,
pulse exchange are available.
Fenugreek seeds at levels of 15g per day
lowers blood glucose levels. Bittergourd
Artificial sweeteners
and Jamun (Naval) exhibit hypoglycemic
effect. People with diabetes can use
artificial sweeteners instead of sugar
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 but limiting their usage in beverages is People with type 1 diabetes need to
considered safe. take daily insulin injections.

Case Study
Raman is a 45 year old busy executive. Type 2 diabetes may respond to
He is obese, chronic smoker and treatment with exercise, diet, and medicines
physically inactive. His blood sugar orally. Some people with type 2 diabetes
levels are fluctuating. may no longer need medication. Individuals
What advice you would give with type 2 diabetes also may require
him to maintain the blood glucose insulin under certain circumstances.
levels?
D. Education
Education plays a vital role in the control
B. Exercise and management of diabetes. Individuals with
diabetes should be educated on the nature of the
Regular, moderate intensity
disease, importance of diet, drug and exercise,
exercise like brisk walking helps to control
self monitoring of glucose, recognition and
blood sugar and reduce the risk of cardio
treatment signs of hypoglycaemia and the
vascular diseases.
possibility of complications if blood sugar is
Benefits: not kept under control.
zzAids weight loss/ maintenance
E. Other lifestyle
zzImproves blood lipid levels modifications
zzIncrease blood pressure
Alcohol
zzImproves blood glucose control
Excessive amounts of alcohol on
a consistent basis can increase the blood
C. Drugs
sugar levels and raise the blood pressure.
Drugs to treat diabetes include It is advisable to stop or limit the alcoholic
insulin and oral hypoglycemic drugs. consumption.
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 Smoking
ACTIVITY
Individuals with diabetes would
benefit from quitting smoking inorder to Create awareness by preparing a
have a better blood glucose control and brochure/hand out to educate the public
reduce the complication of diabetes. on the prevention and management of
diabetes in the walker’s park
Stress
Stress can affect diabetic control,
by reducing the insulin action. Learning
useful stress reduction exercises will 1.13 Diet for Kidney
ensure better control. Diseases
The kidney is the principal excretory
organ of our body. The kidney is a bean
SPA
shaped paired structure and is located in the
EXERCISE
upper abdominal region. A thin transparent
membrane called capsule covers the kidney.
The outer portion of the kidney is the renal
HOBBY
cortex and the inner portion is the renal
medulla. Blood enters the kidneys through
MEDITATION
the renal arteries and leaves through the renal
STRESS veins. Each kidney has about 1.0 millions
MANAGEMENT YOGA
of functional units called nephrons which
NATURE
remove wastes and extra fluids from the blood
in the form of urine. The urine passes through
the ureter to the bladder for excretion.
TIME

Urinary system
MUSIC

THERAPY

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 1.13.1  Structure of nephron 1.13.2 Functions of the
Kidney
The basic functional unit of the kidney
is the nephron. The nephron consists of a The kidneys perform the following
glomerulus connected to a series of tubules. functions :
1. Urine formation-Make urine
Glomerulus
through which they excrete most of
Bowmans capsule Distal
tubule the waste products of metabolism like
urea, creatinine, toxins and drugs.
2. Maintain fluid and electrolyte
balance- Controls the concentration
Proximal tubule
Collecng of the constituents of the blood like
Loop of Henle duct
sodium, potassium, chloride etc.
3. Kidneys are an exclusive site for the
Tubules consist of different segments: production of
the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of a) 1,25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol, the
Henle, distal tubule and collecting duct. active from of vitamin D which is
Each nephron functions independently important for bone health.
and contributes to the final urine. b) Erythropoietin which is essential for
The glomerulus is a spherical mass the synthesis of red blood cells.
of capillaries surrounded by a membrane, c) Renin, an enzyme that helps to
Bowman’s capsule. The hydrostatic pressure regulate blood pressure.
within the glomerular capillaries results in the 4. Hormone degradation - Parathyroid
filtration of fluid into Bowman’s capsule. The hormone, calcitonin, insulin and
filtrate formed in the glomerulus passes first gastrin are degraded by the kidneys.
into the proximal convoluted tubule and from
there, through the loop of Henle and distal
1.13.3 Risk factors for kidney
convoluted tubule to the collecting ducts.
disease
The processes of selective
reabsorption and tubular secretion of the zzOlder age
filtrate results in the production of 1.5 litres zzExposure to hot climate
of urine that is excreted each day. zzDiabetes
zzHypertension
The glomerular filtration zzUrinary tract infections
rate (GFR) is used to monitor kidney zzUrinary stones
function. Normal GFR is 100-125 zzFamily history of chronic kidney
ml/minute/1.73m². Chronic Kidney failure
Disease occurs when GFR is < 60 ml/ zzExposure to certain nephrotoxic drugs
minute/1.73m² for 3 or more months. zzLow birth weight
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 zzOliguria (secretion of small amounts
1.13.4 Glomerulonephritis
of urine ) and
Glomerulonephritis is the zzAnuria (absence of urine production)
inflammation of the capillary loops of develops as the disease progresses.
the glomerulus. It is sudden in onset and
may lead to nephrotic disease or proceed Oedema
to recovery. Glomerulonephritis occurs
mostly in young children between 3-10
years of age, although it may occur in
adults.

A.  Clinical symptoms

zzHematuria- the abnormal presence of
blood in the urine.
zzProteinuria- abnormal excess of serum
proteins ( e.g albumin) in the urine.
1.13.5  Dietary Management
zzOedema- excess accumulation of fluid
in the body tissues zzBed rest and antibiotic drug therapy
zzHypertension along with optimum nutritional
zzPoor appetite support are emphasized.

Glomerulonephritis

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 zzSalt usually is not restricted unless
oedema, hypertension, oliguria is
present. Fluid intake is adjusted to
output.

Energy
Carbohydrates should be given
liberally to provide sufficient energy and
prevent tissue protein breakdown.

Protein Potassium
Improper functioning of the
As kidneys lose their ability to clear
nephrons leads to the inability to filter
potassium, a build up results in the body.
urea nitrogen, a product of protein
This can cause irregular heart beats, hence
breakdown which is usually expressed
potassium intake is restricted. Most of the
as blood urea nitrogen (BUN). If the
fruit and vegetables contain potassium
blood urea nitrogen is elevated and urine
which can be reduced by double leaching
output is decreased, dietary protein is
(cooking them in excess water and
restricted. High quality animal proteins
discarding the water twice).
such as meat, eggs are preferred to
vegetable proteins to ensure maximum
utilization. Case Study
Intake between 0.5-1.5 g/kg body Ramesh is 60 year old man having
weight is recommended for children. An oedema. He is an hypertensive who
protein intake may be held at 0.75 to 1 complains of poor appetite and low
g/kg body weight when BUN levels are urine output.
normal. 1. What is the diagnosis?
2. What is the sodium requirement?
Fluid
3. What advice would you give
Fluid intake is restricted according him on the protein intake?
to urine output. If restriction is not
indicated fluids can be consumed as
desired. 1.13.6 Nephrosis
Nephrosis results from the damage
to the tissues of the nephron both the
Sodium
glomerulus and tubule. This disrupts both
Sodium is restricted to 500- the filtration and reabsorption functions
1000mg/day if oedema or hypertension is which result in large amounts of protein
present, but may be increased to 2-3g/day to pass into the tubules causing damage
as the function resumes. to it.Nephrosis is caused by progressive

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 glomerulonephritis, diabetes, drugs, heavy Energy
metals or toxic insect venoms.
A high intake of 30-40 g/kg
ideal body weight is provided for tissue
A.  Clinical symptoms rebuilding. Food to be made more
zzOedema appetizing and soft in consistency to
zzAscites (accumulation of fluid in the improve acceptability.
abdominal cavity)
Protein
zzProteinuria
A protein intake of 0.8- 1.0 g/
zzDistended abdomen due to fluid kg body weight/day given to meet the
accumulation. nutritional needs and prevent tissue
zzAlbuminuria (increased loss of protein breakdown. High qulity proteins
urinary albumin) present in animal foods are preferred.
zzMalnourishment due to large protein
loss that leads to tissues protein Sodium
breakdown. Sodium is reduced to approximately
1 g/day to prevent oedema and increased
B.  Dietary management to 3 g/day as oedema subsides.

Principles of diet Other minerals and vitamins

High energy, moderate protein, salt Iron and vitamin supplement may
and fluid restricted diet is advised. be helpful, while potassium restriction

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 is not necessary. Potassium supplements The basic cause of kidney stones is
are useful to replace losses with diuretic unknown, but many factors relating to the
usage. nature of the urine itself or conditions of
the urinary tract environment contribute
to their formation.
Kidney transplantation is
needed when the kidney function A. Risk factors for the
reduces to less than 10%. Donor development of kidney
kidneys are taken from either stones
brain dead organ donors or family zzGender – men are 2.5 times more
member of the recipients. likely to develop stones than women
and have high recurrence rates
zzAge- most common between 30 to 50
years of age
Hu man Organ zzFamily history- risk doubles with
Transplantation Act (1994) in India strong family history
allows only live transplants from close
zzClimate- exposure to hot climate
relative/voluntary donors (exceptional)
and sweating in large amounts can
to avoid organ trafficking.
concentrate the urine and reduce the
volume of urine, which favours stone
formation

1.13.7 Kidney Stones/Urinary zzDiet- high intake of animal protein

Calculi and reduced consumption of fibre and
fluids
Kidney stones, also called urinary
zzWeight- overweight or severely
calculi /nephrolithiasis may be found in the
underweight increases risk
kidney, ureter, bladder or urethra.
zzLife style- high levels of stress
zzMedical conditions- hypertension,
gout and diabetes
zzMedications- for AIDS, thyroid
hormones, chemotherapy and long
term antacid use.

B. Types of kidney stones

The common forms of kidney
stones belong to calcium, uric acid,
struvite and cystine types.

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 Calcium stones
In India, calcium oxalate stones are Calcium Oxalate
very common. The causes are: Stones
The most preventable cause is
zzFamily history dehydration and low urine
output, where as other factors in
zzExcess calcium in the blood a person's diet can cause these
stones including high sodium
(hypercalcemia) intake, high oxalate intake, and
high protein intake.
zzExcess calcium in the urine
(hypercalciuria) 60-80%
of all kidney stones
zzExcess oxalate in the urine
(hyperoxaluria)
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 HIGH - OXALATE
FOODS

zzLow level of citrate in the urine C.  

Clinical symptoms of
( hypocitraturia) kidney stones
zzInfection zzSevere pain
Uric acid stones zzGeneral weakness
zzFever (sometimes)
zzGout (conditions resulting from
excess uric acid in the urine) D. Treatment
zzWasting disease
Fluid intake
Struvite stones A large fluid intake is a primary
zzStruvite stones are called infection therapy that helps to produce more
stones because they are caused by dilute urine and prevent accumulation of
urinary tract infections and not materials that form stones.
associated with any specific nutrient.
Urine pH and diet
zzThus no specific diet therapy is
zzDietary intake can influence the
involved but removed surgically.
acidity or alkalinity of the urine.
Cystine stones
zzHigh intakes of protein foods meat,
zzCystine is the rarest kidney stones. fish, egg, pulses can acidify the urine
Cystine stones are caused by a genetic while fruits, vegetables and milk can
history. alkalize the urine.
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 zzIt is important that acid producing zzIf a stone is calcium phosphate,
foods need to be balanced with alkali additional sources of phosphorous
producing foods to reduce the risk of (e.g., meats, legumes and nuts) should
urine stone formation. be controlled.

zzWhen stones are composed of calcium zzIf a stone is calcium oxalate, foods
phosphate or oxalate the urine is high in oxalate like spinach, tomatoes,
alkaline and hence acid ash diet is sweet potato, strawberry, chocolate,
used to balance it. wheat products, nuts and tea should
be avoided.
Foods included: cereals, meats,
fish, eggs, nuts, pulpy and pulses.
Other dietary factors
Foods avoided: milk, fruit and
Other dietary factors to consider
vegetables.
in the case of calcium stones are sodium
zzAs uric acid and cystine stones are formed fluid and fibre intake.
by an acidic urinary environment the
condition is treated with an alkali ash zzHigh intake of salt increases the
diet to neutralize the acidic urine. amount of calcium excretion in the
urine, thus causing hypercalciuria.
Foods included: milk, fruit and
vegetables. zzDiluting the urine by drinking plenty
of fluids is beneficial in preventing all
Foods avoided: cereals, organ meats,
types of kidney stones.
fish, eggs, nuts, pulpy and pulses.
zzFoods high in phytates like whole
E. Dietary management wheat, soya help prevent the formation
of calcium oxalate salts.
The diet is modified to reduce
the intake of nutrients that lead to
2. Uric acid stones
the formation of a particular type of
stone. zzA low purine diet is recommended to
reduce uric acid.
1. Calcium stones
zzFoods avoided: organ meat, chicken,
zzA low calcium diet of approximately
legumes,alcoholic beverages, spinach
400 mg/day is recommended for
and cauliflower.
people who are not at risk for bone
loss.
3. Cystine stones
zzThe lower level mainly is achieved
by restricting dairy products, which zzCystine is derived from the essential
are the main dietary sources of amino acid methionine, so a low
calcium. zzprotein diet is performed.

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 Dietary principles in kidney stones
Stone chemistry Nutrient modification Dietary ash( urinary
pH)
Calcium Low calcium (400 mg) Acid ash
Phosphate Low phosphorus (1000-1200 mg) Acid ash
Oxalate Low oxalate Acid ash
Struvite Low phosphorus (1000-1200 mg: Acid ash
associated with urinary infections)
Uric acid Low purine Alkaline ash
Cystine Low methionine Alkaline ash

SUMMARY

z Nutrition and health are interrelated modification of normal diet, as the

and good nutrition is a prerequisite metabolism of the individual changes
for good health. Nutritional support in different disease with respect to
and diet therapy are fundamental one or more nutrients. Individual
in the treatment of acute illness or adaptations of the diet to meet the
chronic diseases. Nutritional strategies individual needs are imperative
should be planned to reduce chronic for successful therapy. This can be
diseases and to minimize its severity achieved through proper planning
and duration. Diet therapy deals with of diets and proper nutrition. Thus

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 proper nutrition can enhance the persons with diabetes have either a
productivity of individuals and lack of insulin secretion or its action
contribute to development of a nation or both.
as a whole. z A consistent sound diet balancing
z Cardiovascular disease is the major food intake, exercise and insulin/oral
cause of disability and death in India. drug is essential for successful diabetic
Atherosclerosis and stroke are the management.
major modifications of cardiovascular z Education is the keystone in the care
disease. and control of diabetes. Good self care
z Elevated amount of blood lipids skills enable a person with diabetes to
are associated with cardiovascular reduce the risk for complications.
disease. Elevated blood cholesterol is z Nephron the functional unit of kidney
a primary risk factor for development maintains life sustaining blood levels of
of atherosclerosis. materials required for life and health.
z Persons with heart disease benefit Toxins, drugs, infections, stress and
from a low fat-balanced diet, weight various diseases can interface with the
management and exercise along with effective functioning of the nephrons
other lifestyle modifications. causing serious renal diseases.
z Weight control, exercise and sodium z Nutritional management focuses on
restriction are the strategies to manage reducing the load on the kidneys while
hypertension. preventing nutrient losses.
z Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic z Proteins and calories are modified to
disorder involving three energy prevent malnourishment while sodium
nutrients – carbohydrate, fat and and fluid are modified to correct water
protein. The major controlling and electrolyte imbalance.
hormone involved is insulin and

GLOSSARY

z Gruel - a thin liquid food or other z Necrosis- cell death caused by

meal boiled in water or milk progressive enzyme breakdown
z Epigastric pain-discomfort right z Zollinger-Elison syndrome – a typical
below the ribs in the area of your peptic ulcer disease, characterized by
upper abdomen enzyme gastric hyperacidity
z Hemorrhage-an escape of blood from z Pyrosis- heartburn
a ruptured blood vessel. z Dyspepsia– indigestion
z Hypermotility- excessive motility of all z Atherosclerosis - Thickening of the
or part of the gastrointestinal tract walls of blood vessels by deposits of
z Flattulence-the accumulation of gas in fatty materials.
the alimentary canal.
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 z Antioxidants - A group of substances z Inflammation - The reaction of
that prevent the damage by free the tissues to injury, characterized
radicals. clinically by heat, swelling, redness
z Blood clot - A semi-solid mass and pain.
consisting of a mesh of a protein, in z Isoflavones - A phytochemical found
which various blood cells are trapped. in (especially, soyabeans) that may
z Calorie - Unit used to indicate have cancer-preventing properties.
the energy value of foods. ie., z Junk food - It is food containing high
kilocalories(kcals) levels of calories from sugar or fat
z Diuresis - Increased secretion of urine. with little fibre, protein, vitamins or
minerals.
z Essential fatty acids (EFA) - Fatty acids
which are not made in the human z Risk factors - Characteristics
body and must be supplied through or conditions whose presence
the diet. They are linoleic acid, n-6 is associated with the future of
and alpha linolenic acid, n-3. developing a disease.
z Glomerular filtration rate - the test to z Stroke - a sudden condition that
measure level of kidney function and results from blocking or bleeding of
determine the stage of kidney diseases. blood vessels in the brain, resulting in
paralysis.
z Ischemia - lack of blood supply to a
tissue resulting in reduced oxygen
supply.

EVALUATION

I.  Choose the correct answer 3. a and c is correct

Find out the correct one from the 4. c and d is correct.
following 2. When a person suffers from fever a
1. High calorie diet is given during high calorie diet is prescribed, the
reason for increase in calorie is
a. Fever
because the Basal Metabolic Rate
b. Constipation increases by _________ for every
c. underweight degree Celsius rise in body
d. Obesity temperature.

Options Options

1. a and b is correct 1. a. 13 % 2. b.7%

2. b and c is correct 3. c. 10% 4. d. 1%

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 3. Payer’s Patches is seen in 7. Which of the following groups of
a) Tuberculosis food would be allowed on a clear
liquid diet?
b) Peptic ulcer
a) Strained soup, coffee without
c) Typhoid
milk and whey water
d) Jaundice
b) Tomato juice, sherbet and strained
4. The principles of dietary treatment cooked cereal
followed in Obesity is
c) Beef stock, apple juice and
a) Low calorie diet icecream
b) High fat diet d) Tea, coffee and milk
c) High fibre diet 8. Which of the food should not be
d) Low protein diet included in a soft diet?
Options a) Idly
1. a is correct and b is correct b) Chapatti
2. b is correct and c is wrong c) Puttu
3. d is wrong and b is correct d) Idiappam
4. a is correct and c is correct 9. Pick out the wrong statement
5. Cellulose is a a). High fibre diet is given to patients
who are obese
a) Complete protein
b). High calorie diet is prescribed for
b) An indigestible carbohydrate
underweight individuals
c) A saturated fat
c). Fibre restricted diet is given in
d) An essential mineral acute infection and fevers
6. Correctly pair the given match d Normal diet is given to replace
a) Anti Obesity Day i) 14 th fluids lost from vomiting or
November diarrhea.
b) Oral Rehydration ii) 26th 10. A person complains to the doctor of
Salt Day November sudden onset and passage of watery
c) World Heart Day iii) 29th July stool which has lasted for 48 hours.
d) World Diabetes iv) 30th What treatment strategy should be
Day September followed immediately.
Options a) Give him Oral Rehydration
1. a and ii therapy
2. b and iii b) Give him soft bland food.
3. c and iv c) Give him only juices and water
4. d and i d) Give him a normal diet

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 11. The main function of liver is 16. Women who children deliver baby
carbohydrate metabolism which is greater than ______ kg are prone to
through glucogenesis. Glucogenesis get diabetes.
from the statement given a. 3
below is
b. 4
a) conversion of glucose to glycogen
c. 5
b) conversion of glycogen to glucose
d. 2.5
c) conversion of amino acid into
17. The caloric value of the diet for a
other non-essential amino acid
person with diabetes should be ------
d) conversion of carotene into
a. Increased above normal
vitamin
requirements to meet the
12. Soluble fibre is present in ________ increased metabolic demand.
a. greens b. Decreased below normal
b. cereals requirements to prevent glucose
c. pulses formation

d. oats c. Sufficient to maintain the person’s

appropriate weight
13. Oxygenated blood for the lungs reach
the heart through _________ d. Contributed mainly by fat to spare
the carbohydrate for energy
a. Pulmonary vein
needs
b. pulmonary artery
18. The most effect strategy to lower
c. aorta blood pressure is ------------
d. superior vena cava a. Lose weight
14. Myocardial infarction is otherwise b. Restrict salt
known as ___________
c. Monitor glucose
a. Stroke
d. Supplement protein
b. atherosclerosis
19. __________ hormone is secreted by
c. hypertension the kidney is response to low blood
d. heart attack pressure.
15. _________ is a confirmatory test for a. Adrenalin
diabetes. b. vasopressin
a. Urine sugar c. rennin
b. fasting blood sugar d. calcitonin
c. random blood glucose 20. __________ is the abnormal presence
d. GTT of blood in the urine.

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 a. Oliguria 3. Low urine volume - fast foods
b. proteinuria 4. Stroke - fast oliguria
c. hematuria 5. HDL - type 1 diabetes
d. anuria 6. LDL - bad cholesterol
21. ________ is the single most important
risk factor for kidney stones. III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks)
a. Low urine volume 1. Define Fever.
b. high stress 2. When and why is clear fluid diet
c. over weight recommended?
d. hypertension 3. Seetha complains of epigastric pain
and flatulence. She is diagnosed with
II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) peptic ulcer. What are the causes?
1. What is the cause for typhoid fever? 4. The protein requirement is increased
2. List any two exogenous agents that during fever. What foods would you
cause fever. recommend to increase the protein intake?

3. Define soft diet 5. List the signs and symptoms of cirrhosis

4. List any two high fibre foods 6. Define Jaundice

5. Expand ORS 7. What principles of diet would you

prescribe for your friend suffering
6. Name the organism that causes peptic from constipation?
ulcer
8. If a family member is suffering from
7. Give any two condition where low fat severe diarrhea what home remedy
is prescribed would you prescribe?
8. Reason / Assertion 9. Classify the following diets based on
All fats are not bad. the condition
R- Some fats reduce blood cholesterol Clear fluid diet, Mechanical soft diet,
while others raise them. soft bland diet- peptic ulcer, dentures,
(i) Both A & R are true and R fever
explain A Diet Condition
(ii) Both A & R are true and R does
not explain A
10. Define
(iii) Only A is true but R is false
a. Atherosclerosis
(iv) A is false but R is true
b. Stroke
9. Match
c. Glycemic index
1. Trans fat - good cholesterol
d. Metabolic syndrome
2. Insulin - brain
UNIT 1  Therapeutic Diets 51

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 e. Trans fats 25. What are the clinical signs of
f. Oedema glomerulonephritis?

g. Anuria 26. List any four sources of oxalate.

27. Anitha is worried about the
h. Glomerulonephritis
recurrence of kidney stones. Suggest
i. Ascites any three ways to prevent stone
j. Nephrosis formation?
11. What is the role of antioxidant in 28. Define Diabetes mellitus.
heart disease? 29. Expand GFR.
12. How does fibre confer protection 30. List four sources of oxalate.
against heart disease?
31. What is the golden rule of obesity?
13. Uma consumes snacks made of
vanaspathi (dalda). Suggest ways to IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
make a healthy snack.
1. Explain to Neela what food she has to
14. Describe the major characteristics of give her mother who is suffering from
the two main types of diabetes typhoid.
mellitus.
2. Ashok is a chronic alcoholic. He has
15. List the symptom of diabetes. fatty liver. What is the condition he is
16. What are the complications of suffering from? What dietary advice
diabetes? would you give to him?
17. A woman has diabetes during her 3. Fibre plays a very important role in
pregnancy. What is the condition certain conditions. Name the diseases
called as? What advice you would and the role of fibre in treating the
give her? diseases.
18. What is pre diabetes? Can it be 4. Prepare a chart describing the principles
reversed? If yes, how? and objectives of diet therapy.
19. Raman has an HbA1C value of 8.5%. 5. In current practice, what are the basic
He is not able to understand its principles of diet planning for
significance in diabetes. How will patients with peptic ulcer disease?
you explain? 6. A friend comes to you with high fever
20 What are the risk factors for kidney and says she is suspecting tuberculosis.
disease? As a dietician what symptom would
21. List any three risk factors for kidney you look for and what dietary
stones? treatment would you suggest?
22. Expand GFR? 7. Kavitha is Obese. She only plays games
23. List four sources of oxalate. on the internet and she travels to school
by her own vehicle. What treatment
24. What is the golden rule of obesity?
strategy would you advise her?

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 8. Ram is underweight due to 13. What is the role of dietary fat in CVD.
hyperthyroidism. He is a carpenter 14. What is acid ash diets? When is it
by profession. Give him a suitable indicated? What foods are to be
dietary regimen and suggest two included?
recipes for snacks.
15. Describe the principle of diet for a
9. Mrs Janaki is admitted to the hospital person with diabetes mellitus.
and was diagnosed for Jaundice. She
has fever and also ascites. She has 16. Draw and explain the structure of a
been advised a liberal intake of nephron.
carbohydrates, 60- 80g of protein is 17. List the functions of the kidney.
permitted and 20-30g of fat. Answer 18. Indicate the dietary modification for
the following questions: glomerulonephritis.
a. Why was the extra calorie advised? 19. How will you manage calcium stones.
b. What is the role of extra protein? 20. Give the classification of diabetes
c. What foods should be included mellitus.
and avoided? 21. Give the dietary modification for
d. Since, she has ascites what atherosclerosis.
additional restrictions should be 22. Link the figures in the given picture:
placed on her diet?
e. List any other disease that requires
low fibre and high carbohydrate
10. Uma’s blooid pressure read as 140/80.
What is the condition referred to as?
What is the focus of treatment?
11. Draw and explain the structure of the
heart.
12. Write on the risk factors for CVD.

REFERENCES

1. CorrinneH.Robinson, Normal and 3. Williams S.R. (2001) ESSENTIAL OF

therapeutic nutrition (1986), 7th NUTRITION AND DIET
edition Macmillan publishing THERAPY.6 edition. The CB Mosby
th

company new York college publishing.

2. Srilakshmi B (2014) Dietetics, new 4. Krause, MV and Mahan L K(1989)
age international Pvt Ltd ,publishers food nutrition and diet therapy,6th

UNIT 1  Therapeutic Diets 53

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 edition, WB Saunderspa, 1 0. National Cholesterol Education
Philadelphia. Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on
5. Williams S.R. (2001) ESSENTIAL OF Detection, Evaluation, and
NUTRITION AND DIET Treatment of High Blood
THERAPY.6th edition. The CB Mosby Cholesterol In Adults (Adult
college publishing. Treatment Panel III: Third Report
of the NCEP Expert Panel on
6. Garrow J S, James P.T,Ralphamn(1996)
Detection, Evaluation, and
HUMAN NUTRITION AND
Treatment of High Blood Pressure
DIETETICS 9 edition ,Churchill
TH
in Adults ( Adult Treatment Panel
Livingstone, Edinburg.
III), Circulation 106:3143,2002.
7. LutzC and PrzytulskiK (2001)
11. Whitney, E.N & Rolfes.S.R, 2002
Nutrition and diet therapy.
Un d e r s t an d i ng Nut r it i on ,
Philadelphia: Davis company
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning ,
8. Indian Guidelines Management of USA.
Hypertension 2001. Hypertension
12. Staci Nix, 2005, Williams’ Basic
India 2001; 15 (2): 1-34.
Nutrition & Diet Therapy, 12 ed,
9. Joshi .A. Shubangini, 2015, Nutrition Elsevier, New Delhi.
and Dietetics, 4th ed, Mc Graw Hill
Education (India) Private Limited,
New Delhi.

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 ICT Corner
Therapeutic Diet
This activity enables the students to enrich themselves with the type of food
they have to eat and the type of exercises they have to do to keep the body fit.

Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code. A page
opens like shown above with manu adjustments in the same page.
zzIn the left side a image with boxes to select the language and gender is
there. Select accordingly. Below that height, weight and age columns are
there. Fill them all.
zzIn the right side top left food items are given below that a plate by selecting
the ‘MORE’ button you can fill the plate by dragging the food items.
zzRight top exercises are given you have to drag the exercise pictures and fill
the exercise log book. Here also you can select the exercises by pressing the
‘MORE’ button.
zzThe final part is according to your selection the human body at the left
side will become more fattier or thinner. Now you will have a whole
understanding on exercises and food. By adjusting your weight and diet
you can change the body thinner or thicker

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/eating-
and-exercise

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 UNIT

2 Consumer-
Protection and
Education

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter will help the students to

zz Understand the meaning of consumer and consumer education.

zz Gain insight into problems faced by consumer.
zz Learn about various consumer aids.
zz Provide in depth understanding on consumer rights and responsibilities.
zz Be aware of consumer redressal forums and consumer protection act.
zz To understand about packaging and labelling

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 consumers’ complaints. CGSI’s constant
2.1 Introduction follow-up was instrumental in enacting
The concept of protection of rights the Consumer Protection Act, 1986 (CPA)
of the consumers has been present from amended in 2000.
various centuries. Even Old Testament
and Code of Hammurabi refers about
consumer protection. The Holy Quran 2.2 Consumer
mentions the problems faced by consumers
and it condemns the use of unjust weights
and measures. The first consumer
organizations were formed in Denmark
in 1947 and Great Britain in 1955 where
the Government created the consumer
council in order to enable consumers to
express themselves on issues reserved to
producers and traders. Further it became a
single European Act which was economic
and social committee to safeguard the
consumers.
A consumer is a person who buys
In India, the ancient Vedas and goods and services and makes use of
various other ancient codes also contained public utilities as well as natural resources
provisions to protect the interests of the like water. It refers to those who use goods
consumers and provided punishment in and services for their personal wants
case of violations. During British rule in and excludes buyers who purchase for
India, the rights and interest of consumers manufacturing purposes or for resale.
were mainly regulated and protected by the
It does not include a person
common law of Tort or Law of Contracts.
who obtains such goods for sale or any
In India first formal consumer commercial purpose.
movement was started in 1949 in Madras.
Later a consumer protection council was
established in Madras under the patronage Goods: Goods are those
of Shri C. Rajagopalachari. The work of products which we buy to fulfill
Council was confined only to the people our needs. It includes items of daily
of Tamil Nadu. In 1956, nine housewives consumptions like milk, pencils,
and social workers combined together to vegetable etc.
form the Consumer Guidance Society of Services: Services are those facilities
India (CGSI) in Bombay. The Consumer which are provided by government
Guidance Society of India (CGSI) is a Non- or non-government agencies free of
Profit consumer organization CGSI was cost or on payment. For example-
the first consumer organization to demand electricity, water, health, education etc
special Consumer Court for redressal of

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 2.3  Consumers Problems 2.3.1 Problems Related to
Products
Consumers face a wide range of
problems in their day today dealings. These The consumer faces a number of
problems may be the result of scarcity, serious problems with prices, quality
varying incomes, product development, and weights or volumes of products
environmental changes or social available in the market. While profit
structure. The consumers face problems motive in any business is not a crime,
even in markets, banks, government and making profit through illegal trading
private offices, hospitals, schools, public like black marketing, adulteration etc.,
distribution agencies and other services. and objectionable malpractices such as
deceptive packaging, short-weighing
etc. are considered as unfair business
practices. The Monopolistic and
Restrictive Trade Practice (MRTP) Act
1969 offers legal protections to consumers
against list of unfair trade practices
such as
i) Lack of safety and absence of quality
control regulations
ii) Adulteration

iii) Imitation manufacture

iv) Unfair warranties

v) Sales gimmicks
Problems faced by consumer can vi) Substandard quality
be categorized as:
vii) Incorrect weights and measures
i. Problems related to products.
viii) Deceptive goods
ii. Problems related to services.
ix) Misleading advertisements

x) Incorrect and incomplete labels

xi) Deceptive packaging

xii) Dishonest vending

These practices pose a problem

to consumers. Unless these practices are
restricted they are likely to continue to
exploit the consumers.

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 i) L
 ack of Safety and Quality
Control Regulations
Anydefectivefunctioningofequipment
can affect the safety of the consumers. People
can sustain injuries through shock, fire while
FENNEL SEEDS CUMIN SEEDS PURE
using defective appliances or due to absence
of adequate information on safe handling
of defective equipment. Example: defective
household appliances and equipments,
electrical and mechanical devices.
PURE

FENNEL SEEDS CUMIN SEEDS PURE ADULTERATED

PURE ADULTERATED

Points to ponder
Unintentionaly adulteration -spoiled
food, contaminated food.
Intentional adulteration - adding water
to milk for profit, or stones in rice

ii) Adulteration The products in the market which

Adulteration implies that some are subject to adulteration are food,
substances are either added or removed building materials, textiles, stationery etc.
from a product as a result of which its The products which harm consumers the
composition, nature or quality gets altered. most are those which are ingested such as
And when product is prepared without food, water and air.
changing its composition, but kept under
insanitary conditions and later gets sold ACTIVITY I
in a contaminated state, the product is Enlist any 2 common adulterants and
said to be adulterated. The adulterant may ways to avoid them
be added unintentionally or intentionally.
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 iii) Imitation manufacture

Markets are flooded with all kinds

of spurious and substandard goods, some
of them often carrying popular brand
names or similar sounding brand names
of popular manufacturers. Imitating these
names is a deliberate malpractice and
amounts to cheating of the consumers.
Such products are generally of cheap
quality and unsafe to use , but are sold as
genuine, safe and expensive products. Such
practices are commonly prevalent with
the consumer goods such as shoes, soaps, v) Sales Gimmicks:
tooth pastes, medicines, cosmetics, etc. Sales gimmicks are tricks used
on consumers intended to
iv) Unfair warranties attract attention, publicity or
Consumers are neither familiar trade.
with nor understand the full implications
of terms like guarantee and warranty.
Even some of the terms of the warranty
are confusing, ambiguous and are
favorable to the manufacturers. There are
no regulations to govern these warranties.

Guarantee- repairing of
defective goods or/and change the
defective parts free of cost for a fixed
period. Many manufacturers spend a lot
Warranty- provides free spare parts of money on sales promotion through
but service charges are collected from large scale advertising, free gifts, discount
the customer. sales etc. Though these are projected as
extra benefits to the consumers, generally
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 the cost is hidden. It is passed on to the
consumers without them becoming aware ACTIVITY 2
of it. The unsuspecting consumer assumes Collect any two advertisement
that he gets additional benefit in terms of which offers free gift and record
free gifts, discounted price as introductory your comment regarding the offer.
offer. But the product is sold at the usual
price. Sometimes the consumer is forced
to take certain goods as free gifts whether
he needs them or not. vii) I
 ncorrect Weights and
Measures
vi) Substandard Quality Receiving less than what a
A wide range of products of consumer pays for, has been an age old
different sizes and qualities are available problem. This type of problems usually
in markets. The consumer finds it occurs in case of food ingredients liquids
difficult to choose with confidence, in such as oils and milk and dry items like
a market where spurious spare parts of rice, pulses. The measuring of fabrics is
equipment, and adulterated foods are also affected. Very often the cloth to be
easily available. measured is stretched while measuring,
resulting in higher costs for the consumer
In addition to cheating the
in addition to having less cloth for stitching
consumers, the products of substandard
a garment.
quality also create a safety problem
for them. Imitations are so cleverly As a result of the government’s
manufactured that there is no way to tell efforts of standardising weighing and
that they are spurious. Such fake copies measuring equipment and stepping up
of originals can lead to serious hazards inspection of the weights and measures
besides being expensive in terms of used in the market, the problem
replacement costs and fuel use. of under weighing or measuring is
significantly less than what it was a few
decades ago.

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 ix) Misleading advertisements

Advertisements are mainly

focused on goods and services that are
made available in the market. But the
consumer, however, does not find any
one advertisement which will give him all
viii) Deceptive goods the information about a product. Most of
Due to technological advancement, the statements in the advertisements are
every year many new commodities are usually too general to be helpful to give
available in the market. Each year the essential information on materials used.
new varieties that reach consumers also
increase. Many fake items which imitate x) I
 ncorrect and incomplete
popular brands are also available. In some labels
case cheaper fibers are mixed or replaced
in place costlier fibers and sold out in
market . For example varying proportions REPORT

of cotton is mixed with linen or woolen

goods, while rayon and polyester fabrics
mixed with silk.

Fake Real

NEED TO STRENGTHEN
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK AND
IMPROVE PRACTICE

Centre for Science and Environment

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 Labels are generally attached to a xii) Dishonest Vending
product for informing the consumers about
While improvements have been
the product. The information which a label
made in the area of legislation and
conveys varies considerably. Sometimes it
standards for sale of goods and services,
shows nothing more than the name of the
sometimes consumers feel that vendors
product and of the manufacturer, whose
have cheated them. There is no way a
address may or may not be mentioned for
consumer can know what to pay for a
future correspondence or complaints.
product.

xi) Deceptive Packaging DISHONEST PRICING

Packaging is a means to protect the
contents of a package or a product from
any kind of damage such as contamination,
breakage, evaporation, pilferage etc.
Packaging sometimes identifies the maker as
well as his product, his brand and trade mark.
In this way, he forces a consumer to make 48,900 59,900
impulsive buying with his attractive package.
In most cases, when the package is
not transparent, the consumer is unable 2.3.2 Problems Related to
to examine the product. He is unable to Services
judge the product in terms of its size,
shape, contents etc. The problem of a A number of factors also influence
consumer increases when the weight of the provision of services rendered customer.
the packaging material or the container is
also added to the weight of the product or i) Financial Institutions
contents. This means that the consumer Almost all financial institutions
pays more for less content. including banks render a host of financial
services to the consumers. Wrong entries,
mis-spelt names and absences of entries
of deposits are common with these
institutions.

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 ii) Transportation Authorities staff shortages, lack of laboratories and
and Travel Agencies equipments, environmental and classroom
hygiene, lack of proper toilet and
These authorities and agencies are
washroom facilities, poor canteen services
expected to render services to customers
etc. Students are afraid to complain about
so that their journeys are made easy and
these problems due to fear of expulsion or
comfortable. The customers are charged
ill-treatment by the management.
extra for these facilities. Sometimes the
tickets are issued by private transportation
authorities and agents without
confirmation or proper reservations, 2.4  Consumer Education
sometimes consumers are not properly Every one of us is a consumer and
informed about cancellation or delay or has a right to consumer education. The
re-schedule. right education that would enable us to act
as informed consumers throughout our
life. Therefore, the purpose of consumer
education is to teach people how to be
better consumers.

iii) Education

Consumer education is
With the demand for schooling zza process by which an individual can
and higher education is on raise many gain understanding of changes in the
private schools and colleges have started economy, clarify personal goals, values
demanding large amounts of money from and attitudes, identify alternatives,
parents at the time of children’s admission and make decisions that will result in
or regularly along with tuition fees. maximum satisfaction and benefits.
The problems faced by students zzTo provide consumer information
vary from shortage of space to that of that increases consumer awareness,
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 and helps in making the appropriate
decisions. 2.5  Consumer Aids
zza process of making consumer aware of Consumer aids are tools which
their fundamental rights as consumers consumers can use not only in the selection
and to motivate them to utilize their but also to protect themselves against
rights. exploitative and fraudulent practices of
sellers in the market place.

2.4.1 Role of Consumer This information can be obtained

education from a number of sources such as:
i. Labels on Products
Consumer education is important
ii. Advertisements
because it helps a consumer to be a better
iii. Internet
and wise buyer. The role of consumer
education is: iv. Standardization marks

1. It helps a person in making proper i) Label On Products

purchase. It enables the consumer in
making right selection.
2. It familiarizes the consumer with the
problems that he faces while making
purchases. This education inculcates
the logical viewpoint in him.
3. It provides the consumer complete
information about products, for
example etc. this information
enables him in and helps taking
right decision regarding purchasing.
sources of purchasing a particular
commodity, from where to get best
goods.
4. Consumer education familiarizes the
consumer with various standards of
standardization and their markings,
and the various acts enacted
by the government from time
to time. It is difficult for a consumer to
5. Consumer education helps the know much about the goods when it is
consumer in getting maximum packed with a non transparent cover or
satisfaction by proper utilisation of container. It must give reliable information
his money and leads a better living to a consumer. A good label will give all
standard. necessary information about the product.
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 ii) Advertisements The purpose of advertising is to
inform the consumers about their product
and avaliability of a company’s services or
EXPECTATION and to hold existing customers. Advertising
is communicated through various mass
media, including traditional media such as
newspapers, magazines, television, radio,
outdoor advertising or direct mail; and
new media such as search results, blogs,
social media, websites or text messages.

iii) Internet
The internet is quickly becoming
REALITY one of the primary sources for people to
receive information and also to attract
customers. In Internet based market the
transactions are electronic, on screen
interactions instead of face to face
interactions. Online shoppers can seek
virtually any product at any time and from
any location. Internet provides consumers
Advertisement is a source of with an extraordinary search power, where
information to consumers. a large number of Websites can be visited

The department of consumer affairs has launched this portal for

registering online complaints for grievances against misleading advertisements.
www.gama.gov.in
Grievance against Misleading Advertisements (GAMA)

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 in a number of minutes, which is virtually The ‘Agmark’ is a trademark of
impossible for traditional shoppers of quality control set up by the government.
negative aspect associated with internet It establishes the norms relating to
buying are the products takes time to reach the acceptable physical and chemical
consumer and sometimes products in the characteristics in both natural and
illustration does not match the products processed products. The ‘Agmark’ standard
which consumer gets. covers 222 agricultural, horticultural,
The web can be used as a powerful forest and livestock products. This
marketing tool in a number of ways to certification on any product assures the
promote businesses and reach people across consumer of correct selling practices like
the globe. There are easy and effective. quality and purity of the product, correct
Internet business is done through E-mail weights and other relevant chemical and
networking social media marketting etc. physical characteristics of the product and
protect the consumers from the hazards of
adulteration and contamination.
iii) Standardization Marks
The testing done across these
Standardization mark is a mark or
laboratories include chemical analysis,
symbol given to a product, which meets certain
microbiological analysis, pesticide residue
standards with respect to the quality in terms
and aflatoxin analysis.
of material used, methods of manufacturing,
labeling, packaging and performance. There
are a number of certification marks in use for Important Products
different products. with Agmark -Whole and ground
spices butter, ghee, vegetable oils
a) Agmark honey, jaggery, food grains ,gram flour,
oil cake, animal casings, meat and
AGMARK other food products (www.agmarknet.
nic.in).
AGMARK is a certification mark
employed on agricultural products
in India, assuring that they conform b) FPO Certification
to a set of standards approved by
the Directorate of Marketing and
Inspection, an agency of the
Government of India.

The Fruit Products Order standard

is mainly concerned with the standards
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 required for maintaining the quality of products to be sold in India, like many
fruits and vegetables and any products of the electrical appliances like switches,
manufactured from them. electric motors, wiring cables, heaters,
The FPO mark is a certification kitchen appliances etc., Indian standards
mark mandatory for all processed fruit also cover food items such as vegetables,
products sold in India such as packaged fruits and meat products, spices and
fruit beverages, fruit jams, crushes and condiments, processed foods, cereal,
squashes, pickles, dehydrated fruit products, soya products, soaps candies, beverages,
and fruit extracts. The fruit products order detergents, paints, paper etc. and other
also specifies the conditions of hygiene and products like Portland cement, LPG valves
sanitation required to be maintained by the and cylinders, automotive tires etc.
manufacturers. This mark guarantees that
the product was manufactured in a hygienic d) ISO Mark
food safe environment, thus ensuring that the
product is fit for consumption. The standards
have been in force since 1955 by the law of
Fruit Products Order, after which the mark is
named, but the mark itself became mandatory
only after the Food Safety and Standards Act
of 2006.A FPO license is necessary to start a
fruit processing industry in India.

c) ISI Mark

International Organisation for

Standardization (ISO) prescribes quality
standards for products, services and
authorizes national standard setting
bodies (Bureau of Indian Standards) to
Indian Standards Institution (ISI) issue certificates. The objective of ISO is
is a certification mark of the Bureau of to make common standards of products
Indian Standards (BIS). The BIS has and services at international level,
published over 15,000 standards covering which ultimately facilitate foreign trade.
product specifications, methods of test, The areas where ISO standards can be
codes of practice and others. About applicable are manufacturing, processing,
400 standards of various products are printing, electronics, steel, banking,
approved every year, and each standard is telecommunication, hospital, insurance,
reviewed for amendments every five years. etc. The BIS in India has prescribed
The ISI mark is mandatory for certain standards of 9000 and 14000 series for
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 exportable products which confirm to paints, lubricating oils, packaging materials,
the quality standards adopted in western wood substitutes , food items (edible oils,
developed countries. tea and coffee beverages, infant foods,
processed foods) etc.
e) Silkmark ECOMARK

ECOMARK is a certification mark

issued by the Bureau of Indian
Standards to products conforming
to a set of standards aimed at the
least impact on the ecosystem.

Silk Mark is a certification mark in

India for silk textiles. It is a regestered trade
mark. It is a quality assurance label for
the assurance of pure silk and in addition g) Holomark
serves as a brand for generic promotion of
pure silk. It can be used in all silk product
like dress materials, garments, carpets,
sarees, etc.

f) Ecomark ALUMINIUM CONVEX LENS

WASHING CIRCLE 3D HOLOGRAM
To keep the environment ‘pollution
free’, BIS has prescribed standards for eco-
friendly products. An earthern pot is used
as a logo for eco-friendly product. Products
that conform to the standards set by BIS Hologram is one me use. Aer peeling off, design will break

for environmental protection are permitted

eco-labeling of their products. This mark
indicates that the product is environment
friendly and less potential for pollution
as regards production, use and disposal. VOID IF REMOVED STRICKER
Hence ecofriendly product should be made
from recyclable, reusable and biodegradable Hologram is a small square size
materials. The various products in which plastic sticker generally of silver colour
you may find this eco mark are Soaps pasted on the package of some products
and detergents, plastics, paper, textiles, or on the cover page of some book. It gives
preservatives, food additives, cosmetics, three dimensional images of different
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 colours when held under light. It also choice. The Government of India has made
changes appearance when you change the it mandatory for all packages of processed
viewing angle. By observing it minutely food items to bear the vegetarian or non-
you can also find some text written on it. vegetarian mark. This is an identification
The text may be the name or its logo of the mark adopted by Government of India
company. The purpose of sticking it on from Codex Alimentarius, which is an
the package of the product is to establish international organisation that prescribes
the genuineness of the products. food safety norms.

h) Hallmark

VEG NON-VEG

j) Barcode

Purity of gold cannot be measured

by normal eyes. Thus to protect customers
Bureau of Indian standards has a special
symbol on jewellery known as “hallmark”.
Hall mark which indicates the Caratage or
ensures the purity of gold jewellery number It is a set of black vertical small lines
indicating gold content on a scale of 1000. printed on the label of some products. It
Hallmarking is a foolproof method to consists of a particular numbers of bars
accurately determine and record the exact of different width along with a number. If
gold content in jewellery. you observe it carefully you may find that
the width of lines and the numbers written
i) V
 egetarian and Non are different from product to product.
Vegetarian Mark These lines and numbers indicate the
The small green or red circle inside types and price of the product which only
a square on the package of some products a computer can read.
like bread, honey, milk powder, spices
etc are used to indicate the presence of
vegetarian and non vegetarian ingredients
2.6  Rights of a consumer
in processed food items. The red circle
indicates that the food item contains non The definition of consumer right
vegetarian ingredients and the green circle is the right to have information about
indicates vegetarian ingredients. This helps the quality, quantity, purity, price and
the consumer to identify the food of their standard of goods or services but mainly
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 is to protect the consumer from any unfair this right is fundamental to consumer
practices of trade. They are: satisfaction.

i) Right to safety iv) Right to be Heard

Consumers have a right to be This right has three interpretations.

protected against marketing of goods This right means that consumers have a
which are injurious to health and life. right to be consulted by Government and
As a consumer if you are conscious of public bodies when decisions and policies
this right, you can take precautions to are made affecting consumer interests.
prevent the injury or if injury is caused The consumers have a right to be heard
in spite of precaution, you have a right by manufacturers, dealers and advertisers
to complain against the dealer and even about their opinion on production and
claim compensation. For example if you marketing decisions. The consumers have
buy any product from the shop selling it the right to be heard in legal proceedings
can be held responsible if the product is in law courts dealing with consumer
fake and causes harm. complaints.

v) Right to Seek Redressal

ii) Right to Information
When any consumer has a
The right to obtain any information complaint or grievance due to unfair
or facts about the product helps the trade practices like charging higher
consumer to make an informed choice price, selling of poor quality or unsafe
and to be protected against dishonest products, lack of regularity in supplying
or misleading advertising and labeling. of services etc. or if he has suffered
Information to consumers such as product loss or injury due to defective or
specification, place of production, safety adulterated products, he has the right
warnings, price, mode of payment, date of to seek remedies. He has a right to get
quality assurance, description of after sale the defective goods replaced or money
services, warranty, ingredient, nutritional refunded by the seller or dealer. He also
facts, etc should be given. has the right to seek legal remedies in
the appropriate courts of law. This right
iii) Right to Choose also provides for due compensation to
consumers if they have suffered a loss or
Every buyer has the right to select are put to inconvenience due to the fault
according to his needs and wants from of the supplier or manufacturer.
various qualities, prices, sizes and designs
available. The consumer satisfaction varies
vi) R
 ight to Consumer
based on individual’s sense of beauty,
Education
sense of satisfaction, sense of reasoning,
etc. This is the theoretical framework To prevent market malpractices
on which right to choose is built, and and exploitation of consumers, consumer
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 awareness and education are essentially
required. For this purpose, consumer
2.7 Consumer Protection
associations, educational institutions and
Act 1986 (COPRA)
government policy makers can provide It makes provision for the
information to consumers about establishment of consumer councils and
a) The relevant laws which are aimed other authorities for the settlement of
at preventing malpractice and consumer’s disputes.
promoting fair practice In India, it is regarded as the most
b) The ways in which dishonest traders important law in the field of consumer
and producers may try to manipulate protection. It led to the establishment of a
market practices to deceive consumers widespread network of consumer forums
c) How consumers can protect their and appellate courts all over India.
own interest Its provisions are very
d) The procedure to be adopted by comprehensive and safeguard the
consumers while making complaints. economic rights of consumers very
effectively. This law is based on the
vii) R
 ight to Live in a Healthy principle of ‘self-help’ to protect against
Environment all kinds of exploitative and unfair
dealings, such as overpricing, defective
It is the brith right of every
goods and cheating. The law redefines
individual in a society to have a clean
the legal relation between consumers of
physical environment that will enhance the
goods and services and their sellers or
quality of life. The right calls for the need
manufacturers.
to protect and improve the environment
for the present and future generations. It This act has two important
is needless to say that the hazard to clean implications for the consumer:
and safe environment is increasing day zzFirstly, it gives him the right to
by day. This right of the consumers to be complain to an authority when
ensured of clean and safe environment aggrieved and seek redressal speedily
casts a duty on the state to prevent any without much haste.
danger to environment. zzSecondly, the consumer can claim
compensation for any loss or injury
viii) Right to Basic Needs suffered on account of the negligence
The right to basic needs is the of the manufacturer.
primary right of a consumer as a human The act applies to all goods and
being. The very survival of an individual services except those rendered free
will be jeopardized if his basic needs are of charge or under a personal service
not met. Right to basic needs does not contract. Any complaint of deficiency in
merely imply a simple right to survival the service rendered to a consumer, or loss
but also to lead a normal life of an caused due to an unfair trade practice, can
individual. form the subject for proceedings under
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 the act. Features of Consumer Protection there is a provision in this act to establish
Act: consumer protection councils. It ensures
consumer’s right to seek rednessal if any
i) Group of Consumer’s grivance arise.
Rights:
This act provides many rights to
consumers. These rights are related to 2.8 Consumer Redressal
safety, information, choice, representation, Forum
redressal, education etc.
The judiciary bodies are set up by
ii) Effective Safeguards: the government to protect the consumer
rights. Its main function is to maintain
This Act provides safety to the fair practices by the sellers towards
consumers regarding defective products, consumers. Consumers can file a case
dissatisfactory services and unfair trade against a seller if they are harassed or
practices. So under the purview of this exploited by sellers. The court will only
Act there is a provision to ban all those give a verdict in favour of the consumers
activities which can cause a risk for if they have proof of exploitation, i.e., bills
consumer. or other documents.

iii) T
 hree-tier Grievances
Redressal Machinery:
2.8.1 Who Can File a
Consumer courts have been Complaint?
established so that the consumers can
enjoy their rights. This Act presents Three- The following categories of persons
tier Grievances Redressal Machinery: can file a complaint

a. At District Level-District Forum zzaggrieved consumer

b. At State Level -State Commission zzany voluntary consumer organisation,
registered under the Societies
c. At National Level – National
Registration Act, 1860, or the
Commission.
Companies Act, 1956,
iv) Time Bound Redressal: zzthe Central Government

A main feature of the Act is that zzthe State Governments or Union

under this, the judgment for the cases are Territory Administrations
decided in a limited time of period.

2.8.2 When to File
v) C
 onsumer Protection
Compliant?
Council:
To favour consumer protection All complaints should be filed
and to encourage consumer awareness, within 2 Years from date of purchase.
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 rupees one crore. The prescribed fee
2.8.3 What Constitutes a for the national commission is 5000
Compliant? and it is the apex body of consumer
courts. It is also the highest appellate
The complaint can be filed against
court in the hierarchy.
the trader, manufacturer and the supplier
of the services. A complaint can be filed if
there is a defect in the goods or a shortage
in the service rendered or when a trader
charges more maximum retail price for
the goods and also when a consumer
suffers any loss or damage due to unfair
trade practices.

2.8.4 Where to File a
Complaint?

The consumer can move the district

forum, the State Commission or the
National Commission on the following
grounds.
i) District Consumer Disputes
Redressal Forum (DCDRF): it
works at the district level with cases
where the compensation claimed is
up to 20 lakhs. The prescribed fee is
Rs 100 to500 only.
ii) State Consumer Disputes
Redressal Commission (SCDRC): 2.8.5 How to File a
it works at the state level with cases Complaint?
where compensation claimed is
above 20 lakhs but up to one crore. The procedure laid down for filing
The prescribed fee is Rs2000 to complaints for seeking redressal is simple.
4000. The State Commission also The complainant or his authorised agent
has Appellate jurisdiction over the can also present the complaint in person
District Forum. or send it by post to the appropriate
forum. The complaint should be signed
iii) National Consumer Disputes
and verified by the complainant or his
Redressal Commission (NCDRC):
authorised agent.
A national level court works
for the whole country and deals They should file three copies of the
compensation claimed exceeds complaint to the concerned authorities.
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 A complaint should contain the following national commission, can be filed before
information: the Supreme Court within a period of
i) the name, description and the thirty days. The structure of the redressal
address of the complainant, machinery is shown in figure below.

ii) the name, description and the address

of the opposite party or parties,
iii) the facts relating to complaint and
when and where it arose,
iv) documents, if any, in support of
the allegations contained in the
complaint,
Figure2  Levels of Forums for Redressal
v) the relief which the complainant is of Complaints
seeking.
The redressal forums will give ACTIVITY 3
orders for removal of defects from the
goods or refund of the price paid or award Selvi bought a washing machine for
of compensation for the loss suffered or 25000 rupees and it was found to
injury sustained. be defective machine. What is the
procedure for filling a complaint and
enlist what details and documents
should provided while filling complaint?
2.8.6 Procedure for Filing Where should she file the complaint?
the Appeal against
Decision:

There is no fee for filing appeal

before the State commission or the
Naonal Consumers Helpline
national commission. Procedure for (Sponsored by Department of Consumer Affairs, Govt. of India)
filing an appeal is the same as that of a Toll Free No. 1800-11-4000
SMS No. 8130009809(24 Hrs.)
complaint, except that the application www.consumerhelpline.gov.in

should be accompanied by the orders of

the district forum or state commission as
the case may be and reasons for filing the
appeal should be specified. 2.9 Branding
An appeal against the decision A brand is a name, term, design,
of a district forum can be filed before symbol, or other feature that distinguishes
the state commission within a period of an organization or product from its rivals
thirty days. Appeal against the decision in the eyes of the customer. Brands are used
of a state commission can be filed before in business, marketing, and advertising.
the national commission within thirty Name brands are sometimes distinguished
days. Appeal against the orders of the from generic or store brands.
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 i) Individual Brands
2.9.1  Elements of Branding
The most common type of brand
Brand includes various elements is a tangible, individual product, such
like - brand names, trade names, brand as a car or product brands can also be
marks, trademarks and trade characters. associated with a range of offerings such
The combination of these elements forms as varieties of toothpaste.
a firm’s corporate symbol or name.
i) Brand Name - It is also called ii) Group Brands
product brand. It can be a word, a
Group branding happens when
group of words, letters, or numbers
there is a small group of branded entities
to represent a product or service.
that have overlapping, interconnected
ii) Trade Name - It is also called brand equity
corporate brand. It identifies and
promotes a company or a division of
a particular corporation. iii) Service Brands

iii) Brand Mark - It is a unique A service brand develops as

symbol, colouring, lettering, or companies move from manufacturing
other design element. It is visually products to delivering complete solutions
recognisable, not necessary to be and intangible services. Service brands are
pronounced. characterized by the need to maintain a
consistently high level of service delivery.
iv) Trade Mark - It is a word, name,
This category includes the following:
symbol, or combination of these
elements. Trade mark is legally a. Classic service brands (such as
protected by government. No airlines, hotels, car rentals, and
other organisation can use these banks)
symbols. b. Pure service providers (such as
v) Trade Characters - Animal, people, member associations)
animated characters, objects, and c. Professional service brands (such as
the like that are used to advertise advisers of all kinds—accountancy,
a product or service, that come to management consultancy)
be associated with that product or d. Agents (such as travel agents and
service. estate agents)
e. Retail brands (such as supermarkets,
2.9.2  The Types of Brand fashion stores, and restaurants)

The types of brands include

iv) Organization Brands
individual products, product ranges,
services, organizations, individual Organization brands are companies
persons, groups, events, geographic places, and other entities that deliver products
private label brands, media and e-brands. and services. Example: Maruthi Suzuki
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 and TVS each possess strong organization Packaging serves 2 major functions –
brands, and each has associated qualities protection and preservation.Protection of
that make up their brand. the product can be from climatic damage
like atmospheric moisture, oxygen,
v) Event Brands light, heat, cold, microbial attack and
Events can become brands when mechanical damage.
they strive to deliver a consistent experience Through product preservation a
that attracts consumer loyalty. Example: product could be preserved in a packaging
sporting events like the Olympics. The system maintaining the quality till it
strength of these brands depends on the is consumed. The better the packaging
experience of people attending the event. maintains qualities of the product,
prevents tampering and prevents spurious
vi) Geographic Place Brands cheap imitations.
Many places or areas of the
world seek to brand themselves to build
2.10.1 Classification of
awareness of the essential qualities
Packaging
they offer. Geographic branding is used
frequently to attract commerce and i) Unit pack: It is also called primary
economic investment, tourism, new pack or consumer pack. The size and
residents. Example Kanchi silk sarees, number of units going into each pack
Tirunelveli halwa. depends on the nature of the product
and the merchandising method.
vii) Media Brands
ii) Intermediate pack: Also called
Media brands include newspapers, secondary pack, the purpose of the
magazines, and television channels. intermediate pack can be utilization
of couple of unit packs, distribution,
viii) E-Brands requirement, display value etc.
E-brands exist only in the virtual iii) Bulk pack: Master pack, distribution
world. Many e-brands, such as Amazon. pack, transport pack all refer to
com, have a central focus on providing an bulk pack only. This pack is used
online front end for delivering physical for distribution of unit packs or
products or services. intermediate packs. In general the
bulk pack has to take care of protection
against mechanical hazards.
2.10  Packaging
Packaging is the science, art and 2.10.2  Types of Packaging
technology of enclosing or protecting Materials
products for distribution, storage, sale
and use. Proper packaging ensures that A variety of packaging materials
product has to reach consumer in the same are used by the processed food industry.
condition with original characteristic. Few are enlisted below
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 i) Glass containers: Glass containers packages for butter, jam and cheese.
are heavy and fragile but glass Recycled plastic is not to be used
is still predominantly used as a for storing food grains. Biscuits
packaging medium for a number of stay crackling fresh mouths on end
processed food items like carbonated and cakes retain their softness even
beverages, syrups, squashes, jams, after weeks due to tough cellophane
jellies, pickles, malted-milk foods, packages.
instant coffee, sauces, ketchup etc. vi) Modified atmosphere packaging/
Glass is preferred as it is inert and Gas flushing: These are packaging
resistant product visibility. It offers methods for extending the life of
additional benefits of impermeability, food products by changing the
reusability and recyclability. atmosphere surrounding the food
ii) Metal containers: Tinplate inside the package.
containers are available in wide range a. In modified atmosphere
of capacities. Inner lacquer coating packaging, the gas mix (carbon
is essential for tin plate containers dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen)
which should be compatible with inside the package, suppresses /
the food product. Metal drums aggravates naturally occurring
and used for bulk packaging. reactions of good. This method is
Because of the superior strength employed for highly perishable
and excellent protection provides, food like meat, meat products.
tin plate containers are used for
a variety of processed food items
like cheese, baby foods and milk
powders, biscuits, processed fruits
and vegetables, jams, meat and fish
preparations, edible oils etc.
iii) Composite containers: In composite
containers, generally, the body is
made up of paperboard tubes and the
ends are made up of metal. The body
of the container is lined internally
with plastic films or aluminum foil.
Food products like spices, custard
powder, and corn flour are packed in
composite containers.
iv) Wooden crates or boxes: Wooden
crates are used extensively for weight
above 100 kg.
v) Plastic: Polystyrene is principally
made into tubs for ice-creams small

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 b. In gas flushed packages, the helps a viewer to differentiate the
package is flushed with an inert product from the rest in the shelves of
gas and oxygen is eliminated the market. It is also done to impart
and used packing for high fat knowledge of the ingredients of the food
foods to prevent oxidation and items. This helps to spread awareness
rancidity. Item like nuts, potato among the customers about the item
chips etc., are found in gas they are consuming and labeling also
flushed packages. helps to mention ingredients. There are
vii) Edible Food Wraps: Sandwiches two types of labels:
and meat are wrapped in edible i) Removable labels to adhere to the
substances and preserved. Usually product only until they need to be
the wraps are made up of fruit or removed
vegetable like broccoli, tomato or ii) Non removable labels/permanent
fruit wraps like mango, peach, pear, labels the bonding is permanent and
apple or papaya. the label is difficult to remove.
Edible vegetable and fruit wraps
keep lunches fresh much longer and are
biodegradable. Wheat protein in the form 2.11.1  Classification of Labels
of purified wheat gluten, commercial
wheat gluten and corn protein as corn There are various classes of labeling
zein have been tried as edible films. This used in market. They are informative labels, care
wrap is not water resistant and dissolves labels and nutrition labeling.
in the mouth. The advantages of using i) Informative labels- It gives details
edible films are: like the composition of the product,
a. the film can be consumed with the its manufacturing details the other
packaged product and there is no uses of a product.
packaging to dispose off, ii) Care labels- These are usually seen
b. can add nutritional value to foods. on textile and clothing items. Care
c. flavours can be incorporated in these labels give the information on the care
films. required like when the item is in use
or while washing. These instructions
www.youtube.com/watch?v=hosmVt62x2U
are given either in a written form
or in the form of standard symbols.
Instructions like store in a cool and
dry place, keep away from heat/
2.11 Labeling
sunlight, keep beyond the reach
A label is a piece of paper or plastic of the children, do not stretch, use
that is attached to an object in order to of bleach/soap /detergent powder,
give information about it. Manufacturer whether machine wash or hand wash
use labeling to their products to bring etc. are all intended for the purpose
identification. This kind of labeling of providing care labels.
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 of the body e.g. contains calcium for
stronger teeth.

iii) Nutrition Labeling-

The food industry contributes to
nutrition education by offering products
that correspond to the current needs
of consumers and by informing them
of product ingredients and nutritional
and nutritional characteristics including
ACTIVITY 2
energy value, content of protein, fat,
carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. Draw a food label with all
a. Nutrient content claims: This is a specifications for a pickle you have
nutrition claim that describes the prepared
level of a nutrient contained in a
food. Example: low in fat, gluten According to the Food Safety and
free, iron rich or low sodium. Standards Act, 2006 every package of food
b. Comparative claim: It is a claim shall carry a label giving the following
that compares the nutrient levels or information
energy value of two or more foods. i) Every label usually contains the
The foods being compared should be following information brand
different versions of the same food name, trade name, maximum retail
or similar food. The difference in price, manufacturer’s name and
nutrient content and energy value address, product name, net weight
should be given. of contents, ingredients, details of
c. Nutrient function claim: This is a colour and preservatives added,
claim that describes the physiological variety and quality, batch number,
role of a nutrient in the growth, manufacturing and expiry dates,
development and normal function license number, standardization
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 mark, packaging quality number use expression like super refined,
with mark and details of colour and extra refined, micro refined, double
preservatives added. refined, ultra refined and fat free.
ii) In case both colour and flavours are vi) The act also makes it mandatory
used in the product, the label should that labels should not use words
mention. such as recommendation by medical
iii) If gelatin is used as an ingredient, a profession.
declaration should be made using
the words “gelatin - animal origin”
iv) A label should not contain any Government had made it
statement, claim, design, device, fancy mandatory with effect from July 1999
name or abbreviation which is false that all packed food items should
or misleading in any particular way, necessarily display “Best before date”.
concerning the food contained in the
It has been made mandatory that
package or concerning the quality or
every container of milk substitute or
the nutritive value or in relation to the
infant food should have an important
place or origin of the foods.
notice. “Mother’s milk is best for
v) The package label or advertisement babies” in capitals.
of edible oils and fats should not

S U M M A RY

z A consumer is a person who buys incorrect and incomplete labels,

goods and services. Every one of us is a deceptive packaging and dishonest
consumer and has a right to consumer vending.
education. The purpose of consumer z Importance of consumer education
education is to teach people how to be is emphasized because it makes a
better consumers. consumer to be a better and wise
z It also includes the problems faced buyer. Knowledge about consumer
by consumer are related to products aids are tools which consumers can
or related to services used by them. use not only in the selection but
They are lack of safety and absence also to protect themselves. This
of quality control regulations, information can be obtained from
adulteration, imitation manufacture, labels on products, advertisements,
unfair warranties, sales gimmics, internet and standardization
substandard quality, incorrect marks.
weights and measures, deceptive z Components of consumer education
goods, misleading advertisements, includerighttosafety,information,choose,

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 heard, seek redressal, consumer education, file a complaint? It also provides
live in a healthy environment and basic procedure for filing the appeal against
needs. decision.
z Consumer Protection Act (1986) z Information’s pertaining on various
“COPRA” protect the interests of types of brands, classification of
consumers. It defines the procedure, packaging and variety of packaging
three tier redressal system in materials are used by the processed
which who can, when to, what food industry and classification of labels
constitutes, where to file, how to are essential for consumer to buy wisely.

G L O S S A RY

z Consumer- (நுகர்வோர்)- is a person removed from a product which changes

who buys goods and services or use its composition, nature or quality.
of public utilities or natural resources z Imitation- (ப�ோலி) copying or
z Commercial- (வணிக) Buying and selling resembling something of better quality
z Appropriate - (சரியான) Suitable or right z Sale gimmicks- (விற்பனை வித்தை) It
for a particular situation or occasion is a creative way to attract attention to
z Fundamental- (அடிப்படை) forming the business, product or service and to
base from which everything else increase urge to purchase in the mind of
develops customers.
z Scarcity- (பற்றாக்குறை) shortage in z Deceptive- (ஏமாற்றக்கூடிய) misleading
supply believe about something which is not true
z Public distribution agencies- (ப�ொது z Misleading- (தவறான) giving the
விநிய�ோக நிறுவனம்) It is a wrong idea or impression.
government chain of shops distributing z Dishonest- (நேர்மையற்ற) behaving in
basic food and non-food commodities an untrustworthy, deceitful or insincere
to the needy sections of the society at way, willful perversion of truth in order
very cheap prices. to deceive, cheat or defraud.
z Illegal- (சட்டத்திற்கு புறம்பான) not z Commodity- (பொருட்கள்) a substance
according to or authorized by law or product that can be traded, bought,
z Black marketing- (கள்ள சந்தை) illicit or sold
trade in goods or commodities in z Standardization- (தரப்படுத்தல்) the
violation of official regulations process of making something conform
z Malpractice- (முறைகேடு) an injurious, to a standard.
negligent or improper practice z Redressal- (குறைநிவர்த்தி) Act of
z Adulteration- (கலப்படம்) when some correcting an error or a fault and a sum
substances are either added or of money paid in compensation for loss
or injury

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 E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer a) ISO mark

1. _____ on a product which is packed b) MRTP act
in a box or bottle gives all information c) Vegetarian mark
about the products to consumer
d) Barcode
a) Label
6. Hologram is a symbol which is used
b) Bill to establish _________ of a product.
c) Holomark a) Genuineness
d) Trade mark
b) Rate
2. Replacement of defective products or
c) Eco friendliness
their parts is assured by the
manufacturer in ______ card. d) Quantity

a) Bill 7. __________provides free spare parts

but service charges are collected from
b) Warranty
the customer.
c) Standard
a) Warranty
d) Service
b) Guarantee
3. A small red circle inside a square
c) ISO
mark on the package indicates the
presence of _________ ingredients in d) ISI
a product. 8. The department of consumer affairs
a) Non vegetarian has launched online service portal
for registering complaints for
b) Vegetarian
grievances against misleading
c) Artificial colours advertisements ________
d) Artificial flavours a) Misleading advertisement
4. _______ are facilities provided by prevention agency
government or non-government b) Grievance against Misleading
agencies free of cost or on payment Advertisements (GAMA)
a) Goods c) Food Safety and Standards
b) Services Authority of India (FSSAI),
c) Trade d) Ministry of AYUSH

d) Business 9. _____________include chemical

analysis, microbiological analysis,
5. ______________ ensure legal
pesticide residue and aflatoxin
protections to consumers against
analysis.
unfair trade practices

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 a) ISO Mark it was not genuine and safe. It was a
b) Silk mark duplicate of expensive brand-
Comment on type of unfair trade
c) Agmark standard
practice involved in this case.
d) Ecomark
4. When the consumer is forced to take
10. ______ mark is by prescribed Bureau certain goods as free gifts as
of Indian standards for eco-friendly introductory offer but the cost is
products hidden and is paid by the consumer
a) ISO Mark - identify unfair trade practice
b) Silk mark involved and comment

c) Agmark standard 5. Differentiate Vegetarian and Non

Vegetarian mark
d) Ecomark
6. Write about important information
II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) which are needed to be found in a
label.
1. Define consumer
7. Who can file a complaint in consumer
2. What is meant by goods? redressal forum?
3. Give two examples for service. 8. Describe the elements of branding
4. Ramu is adding water to milk for profit 9. Why do we pack food and mention
– identify the type of adulteration
any one function of packaging
5. Brief about deceptive goods 10. Enumerate on classification of
6. What is silkmark packaging
7. Brief about National consumer
disputes redressal commission IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
8. Define brand 1. Elaborate on the problems faced by
consumer
9. What is geographic place brands?
2. How does advertisement affect
10. What are removable labels?
buying decisions? Give two examples.
III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks) 3. What information will you gather
before buying any product? State with
1. Describe on the purpose of consumer
examples
education
4. Explain the purpose of standardization
2. Enlist the problems faced by consumers
mark of the products
related to products
5. With an example explain the
3. Selvam bought a pair of expensive information which are needed to be
branded shoes but on using he found found in a label.

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 6. Mohan went to the market to buy 8. Explain in detail about the rights of
bread. He bought a packet and when consumer
he opened it at home he found the 9. Describe about the Three-tier
bread to be stale and rotten. Who is Grievances Redressal Machinery of
to be blamed? What are the Consumer Protection Act
information you will look when you
10. Baskar bought a car for 10lakhs but
buy a bread packet?
the performance was not as it was
7. Write in detail about the image given advertised .Where should he file his
below complaint? Discuss about the
procedure involved and prescribed
fee for filing his complaint.
11. Enlist and explain any two types of
brand
12. Explain the types of packaging
materials used in India
13. Write briefly on classification of
labels

REFERENCES

Gandhi (1935) the Wisdom of Gandhi 49, www.consumeraffairs.nic.in/home.aspx

Harijan May 4, 1935, www.creatindia.org/consumer-education-​
Srilakhmi (2017) Food Science, New age 4.pdf
Publishers, New Delhi. www.mofpi.nic.in/
www.agmarknet.nic.in/Agmark1.htm www.nios.ac.in/Secbuscour/26.pdf
www.blog.ipleaders.in/analysis-consumer-​
protection-laws-india/#_ftn37

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 UNIT

3 Food Safety and

Quality Control

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter helps the students to get a bird’s eye view of:

zz The process of Food Selection and the factors governing the selection to ensure
food safety.
zz Methods to be adopted for food storage and the containers to be used for a safe
food storage.
zz Adulteration and its impact with the key adulterants in foods and simple tests to
identify them.
zz Causes of food contamination and food borne infections which prove hazardous
to health.
zz Quality control methods to ensure food safety and safe food handling.

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 purchased. Selection of foods from the
3.1  Introduction
available variety is an important aspect of
Food has been a basic part of our marketing. Intelligent selection of foods
existence. The edible parts of plants and is based on the knowledge of attributes of
animals termed as “food” are consumed high quality foods.
by people to satisfy their physiological, The types of food selection depend on:
psychological and social needs. It is
universally accepted that the nutritional zzAvailability of funds/ money
value of food alone does not persuade zzNutritional needs
people to eat but also its colour, flavour, zzEffect of advertisements and
texture, temperature and presentation zzLikes and Dislikes
which are the other contributory factors
towards food consumption patterns of the Availability of funds / Money
people which ensure the wholesomeness of
Money enhances the purchasing
the food in terms of quality and quantity.
power and increases purchasing choices.
Thus the consumer can get a food item
People who have a lot of money can
without compromising on the deteriorative
afford a variety of meals and can eat away
aspects like food contamination, food
from home. However, people with small
borne illnesses and infections.
incomes have a limited choice and it
Food safety is an assurance that becomes a hard task to buy enough food
food will not cause any harm to the to meet family needs.
consumer when it is prepared and eaten
according to its use. The said assurance is Nutritional needs
determined by
Food choice will also depend on
zzWhether the harmful substances nutritional needs. Without food one
present in the food have been becomes weak and ill. The nutritional needs
eliminated or reduced to acceptable of the people may vary based on age, activity,
level. health condition, gender and specific
zzWhether food that has been prepared, needs during specific stage of growth and
handled or stored under controlled and development. eg. Pregnancy, lactation.
sanitary conditions in conformation
with practices prescribed by Effects of Advertisements
government regulations. Another great influence on food
choice is advertisement. Advertisements
have a way of persuading people to
make choices. Food manufacturers and
3.2  Selection of Food
shops advertise their products through
Food selection is an important step television, radio, magazines, newspapers,
in ensuring good nutrition for the family. posters and leaflets. People tend to taste
The daily food guide helps in deciding new food products that are endorsed by
the kinds and amount of foods to be famous personalities.
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 Likes and dislikes
these factors determine the methods of
The choice of foods is often based storage. Most food materials need to be
on the likes and dislikes of the family stored for different lengths of time and
members. Several factors contribute to our at different temperatures, to preserve
likes and dislikes such as colour, flavour, their wholesomeness till required for
appearance and texture of the food. preparation and service. For effective
In addition food selection also storage of food items two types of storages
depends on the safety and hygiene aspects are used :the dry storage rooms meant for
and it should be free from insecticides, non-perishable commodities like cereals
chemical toxins, physical hazards and and their products, pulses, legumes, sugar
microbial contamination. and spices, canned foods, fats and oils,
etc., and the low temperature storages for
semi-perishable and perishable foods.
3.3  Safe food handling Dry storage: It is a place for storage of
dry ingredients and it should be cool,
Safe steps in food handling, cooking,
well ventilated and free from infestation.
and storage are essential to prevent
The average temperature of a dry store
foodborne illness. Some simple steps that
varies between 20°C – 25°C. It is suitable
ensure food safety include the following:
for non-perishable and semi perishable
zzClean — Wash hands and surfaces commodities.
often while handling food
zzSeparate — Don’t cross-contaminatg.
Bacteria from raw chicken stored in
the refrigerator alongwith cooked
meat can contaminate the meat.
zzCook — Cook to the right temperature
especially fleshy foods like meat,
chicken to kill the micro organisms.
zzChill — Refrigerate promptly to
enhance shelf life
zzPersonal And Environmental Hygiene
- Adequate care should be taken to
maintain personal hygiene and the
surroundings should be free from
sources of contamination.
ACTIVITY

3.4  Storage of Foods Try storing greens, brinjal, onion and

egg at different temperatures in the
Foods can be classified as perishable, refrigerator and see the effect
semi- perishable and nonperishable and
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 Low Temperature Storage Freezer Storage: The temperature ranges
between 20°C to 0°C. For successful
The main aim of low temperature
freezing the foods should be blanched,
storages is to maintain the temperatures
cooled quickly to freezing temperature
at levels which will inhibit the growth
and packed in airtight containers
of microorganisms thereby preserving
or bags.
the food. Three distinct types of low
temperature storage include
General Procedure for storage
a) Refrigerated storage
i. Arrange food according to the type
b) Cold storage
of commodity
c) Freezer Storage for the storage of ii. Place stock item in alphabetical order
semi perishable and perishable foods. of food
Refrigerated storage: It is storage space iii. Stamp the date of delivery on every
planned andmaintained at a temperature stock received before shelving to
between 0- 10c. They are necessary to ensure that the old stocks are used up
maintain the quality of perishable foods first.
for 3-5 days only. Foods should be kept
iv. Place items on shelves according to
covered in refrigerated storage to prevent
date stamped, with earlier ones in
drying and odours been taken up by other
the front of a row, and later ones at
foods.
the back. Stamping also helps to cost
Cold storage: Here the temperature the stocks more accurately according
ismaintained between 0 and 5C thereby to the prices paid on the bill for the
reducing the enzyme activity to the particular lot.
minimum. Such storages are called “chill
v. Arrange products to give an
rooms” and can hold perishables for over
organized appearance. Efforts should
a week and in the case of vegetables and
be made to ensure that commodities
fruits even up to a month.
do not lie around on the floor at any
time.
vi. Heavy bins or drums should also
be placed on wheels or on slatted
platform, for free circulation of air
around the food packs.
vii. All items delivered in bulk bags of
jute or poly bags like sugar, flour,
cereals, pulses, etc., should be cross
stacked.
viii. Any opened bags should be
immediately emptied into metal or
plastic bins, polyethylene drums or
cans with tight fitting lids.
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 ix. Cross stacking helps free air circulation. organisms that produce biological matter
Polythene bags of milk powder should produced by humans, rodents, insects and
preferably be refrigerated. microorganisms.
x. Cartons of canned foods, biscuits, Causes: Bacteria and viruses are typically
etc., should be stacked with their the two biggest causes of biological
labels visible for identification. contamination and can result in some of
xi. Tins or small cardboard packs are the most common types of food poisoning
generally used for dried fruits, preserves, including salmonella, E. coli, listeria and
mixes, jellies, etc., and may be lined norovirus.
up one in front of the other, each row Prevention: Thoroughly washing the
having packs of the same item. hands and sanitizing the food handling
xii. As a rule, vegetables and fruits equipment are two of the best ways to
require to be stored in areas separate prevent against bacterial contamination.
from the main dry stores, especially
root vegetables. Physical contamination
xiii. Oils and fats need special attention in
Definition: Physical contamination
storage because they tend to get rancid
is when a foreign object contaminates
in the presence of light. So fats and
food.
oils should be stored in a place where
it can be protected from sunlight. Causes: It can happen at any stage of the
production process and could include Band-
If foods are not stored properly
Aids, steel wool or pieces of plastic.
they can become contaminated leading to
several health hazards. Prevention: Cautious methods should
be adopted as it may cause injury to an
individual who consumes the foreign
object.
3.5 Causes of Food
Contamination Chemical contamination
Food contamination refers to Definition: Chemical contamination
the presence of harmful chemicals and refers to food that has been contaminated
microorganisms in food, which can cause with a natural or artificial chemical
illness in human beings. Growing plants substance. These contaminants are
and animals carry a typical flora of micro particularly dangerous as they expose
organisms on their surfaces causing people to any number of toxic substances,
the disease.Food contamination can be some of which can be fatal.
biological, chemical and physical in nature.
Causes: Chemicals can also contaminate
food at any time of the food process,
Biological contamination
whether by pesticides transferred from the
Definition: Biological contamination soilwhere the food is grown in or during
refers to food that is contaminated by the manufacturing process.
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 Prevention: Storing chemicals separately 2) Incidental Adulterants is the
from food is essential to help protect contamination due to carelessness
against chemical contamination. and lack of proper hygiene during
overall processing of food. It includes
contamination due to defective
3.6  Food Adulteration: packaging and storage and may
Adulteration of food stuffs result in bacterial or fungal attack.
is commonly practised in India by
the traders. When the price of food
production is higher than the price which
the consumer is prepared to pay, the seller The Prevention of Food
is compelled to supply a food product of Adulteration Act, 1954 aims at
inferior quality. Thus, adulteration occurs. making provisions for the prevention
of adulteration of food. The Act
Definition: Adulteration is defined as the extends to the whole of India and came
process by which the quality or the nature into force on 1st June 1955.
of a given substance is reduced through i)
addition of a foreign or an inferior substance
and the ii) removal of a vital element. As adulteration is rampant
everywhere, consumer should be aware of
adulterators and one should take steps to
Adulterants can be of two
safeguard themselves against those food
types
items. It is as shown in the table 3.6.1
1) Intentional Adulterants: Some
manufacturers mix adulterants like
brick powder, chalk powder, dried ACTIVITY
seeds, stones, marble, addition of
Collect the samples of black pepper,
harmful colors to food items like
cinnamon, chilli powder and milk
spices, pulses (metanil yellow in
and assess their quality.
Turmeric or Carmoisine in Chili
powder) with intention to make
more profit.

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 3.6.1 Common Adulterants in food and their Harmful effects

S. Name of the Adulterant Simple method to detect the Harmful

No food article adulterant Effects
1 Ghee or Vanaspathi Take one teaspoonful of ghee
butter or butter with equal quantity of ____
concentrated hydrochloric acid in
atest tube and add a pinch of cane
sugar to it .
Shake well for one minute and test it
after 5 minutes.
Appearance of crimson color shows
the presence of vanaspathi
2. Milk Water Lactometer reading should not be Stomach
less than 1.026 disorder
Drop of pure milk flows slowly
leaving a white trail behind whereas ___
adulterated milk with water will
flow immediately.
3. Khoa Starch Add tincture of iodine. Blue color Less -
shows the presence of starch. nutritive
value
4. Dhals Kesari dhal Add 50 ml of dilute hydrochloric Stomach
acid to the dhal and simmer it for pain, ulcer
15 minutes. Pink color shows the
presence of kesari dhal.
5. Hing Soap stone or Shake with water , soap stone or Dysentry
other earthy earthy matter will settle down.
matter
6. Tea leaves Exhausted tea or Tea leaves sprinkled on wet filter Liver
black or Bengal paper would immediately release Disorder
gram dhal husk added color.
with color
7. Sugar Chalk Powder Dissolve in a glass of water, chalk Stomach –
will settle down at the bottom Disorder
8. Chilli Stones Any grittiness present may be felt by Stomach
powder Brick Powder, tapping. The sediment at the bottom problems
Sawdust of glass confirms the presence of
brick powder or sand.

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 S. Name of the Adulterant Simple method to detect the Harmful
No food article adulterant Effects
9 Rawa Iron filings By moving a magnet through it iron ___
filings may be separated.
10 Mustard Argemone seeds Argemone seeds which are Epidemic
seeds grainy with a rough surface can dropsy &
be separated from mustard seeds Glaucoma
which have a smooth surface by
close examination.
11 Honey Molasses A cotton wick dipped in pure honey Stomach
when lighted with a match stick disorder
burns. If adulterated the presence
of water will not allow the honey to
burn.
12. Cinnamon Cassia Bark Cinnamon barks are very thin and ___
cassia barks are thick and stiff.
13. Coffee Chicory When coffee powder is sprinkled Diarrhoea
on the water surface in a glass coffee
floats but chicory sinks down.
14 Black Pepper Papaya seeds Papaya seeds give a repulsive Stomach,
flavour distinct from the bite of liver
black pepper problems
15. Rice Marble or other Place a small quantity of rice ___
stones on the palm of the hand and
immerse the same in water. Stone
chips will sink.

3.7  Food borne infection diphtheria and scarlet fever. Foods may
be contaminated with disease organisms
A food infection is an illness caused
from air, soil, water, the animals from
by the infection produced by pathogenic
which the meat or milk came, flies, the
organisms carried by food. Most of the
utensils and those who handle the food.
diseases thus transmitted are intestinal or
respiratory. Some of the intestinal diseases Food poisoning: It is the term used to
caused by the ingestion of contaminated indicate any illness caused by toxins of
food (including drinking water) are microorganisms in the food and the term
typhoid, paratyphoid, bacillary dysentery, food infection to any illness caused by
amoebic dysentery and cholera. Disease pathogenic organisms carried in the food.
organisms of the throat and respiratory The common types of food poisoning in
tract are those causing tuberculosis, human beings include

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 Salmonella food Poisoning: Foods involved: The common foods that
give rise to this type of food poisoning are
Causative agents: Salmonella group
meat, milk, fish or eggs, the contamination
are the main group of bacterial agents
being from the animal itself or from external
causing food poisoning. S. enteritids, S.
sources. Eggs from infected ducks have
typhimurium, S. Thompson are the most
been the cause of several outbreaks, many
frequent but other types have also been
types of Salmonella have been isolated from
isolated in outbreaks of food poisoning.
dried egg powder and egg albumen.
Salmonella food poisoning causes gastro
enteritis since only the alimentary tract is
involved and there is no general invasion Staphylococcus Food
of the body. Poisoning:

Signs and symptoms: The condition Causative agents: It is due to

is characterized by nausea, vomiting, Staphylococcus aureus and strains of this
abdominal discomfort, headache and later organism produce an exotoxin which is
diarrhea. The symptoms appear 12-26 hours responsible for a number of outbreaks of
after the ingestion of the contaminated food. food poisoning characterized by vomiting
In most cases these symptoms subside in a and diarrhea. The sources include human
few days and the patients recover completely or animal origin. The nasal passages of
in 6-8 days. Mortality rate is very low. many persons contain a large number of

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 these organisms boils and infected wounds 3.8  Food Standards
may also be sources of contaminating
Food standards is a set of criteria that a food
food.
must meet if it is to be suitable for human
Signs and Symptoms: The duration of consumption, such as source, composition,
the condition caused by staphylococcus appearance, freshness, permissible additives,
food poisoning is only for a day or two. and maximum bacterial content. Food Safety
Mortality is extremely low. and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
is an autonomous body established under
Case Study the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare,
Government of India. The FSSAI has been
Mary had an egg omelette yesterday
established under the Food Safety and
and from today morning she is having
Standards Act, 2006 which is a consolidating
nausea, vomiting and stomach ache.
statute related to food safety and regulation in
She consulted a doctor who said that she
India. Other regulatory bodies for ensuring
is suffering from food poisoning Can
food safety in India include
you identify the causative organism?

Foods Involved: The common foods 1) Bureau of Indian Standards

involved are custard, cream and poultry. Indian Standard Institution is now known
as Bureau of Indian standards (BIS). The
Botulism: Bureau of Indian Standards operates a
certification Mark scheme under the BIS
Causative Agent: The organism Act 1986. Standards covering more than
responsible for this is a spore bearing 450 different food products have been
anaerobic bacillus Clostridium published.
botulinumwhich produces an exotoxin in
the food. Hence poisoning is due to the
ingestion of the preformed exotoxin in the
food.
Signs and symptoms: It is a toxemia
and the symptoms are protrusion of the
eyeballs, loss of accommodation and
dilated pupils. It is most fatal and death Standards are laid for vegetable and
occurs due to respiratory or cardiac fruit products, spices and condiments,
failure occurs due to 4 to 8 days after the animal products and processed foods.
symptoms appear. Once these standards are accepted
Foods Involved: It is a comparatively rare manufacturers whose products conform
kind of food poisoning which follows the to these standards are allowed to use an
ingestion of contaminated food such as ISI label on each unit of their product.
sausages, meat, fish vegetables and other The products are checked for
canned foods. quality by the ISI in their own network of
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 laboratories at Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, essential oils, onions, potatoes meant for
Chennai, Chandigarh and Patna or in a export is compulsory under AGMARK.
number of public and private laboratories
recognised by them.
World Standards Day is on
14 October .
th

World Consumer Day is

celebrated on 15th March
Purposes of AGMARK: Firstly, it protects
the producer from exploitation.
2) The AGMARK STANDARD Secondly, it serves as a means of
The word “AGMARK” is derived describing the quality of commodities to
from Agricultural marketing and was set be purchased or sold by the buyers and
up by the Directorate of Marketing and sellers all over the country and abroad.
Inspection of the Government of India Thirdly it protects the consumer by
by introducing an Agricultural Produce ensuring the quality of productsand the
Act in 1937. The word “AGMARK” seal purchases.
ensures quality and purity.
Export Inspection council:
It has been constituted to check
the quality of a number of food materials
meant for export. Canned food such as
mango juice, pineapple juice, frozen food
such as shrimp, pomfrets are subject to
scrutiny by this body before export.
A lot of care is taken in laying down
the AGMARK grade and in affixing the Food Standardisationand
AGMARK quality label.The quality of a Regulation Agencies in India
product is determined with reference to the
1. Central committee for food Standards
size, variety, colour, moisture, fat content.
(CCFS): It is concerned with prevention
Quality of cereals, spices, oil seeds, of food adulteration and fraudulent
oil, butter, ghee, legumes, and eggs into practices. Since 1947 CCFS has been
various grades as 1,2,3 and 4 or special, functioning to advise the central and
good, fair and ordinary. state government on matters arising
The standards also specify the types out of the administration of Food safety
of packaging for different products. Grading and Standards.
of commodities like Ghee, butter, vegetable 2. Central Food Laboratories ( CFL):
oils, Atta, spices and honey is voluntary. Government of India has established
Grading of other commodities like four central food laboratories serving
tobacco, walnuts, spices, basmati rice, as appellate laboratories for analysis
of food supplies.
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 International Standards apply to microbiological, chemical and
physical hazards associated with foods
1. International Organization for
but are mostly applied to microbiological
standarisation (ISO): The objective
hazards because they are the leading cause
of ISO is to promote the development
of food borne disease.
of standards in the world with a view
to facilitate international exchange Definition: HACCP is a management
of goods and services and to develop system in which food safety is
mutual cooperation in the sphere of addressed through the analysis and
intellectual, scientific, technological control of biological, chemical, and
and economic activity. physical hazards from raw material
2. Codex Alimentarius: It was production, procurement and handling,
established in 1962. It means “ to manufacturing, distribution and
Food Law” or “ Food code” in latin consumption of the finished product.
is a combined set of standards,
The seven steps of HACCP Process
codes or practices and other model
include the following:
regulations available for countries to
use and apply in international trade. zzConduct a Hazard Analysis.
zzIdentify Critical Control Points.
3.9 HACCP – Method to zzEstablish Critical Limits.
prevent Food- Borne
zzEstablish Monitoring Procedures.
Illness
zzEstablish Corrective Actions.
One of the major tools for achieving a
high degree of reliability and safety is called zzEstablish Verification Procedures.
the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control zzRecord Keeping Procedure.
Point (HACCP) system. HACCP principles

S U M M A RY

z Food safety is an important issue first basic thing for everyone in the
that needs advancements in methods world.
of maintaining the foodas early as z Preventing people from foodborne
possible. disease is the most important thing
z People nowadays demand and wish to eat thatneeds to be done at the earliest.
more hygienic, cleanand healthy food. z Hence quality control of food
Health is always crucial to everyone. will help people to protect them
z Offering awholesome foodin terms of from illnesses resulting from food
quality and quantity to everyone is the contamination, food infection and
food poisoning.

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 G L O S S A RY

z Food safety (உணவு பாதுகாப்பு): or drinking water containing bacteria,

A scientific discipline describing viruses, pesticides, or toxins.
handling, preparation, and storage z Adulteration (கலப்படம்) Refers to
of food in ways that prevent food- mixing of an inferior and sometimes
borne illness. harmful quality substances with
z Food contamination (உணவு food or drink intended to be
மாசுபாடு): presence of harmful sold.
chemicals and microorganisms in z Food Storage (உணவு சேமிப்பு);
food, which can cause illness. Food storage allows food to be eaten
z Food poisoning (விசமுற்ற உணவு): for some time after harvest rather
The illness resulting from eating food immediately.

E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer c) Nutritional requirements

Section A - objective Type d) All of the above
Questions (1mark) 5. Refrigerated storage is a type of
1. Pick the odd one out a) Dry storage
Clean, separate, cook, purchase, chill b) Low temperature storage
2. Which is matched correctly c) Miscellaneous storage
a. Television - Equipment store d) Trash storage

b. Spare parts – Incidental adulteration 6. Biological contamination is caused

by
c. Defective packaging -
Advertisement a) Band- Aid
b) Pesticides
d. Rava- Iron fillings
c) Plastic
3. Cross stacking during storage helps in
d) Micro organisms
a) Water flow
b) Air circulation 7. Kesari dhal is commonly adulterated
with
c) Easy identification
a) Chilli powder
d) Good ventilation
b) Asafoetida
4. Selection of food depends on
c) Bengal gram
a) Likes and dislikes
d) Coffee powder
b) Availability of money

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 8. Botulism is caused by the ingestion of c) Dysentery
contaminated d) All of the above
a) Custard
II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks)
b) Cream
1. What is food adulteration?
c) Egg powder
2. Define food contamination
d) Meat
3. Give the harmful effects of coffee
9. AGMARK grading includes grading of
powder with excess chicory
a) Very Good
4. What are the signs and symptoms of
b) Excellent staphylococcus food poisoning?
c) Poor 5. What is cold storage?
d) Ordinary
10. HACCP principles are applied to III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks)

a) Microbiological hazard 1. What is a food stone?

b) Biological Hazard 2. Explain refrigerated storage?
c) Pollution Hazard 3. What are the causes of physical
d) None of the above contaminants?

11. Starch adulteration in milk products 4. What are the common adulterants in
can be identified with asofoetida and termeric?

a) Iron 5. How the likes and dislikes of people

affect the chance of food?
b) Iodine
c) Calcium IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
d) Phosphorus 1. What is AGMARK?
12. Blanching of food enhances 2. List the steps of HACCP.
a) Freezer storage 3. What is Salmonella food poisoning?
b) Refrigerated storage 4. What are the simple ways to detect
adulteration in a) Mustard seeds
c) Cold storage
b) Honey
d) Chill storage 5. Describe the five categories of dry
13. Food borne infections can cause storage
a) Cholera
b) Typhoid

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 REFERENCES

1. Joshua A.K. (1988) Microbiology 4th 4. Johns. N ( 1991) Managing Food

Ed., Popular Book Depot, Chennai Hygiene Macmillan Press Ltd,
2. Sethi. M, Malhan. S ( 1993) Catering London
Management 2nd Ed, Wiley Eastern 5. Srilakshmi. B ( 2017) Food Science
Limited, New Delhi New Age International Limited, New
3. Subbulakshmi. G Udipi S. A. (2001) Delhi
Food Processing and preservation, 6. Manay NS, Shadaksharaswamy. M
New Age International (P) limited, (2013) Foods: Facts and Principles,
New Delhi New Age International Limited,
New Delhi

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 ICT Corner
Food safety and quality control

This activity enables the students to enrich themselves with the food factors.
It acts as a reinforcement or recollection of what they heave learnt on food.
It’s self parameter

Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code.
zzA page opens with quiz and it’s options. You select your own quiz.
zzThen start your quiz. Start to select the right options.
zzIf the answer is right it gives you a green tick. If not the tick will be red.
And the score will be shown at the top right corner
zzWhen we press the next button it goes to the next quiz.
zzThe special feature of this quiz or game is till we give the right answer it
will be in the same place.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

URL:
h t t p s : / / p l a y. g o o g l e . c o m / s t o r e / a p p s /
details?id=food.science.master.quiz

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 UNIT

4 Fundamentals
of textiles

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

z To know the different kinds of fibres and their uses.

z To identify and differentiate fibres using simple tests.
z To understand about fabric finishes.
z To gain knowledge about different temporary and permanent stitches in daily life.
z To learn about stain removal.

4.1 INTRODUCTION dressmakers, interior decorators and

retail-store customers demand textiles.
Textiles play a vital role in our daily life.
This chapter deals with the various types of
From the primitive age textiles are used
fibres, their properties, finished products
for covering, warmth, personal adornment
of textiles, care of fibres and uses.
and even to display personal wealth. Today,
textiles are used for various purpose and
everyone is an ultimate consumer. Though 4.1.1  D
 efinition and
we aren’t the direct purchaser, we use Classification
textiles in some form. In the beginning
textiles were used for packing food then Textile is defined as a type of material
it was used as mats in shelter and later composed of natural and synthetic fibres.
on it was used as clothing. Home makers, The word textile comes from Latin textilis,
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 means “woven”, which in turn comes from Textile fibre is very long in relation
the Latin verb textere, “to weave”. In textile to its thickness. The fibre consists of cells
science, however, a textile is finely defined arranged in its longitudinal direction.
as any product made from fibres. Types The strength and elasticity of the fibre is
of textiles include animal-based material dependent on the forces between these cells.
such as wool and silk, plant-based such as Fibres may be classified based on
linen and cotton and synthetic material the origin and chemical type as natural
such as polyester and rayon. Textiles are fibres and man-made fibres. Table-1
often associated with the production of describes the classification of fibres.
clothing.

Classification of fibres

Natural fibres Man-made fibres

Vegetable fibres Animal fibres Mineral fibres Cellulosic Modified Non Minerals
(Cellulosic) (Protein) (Asbestos) (Viscose) Cellulosic Cellulosic (Carbon)
(Acetate) (Nylon)

Animal Animal
Hair Secretion
(Wool) (Silk)

Seed fibres Bast fibres Leaf fibres Nut fibres

(Cotton) (Flax, Jute) (Pineapple) (Coir)

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 i. Manufacturing process
4.2 MANUFACTURING OF
FIBRES The main processes are bale breaking and
cleaning, carding, combing, spinning,
4.2.1  Natural Fibres weaving, scouring, bleaching and dyeing.
Natural fibres are taken from plant and a) Bale breaking and cleaning: The
animal sources. Cotton, Silk and wool are tightly pressed cotton fibres from
the most well-known natural fibres. There the bales are loosened in a machine
are several other commonly used natural and the impurities falls out. Another
fibres such as jute, linen and asbestos. machine removes more impurities
until sheets of loose fibre like cotton
wool emerge ready for carding.
A. Cotton
The word “cotton” is derived from the
Arabic word “qoton” or “qutun”, which
means a plant found in conquered
land. Cotton is afibre that grows on
the  surrounding surface of seeds in the
pods, or balls of a bushy mallow plant.
Cotton is referred to as the “King of
fibres” as it is most important textile fibre
in the world.
Fig 2:  Bale breaking

b) Carding: The fibres emerge from the

carding rools as a thin filmy sheet
which passes between two rolls and
is formed is to a thick rope called
“Silvers”.

Fig 1:  Cotton plant

The cotton fibre is a long cell-

made up of countless cellulose molecules.
Cotton is removed mechanically from the
seed balls by the cotton gin. The ginned
cotton is then pressed into bales and sent
to the factories to be spun into yarn.
Fig 3:  Carding
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 c) Combing: This process removes Fig 5:  Spinning
more short hairs and makes fibres
ii.  Properties:
more parallel.
Lustre : Low
Tenacity/ Strength : Medium
Elastic Recovery : Low
Elongation : 7%
Resilience : Low
Density : 1.54 g/cm3
Moisture : 8.5%
absorption
Dimensional : Good
Stability
Acids : Damages,
Weakens fibre
Alkalis : Resistant
(mercerization)
Effect of : Weakens fibre
Fig 4:  Combing sunlight slowly
Insects : Silverfish
damages fibre
d) Spinning: The combed sliver is now To flame : Burns readily
converted into yarn by spinning. Shape : Fairly uniform
Scouring and Bleaching is usually in width, 20-20,
done after weaving to enable the length varies from
cloth to be dyed easily. ½ and 2 ½inches

Definition of important terms:

Elasticity: The ability of a fibre or fabric to
return to its original length, shape, or size
immediately after the removal of stress.
Density: Explains the thickness of
textile products.
Tenacity: The customary measure of
strength of a yarn.
Resilience: The ability of a material
to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically, and release that energy upon
unloading.

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 iii. Uses: Silk can be cultivated or it is found
in forest as wild silk. Cultivated silk is
zzCotton is the most widely used fibre
the Mulberry silk. The common wild silk
because it is inexpensive, easy-care,
varieties are Eri, Tasar and Muga silk. The
high absorbency, excellent launder
process of cultivating silkworm for silk
ability and good colorfastness.
production is called as sericulture.
zzIt is not only used for apparel but
also for household and industrial When the silk worm is fully grown it
applications. starts spinning its cocoon on straw placed
on the trays. The silk fluid from the special
glands issues from two holes, one on either
B. Silk
side of the head called spinnerets.
Silk has been considered as one of the
The fluid hardens as it comes in
most elegant and luxurious of fibres.
contact with the air and two long fibres
It is popularly known as the “Queen
which are stuck together with silk gum are
of Fabrics”. The method of raising silk
formed. The cocoons are heated to kill the
worms and removing the silk filaments
pupa inside, otherwise the moths would
from the cocoons and of using the silk in
destroy some of the silk. Some are allowed
weaving for garments was discovered by
to become moths to provide eggs.
Hsi-Ling-Chi, a little empress of China.

i. Manufacturing process:
The manufacturing process involves
Reeling, Throwing, Degumming, Weaving,
Dyeing and sometimes weighting.
a) Reeling: This is the process of
unwinding the silk filament from
the cocoon. The cocoons are boiled
in water to soften the gum so as to
unwind the filaments.
b) Throwing: Throwing is the process
of combining several reeled strands
to make a yarn. The number of
strands are twisted together to form
a strong yarn.
c) Degumming: The gum left on
the fibres to protect them are now
removed by boiling in soap and
water. Sometimes degumming is left
until the fabric is woven. Weaving is
carried out the same way as for other
Fig 6:  Silk thread and silk saree fibres.
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 Fig 7:  Manufacturing of silk

d) Weighting: Weighting is the process Insects : Destroyed by Carpet

of treating silk with certain metallic beetles.
salts to give weight and body to the Drying : Quick and good.
product.
Dyeing : good absorption
for acid and basic
ii. Properties: dyes.
Shape : Like glass rod
Length : 30000 to 39000 cm iii. Uses:
Elasticity : Good zzSilk fabrics are noted for their
Stretch : Good soft  luxurious handle, rich lustre,
ability warmth, resilience and crease
Flexibility : Medium resistance, strength and excellent
draping quality.
Density : 1.25g/cm3
zzA wide range of fabrics are
Reaction : Causes less damage
made  raging  from sheer chiffon
with acid.
to  firmer dress and suiting material
To Flame : Burns with a to  heavy brocades to the rich pile
sputtering flame. velvet.
Sunlight : Increased exposures zzSilk serves best for ceremonial
will break down the occasions, evening or day ware and
fibre. lingerie.
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 Fig 8:  Wool

C. Wool i. Manufacturing process:

Wool is one of the oldest fibres used for Once the raw wool reaches the mills,
protection from the cold climate. It is is has to pass through many processes
natural protein fibre and considered as before it finally emerges as woolen cloth.
Man’s best friend. Sheep skin, including Sorting, Scouring, Carbonizing, Carding,
the hair, was probably used long before it Spinning, Bleaching, Dyeing, Weaving,
was discovered that fibres could be spun Knitting and Finishing.
into yarns or even felted into fabric.
a) Sorting: When the bales are
opened, the fleece is graded. It may
be separated into sections such as
The earliest fragments of shoulders, sides etc.
wool fabric have been found in Egypt
but Mesopotamia is the birth place of b) Scouring: The raw wool is washed in
wool. successive troughs of soapy alkaline
water of decreasing strength to
remove dirt and grease.
Wool can be sheared from the
c) Carbonizing: Straw, burrs and
living animal or pulled from the hide after
other vegetable matters are removed
the animal has been slaughtered for its meat.
by treatment with acid, heat and
Sheared wool is called Fleece or Clip wool
pressure of rollers.
and wool taken from hides of slaughtered
animal is called pulled wool which is d) Carding: The wool is passed through
inferior in quality to fleece or clip wool. machine rollers with sharp steel
wires which separated the fibre and
The quality of wool is expressed
mix them thoroughly.
by numbers. The higher the numbers, the
finer the wool and better the quality. The e) Spinning: The mass of carded wool
finest wool is from young sheep. Very fine is drawn out and twisted or spun
wool of excellent quality is shorn from into woolen yarn which is a soft and
lambs when eight months old. fluffy thread.
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 ii. Properties:
ACTIVITY 1
Shape : Fibre contain scales
Length : 3.75 cm Collect the fabrics made with natural
Elongation : Good fibres and prepare an album.
Fibre luster : Fair
Elasticity : Good
ACTIVITY 2
Stretch ability : Good
Flexibility : Good Identifying different fabrics using
Density : 1.30-1.32 g/cm3 flame test and under microscope.
Reaction with : Not affected
Acid
4.2.2  Man-made fibres
Reaction with : Most of alkalis
destroy the fibre Man-made fibres are fibres made by man
Alkalis with combination of natural products
Absorbency : Good along with chemicals.
Reaction to : More heat affects the
fibre A. Nylon
Sunlight Nylon was the first synthetic fibre. In 1928
Flame : Burns slowly in the DupontCompany decided to establish
direct flame, but a fundamental research program. It was
self-extinguishing. noticed that when a glass rod was taken out
Insects : Damaged by moths of one of the polyester stills the solution
and carpet beetles. adhering to it stretched out into a solid
Drying : Prolonged drying filament. The filament could be stretched
Dyeing : Absorbs acid and ever further and it did not go back to its
basic dyes readily. original length. This stimulated the group to
concentrate on textile fibres. The term nylon
was chosen for the fibre and it was called
iii. Uses: the Miracle fibre for several years. The first
zzWoolen fabrics are used throughout nylon was referred to as type 6, 6.
the world as warm fabrics and durable
apparels.
zzThey are crease resistant, flexible, elastic,
absorbent, warm and comfortable.
zzWool can be dry-cleaned.
zzWool can be dyed and has good
colorfastness property.
zzThey are used in home furnishing as
stuffing in pillows/cushions. Fig 9:  Nylon
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 i. Manufacturing process: Acids : resistance is poor
Nylon 6, 6 is a linear condensation polymer Alkalis : Good resistance
made from hexamethylene diamine and Sunlight : Generally affects
adipic acid. Specific amounts of the two Insects : Normally damages
chemicals are combined in solution to
To flame : Flammable
form nylon salt. The salt is purified,
polymerized, extruded in ribbon form,
and chipped into small flakes or pellets. iii. Uses:
These flakes or pellets are melted and zzNylon is used in women’s stocking or
extruded through a spinneret into cool air hosiery.
and the nylon filaments are formed. zzIt is also used as material for
The polymer chips are melted producing socks, swimwear, shorts,
by heat in an autoclave and pumped to track pants,  active wear, draperies
the spinneret. The hot syrupy solution and bedspreads.
is pumped through the spinneret. It zzNylon is used for making fishing nets,
emerges in strands which can be stretched ropes, parachutes and tier cords.
like warm taffy. The size of the fibre is zzNylon is used in cookware since it has
determined by the size of the holes and the a relatively high continuous service
speed with which the fibre is withdrawn temperature.
from the spinneret. The fibres are cooled
zzNylon is used for making plastic
by air blown across them. By drawing
machine parts as it is low cost and
process either filament or staple fibres are
long lasting.
prepared.
zzIt is often commonly used in electronics
industry for its non-conductivity and
ii. Properties:
heat resistance.
Shape : Shape is controlled
by the manufacturer, Hosiery: used in shops for things such
filaments are uniform as socks, tights and stockings.
and long.
Draperies: Cloth hanging or arranged
Luster : Bright to Dull
in folds
Elastic : 100%
Recovery
Elongation : Good B.  Polyester
Resiliency : Good Polyester is sometimes referred to as
Density : Good the “workhose” fibre of the industry.
Moisture : 8% The filament form of the fibre has been
absorption said to be the most versatile fibre and
the staple form has been called the “big
Dimensional : Excellent
mixer” because it can be blended with so
stability
many other fibres, contributing its good
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 properties to the blend without destroying zzThe hot solution is forced through
the desirable properties of the other fibre. spinnerets, and solidifies into fibre
Its versatility in blending is one of the form on contact with cool air.
unique advantage of polyester. One of zzIt is stretched while hot, the stretching
the important physical changes has been contributes strength to the fibre and
that of changing from the standard round controls elongation characteristics.
shape to a trilobal cross-section that
zzThe greater the amount of molecular
gives the fibre silk-like properties. The
orientation obtained during this
strength of the polyester reinforces the
strengthening step, the stronger the
cotton fibres, which are weakened by the
fibre and the lower the elongation.
finishing process.

ii. Properties:
Shape : Controlled by
Manufactures.
Luster : Controlled from
semi bright to dull
Elastic : Varies
Recovery
Elongation : Varies by type
Resiliency : excellent
Density : 1.38 g/cm
Moisture : very low
absorption
Dimensional : Excellent
Fig 10:  Polyester stability
Resistance to : Strong acids destroy
acids fibre, weak acids
i. Manufacturing process: have little or no
effect.
zzPolyester is made by reacting a
dihydric alcohol with a dicarboxylic Alkalis : moderate
acid. Sunlight : resistance is
excellent
zzAs the acid and alcohol are
polymerized, they are extruded from Insects : Excellent
the polymerizing vessel in the form of To flame : will burn, but
a ribbon. slowly and
zzThe ribbon is cut into small chips; melting fibres
the chips are diced and conveyed to tend to drop off,
a hopper from which they are fed to preventingfurther
melt spinning tank. burning.

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 Uses:
ACTIVITY 5
zzPolyester fibres have immediate
consumer acceptance because of their Collect few natural and man made
easy-care and wrinkle-free properties. fibres and observe the burning
zzThey require no ironing, easy to characteristic by flame test.
launder and quick to dry.
zzPolyesters are not only used as apparel
but also in industrial use items such as
laundry bags, calendar sheeting, press
4.3 SIMPLE TEST
covers, conveyor belts, fire hoses, fish
FOR FIBRE
netting, ropes and protective clothing.
IDENTIFICATION
zzAn important use of polyester is for
surgical implants. The burning test can be used to identify
the group-cellouse protein, minerals
ACTIVITY 3 etc., to which the fibres belong. General
direction for the burning test.
Obtain a total of ten advertisement
i. Ravel out and test several yarns from
and labels identifying ten different
each side of the fabric to see if they have
polyester trademarks used in apparel,
the same fibre content. Difference in
home furnishings, automobiles tires,
lustre twist and color will indicate that
and industrial fabrics and list the
there might be two or more kinds of
characteristics or properties of the
fibre in the fabric.
fibre as advertised.
ii. Hold the yarn horizontally with the
pair of tweezers or tongs. Feed the
ACTIVITY 4 fibres slowly into the edge of the flame
and observe what happens. Repeat this
Collect pictures and samples of man-
several times to check results.
madefibres.

Burning characteristics of Fibres.

Fibres Cotton Silk Wool Nylon Polyester
Approaching Ignites upon Curls away Curls away Melts away Fuses, melts
flame contact, does from flame from flame from flame, and shrink
not shrink Shrink and away from
away fuses. flame
In flame Burns Burn slowly Burns slowly Burns slowly Burns
quickly and sputters with melting slowly and
continuous
to melt

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 Fibres Cotton Silk Wool Nylon Polyester
Removed Continues Usually self- self- self- self-
from flame burning, extinguish extinguish extinguish extinguish
after glow
Odor Similar to Similar to Similar to Celery Chemical
burning burning hair burning hair odor
paper
Residue Light, Crushable Brittle, small Hard, tough, Hard, tough,
feathery bead, black black bead grey tan black or
ash grey in color bead brown bead
in color

4.4  TEXTILE FINISHES agent.Direct dyes are water soluble and

are applied mostly to cellulosic fibres.
Finishes gives a high level of satisfaction to
These dyes are dissolved in water and salt
the consumer in terms of looks, texture, color
is added to control the adsorption rate of
and suitability for dyeing, printing etc. It also
the dye by the fibre. Then the cloth which
enhance the saleable value of the fabric.
is to be dyed is immersed. Direct dyed
A finish is defined as any treatment stuff have relatively excellent light fastness
that is given to the fibre yarn or fabric to and good color fastness to sunlight.
change its appearance. The finish given
Example: Cotton
to the fabric determines the care and
maintenance required for its upkeep.
ii. Acid dyes:
4.4.1  Dyeing When acidification is done on basic dyes,
Dyeing is the substance which is fixed acid dyes are formed. Acid dyes are used
more or less permanently on the fabric on protein, acrylic and nylon fibres.
which evokes color. They have no affinity for cellulosic fibre
and are not suitable for fibres which are
a) Types of Dyes sensitive to weak acid solutions. They
have excellent light fastness and some
Dyes are classified according to hue have good color fastness to dry cleaning
produced chemical class, method of and perspiration.
application and the types of fibres to which
they are applied. Some of the different Examples: Nylon, Silk, Wool
dyes include:
iii. Basic dyes:
i. Direct dyes: Basic or cationic dyes are excellent for
Direct dyes colour the fabric directly in coloring acrylic fibres. They are mostly
a single operation without any affixing used as “topping” colors to give brilliant
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 color effects of fabric. Because of the There are some difficulties in this
variety of color effects produced, it is process of obtaining color on fabric.
successfully used on modified nylon and ii. Fibredyeing: Fibres are dyed in their
modified polyester. loose state where the fibres can be less
Examples: Wool and Silk tangled and dyed thoroughly. Fibre
dyeing is expensive to produce. There
is better penetration of the dye into the
iv. Vat dyes:
fibre which produces a higher degree
Vat dyes have excellent color fastness of color fastness on fabrics. Direct,
property and are suitable on all cellulosic sulphur, vat and developed dyes are
fibres and man-made fibres. It is used on cellulose fibres.
not  suitable on protein fibres because of
iii. Yarn dyeing: Yarns are dyed by three
the alkaline bath which will damage the
methods namely, skein dyeing,
fibres. There is a wide choice of vat dyes
package dyeing and beam dyeing.
and they withstand hard wear and are fast
Yarn dyeing is best way to adopt for
colors.
large quantity dyeing.
Examples: Cotton iv. Fabric dyeing: Fabric dyeing consist
of either piece dyeing the fabric or
v. Reactive dyes: printing followed by an after treatment
to fix the dye. Piece dyeing is nothing
Reactive dyes are suitable for mostly all
but most solid color fabrics are dyed
fibres- cellulosic, wool, nylon, silk, acrylic,
after the fabrics has been completed.
as well as blends. Bright colors with
Fabrics made of cellulosic fibres,
excellent washfastness &color fastness are
cotton, rayon and flax are most
obtained. Color fastness to crocking is
frequently piece dyed.
excellent.
Example: Cotton
Yarn: Thread used for making cloth

Crocking: Crocking is tendency of a

fabric or paint to give off the color when
the surface is rubbed. 4.4.2  Printing

Designs are applied on fabrics by means

of printing. Printed fabrics are defined as
b) Dying Methods :
those that have been decorated by a motif,
There are four steps involved by which pattern or design applied to the fabric after
color may be applied to textile materials. it has already been constructed(Marjory
i. Solutions: Pigments or dyes stuffs can Joseph 1977). Printing can be done by two
be dispersed in the spinning solution basic methods –Resist printing and direct
where the fibres are manufactured. printing.

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 A.  Resist printing pass through and print the fabric.
The frame is laid on the fabric, and
Resist printing is done by preventing the
the dye is placed at one end of the
dye to enter some specific portions of the
frame. A rubber knife moves the
fabric by some method.
dye  across the screen and forces
i. Tie and dye: Fabrics are made the dye through the open mesh of
into tiny puffs with some object the fabric. One screen is prepared
inside and tied with a waxed thread for each color. Screen printing
wherever the dye has to be prevented. is considered by  many textile
The fabric is immersed in the dye authorities to be the newest method
solution. If two or more colors are of decorating fabrics.
desired the thread is removed and iv. Discharge printing: Discharge
the fabric re-tied.After drying the printing is used to print designs on
object is removed. Other methods fabrics which has been previously
of tie and dye includes holding the dyed. A reducing bleach is used which
fabric and stitching it and pulling the removes the base dye and leaves a
threads to draw the fabric to resist white pattern on a colored ground.
the dye from penetrating into the Dark fabrics with white designs
fabric called as Tritik. Tie and dye such as polka dots are examples of
fabrics are quiet popular in apparel discharge printing.
and home furnishing.
v. Stencil printing: Stencil Printing
ii. Batik: A resist method developed was developed by the Japanese.
by the Japanese involves wax as the Designs are cut in stencil paper
resist substance.A copper cup called which is coated with wax. The stencil
“tjanting” is attached to a reed handle. designs are placed on fabric and
The wax is taken in this tjanting and color is applied by sponge, air brush
applied in the design areas, wherever or by spray gun. This method is done
necessary to resist the dye. The fabric on minimum fabrics like scarves and
is immersed in dye solution. The similar products.
wax resists the dye from entering the
fabric. In some places it forms cracks
and forms fine lines in the design. B.  Direct Printing:
The fabric is later washed in boiling Direct Printing is the method of applying
water to remove the wax. color directly on to the fabrics by one of
iii. Screen printing: A Screen is made the following methods.
by covering a frame with blotting i. Roller Printing: Designs are
cloth of silk, metal or nylon filament engraved in metal rolls and arranged
years. The fabric is covered with a around a main cylinder and locked
film and the design areas are cut out into place.Many rolls can be used. A
of the film. Some areas of the mesh trough containing in the dye solution
are left open to allow the dyestuff to along with a doctor blade which
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 scrapes of the excess dye is placed transferred by sublimation. The dye
for each roll.The large cylinder is is changed from solid state on the
covered by a padded blanket and paper to vapor and again changes to
a grey cloth is used on top of the solid and fixes on the fabric. The heat
printing blanket. The cloth to be sets the color on the fabric. Transfer
printed is on the outer surface. The printing is suitable for nylon and
layers move together, the rolls take some acrylic fabrics.
up the dye from the through print
on the cloth as it comes and goes to
the drying oven which sets the color ACTIVITY 6
on the fabric. Roller printing has
Decorate a plain woven white fabric
steadily increased during the past
by each of any three methods of
decades for its quality prints and
printing or dyeing with household
unusual patterns produced.
dyes.
ii. Block Printing: Block made of wood
or metal are engraved with designs.
Each block prints only one color. The
blocks are dipped in dye solution.
4.5  FABRIC FINISHES
Only the raised portion in the blocks
picks up the dye and is then pressed Fabrics which reach the consumer are
on the fabric, forcing the dye to be finished by one treatment or other. Except
printed on the surface. for the white fabrics, color is applied to
iii. Duplex Prints: Duplex print are
all the fabrics. “A finish is any treatment
produced by modified direct roller given to a fabric to change its appearance”.
print equipment. The design is made Finishes are applied to make fabric more be
by a machine, which is set up to print smooth, shrinkresistant, easy care, flame
on both the face and back of the resistant, etc. Finishes can be divided into
fabric. two types, general and functional.

iv. Photographic Prints: Photographic General Finishes or routine

prints are made similar to that used finishes are identified as mechanical,
in making photograph. A negative chemical or combination of the two. It is
is placed on the fabric and light is a basic procedure in preparing fabrics for
transmitted to it and the design is consumer use.
developed. The fabric is washed i. Scouring: Fabrics can be scoured by
and the design is as permanent as a immersing them in 2-4 percent of
photo. caustic soda (NaOH) with addition
v. Transfer Printing: Transfer printing of wetting agents and emulsifiers
involves heat and pressure. The dye under heat to remove waxes, foreign
in the desired design, is first printed matter and discoloration.
onto a special paper. The paper is ii. Bleaching: Bleaching is done to
laid on the fabric and the design is fibres, yarns and fabrics to make
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 them white or prepare them for the fabric which involves many
dyeing and printing. It is a chemical finishing processes like mercerizing,
finish where sodium chloride or resinfinishing and drying.
hydrogen per oxide bleach is used vi. Mercerization: Mercerization
to bleach the fabrics. The chemical is a chemical finish mostly done
for bleaching depends on the textile on cotton fabrics. The fabric is
fibre. Cellulose fabrics such as immersed in 16  – 27 percent of
cotton can be bleached with sodium sodium hydroxide and fed between
hypochlorite whereas silk and wool rollers for a specific period of time.
respond well to hydrogen peroxide. Then it is passed on a tendering
iii. C a l e n d a r i n g ( P r e s s i n g ) : frame to have specified dimensions.
Calendaring is also called pressing At last it is washed and dried. This
done on cotton wood,silk as well process causes the fabric to have
as rayon. It is a mechanical process increased lustre, improves dying
where the fabric is fed between flat, characteristic and strength.
heated plates and pressed under heat vii. Sizing: Sizing is a process of stiffening
and pressure. materials to yarns or fabrics. Sizes
iv. Heat Setting: Mostly is composed of starch or resin.
thermoplasticfibres are given heat  – Starch is applied mostly to cellulose
setting finish to produce fabrics which fabrics to improve its luster and to
are wrinkle resistant, good elastic add strength. Resin when applied
recovery, and give relative permanent reacts with the fibre molecules and
design detail such as pleats, planned chemical change occurs in the fibre.
creases and surface embossing. Starch is applied to the fabric which
The fibres are exposed to a certain then passes between rollers that pad
temperature called the glass transition the starch into the fabric and remove
temperature (Tg temperature) where excess solution. Thus a fabric with
they are shaped. If at any later period additional stiffness and improved
the fabric is exposed to temperature luster is obtained.
higher than Tg temperature the fabric viii. Weighting: Weighting is a process
may take a new shape. So fabrics applied to silk fabrics. After removal
should be laundered or dried under of gum i.e.degumming, the silk
theTg temperature. fabric, becomes very soft. To make
v. Tentering: Tentering is a the silk fabric heavy and stiff the
mechanical finish where the fabric Federal Trade Commission ruled that
is held horizontally by each selvedge silk fabric can be given stiffness by
between pins. There is a tenter addition of 10% stannous chloride a
frame which moves with a speed metallic salt. If this 10% exceeds very
slightly higher than the speed with high the silk fabric tends to crack
which the chains  holding the fabric and split. Weighted silk has body and
are moving. This process,straightens density but they are not durable and

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 can be damaged by sunlight, air and zzEven TackingRunning Stitch
perspiration. zzUneven TackingBack Stitch
Functional finishes are those which zzDiagonal TackingHem Stitch
alter, improve or change the behavior
zzTailor’s TackingWhipping
or service characteristics of the fabric
and produce certain properties.
Example: A durable press fabric, a 4.6.1  Temporary Stitches
waterproof fabric.
Water Proofing: Water Proof finishes Tacking or basting is a temporary stitch
are those that prevent water entering used for holding two or more layers of
the fabrics.These  fabrics do  not fabric together before a permanent stitch
allow  air also to enter and thus in made. Usually the stitch is worked
not  suitable for wearing apparel. from right to left, starting with a knot in
Earlier, rubber, oxidized oil or contrasting color thread, so that it can be
varnish were used to waterproof easily removed.
fabrics. Modernfabrics are coated i. Even Tacking: Secure the thread
with synthetic polymers. with a knot on the wrong side or
several firm small stitches at the
end of the seam. Make the running
stitches ¼ long, where the stitch
4.6  BASIC STITCHES
is the same length on the right
Basic Stitches are the fundamental stitches and wrong siders. Even Tacking is
which have to be learnt before doing used where there is strain while
actual sewing. It is necessary to learn basic stitching bodice seams and also as
stitches to do temporary and permanent a guideline for stitching intricate
stitching. top stitched details.

Classification of basic stitches

Basic Stitches

Temporary Stitches Permanent Stitches

Even Tacking Running stitches

Uneven Tacking Back stitch
Diagonal Tacking Hem stitch
Tailor’s Tacking Whipping stitch

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 ii. Uneven Taking: In this, the stitches the seam lines using even stitches
on the upper side is ½ or at least twice of ½ ” length apart, leave them as
that on the underside ( ¼ ) . This loop without pulling it tight. So that
stitches can be used for longer folds the thread tuft, will remain on both
and seams. This is comparatively the layers of fabric and remain as a
stronger than even tacking. Use this guide line. This is especially used
type tacking as a guideline or where for marking details between patterns
there is little or no strain. such as dart markings and pleat
iii. Diagonal Tacking: While attaching markings.
two or more layer of fabrics this type
of stitch is made about ¼ ” apart
4.6.2  Permanent Stitches:
before making machine stitch. Work
stitches through the material at right i. Running Stitch: This is the simplest
angles to the fabric edge so that a form of the hand stitch which is used
diagonal or slanting is made on the for permanent sewing stitched using
upper side and a vertical stitch is same color thread used made seams,
made on the underside. darning, gathering and finishing
iv. Tailor’s Tacking: Start tacking using with this stitch. It is similar to even
double thread of contrasting color, tacking, much smaller, straight, fine
so that they can be easily seen. Tack and evenly spacious easy and can be
through double layer of fabric along worked fast.

Even Tacking

Tailor Tacking Tailor Tacking

over pattern

Fig 11: Temporary Stitches

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 Fig 12: Running Stitch
Fig 14: Hemming Stitch
ii. Back Stitch: The back stitch is strong iv. Whipping stitch: This stitch is used
and sometimes substituted for to finish raw edges,sleeves, collar
machine stitch. It takes much time. of kid’s wear. The other name for
Care must be taken while stitching, this stitch is overcasting. Whipping
since stitching is done on the right produces slanting stitches taking
side of the fabric. On the back side of stitches over the rolled fabric edge
the fabric the stitch is similar to stem with needle in a straight position.
stitch. Stitches should be about 1/8” The finished fabric gives continuous
long on the right side. Repeat this ‘X’ shape stitches. On both the sides
way, keeping stitches uniform in size stitches appear similar in shape.
and fairly firm.
Whipping Stitches

Fig 13: Back Stitch

iii. Hem Stitch: This is used to finish

the raw edge of the garment usually
Fig 15: Whipping Stitch
refered as the hem. Hemming must
be fine, evenly spaced and must be
inconspicuous from the right side
of the garment. Start the hem with a Case Study 1
tiny knot and finish with the same. Karthick was in a great hurry in the
Hemming must be as invisible as morning to go to school on time.
possible on the right side. Of the Unexpectedly he tore his school pants
garment do slanting stitch on wrong while he was trying to wear it. How
side, close enough to hold the them will you help Karthick and his mom
securely, picking one or two yarns of to get the pant stitched and board the
the fabric. Usually this stitch is seen school van on time?
in all types of garments.
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 Stains can be removed by the
4.7 CARE AND
following methods.
MAINTENANCE
OF FABRIC i. Dipping: The stained material is
dipped into the reagent. It is then
The care of garments and other products scrubbed to remove the stain and
made of fabrics has always been a concern finally rinsed with water.
of consumers. Such care is reflected in
ii. Sponging: The part of material from
economy, the household budget, service
which the stain has to be removed
ability, and appearance. There are certain
is placed on blotting paper and the
care procedures which consumers should
reagent is applied with a sponge
observe in order to get the greatest use and
on the stained area and scrubbed
satisfaction from textile products. Textile
gently.
products should not only be carefully
selected, they should also be given proper iii. Drop Method: The reagent is put
care throughout their service. This care on the stained cloth stretched over a
includes (1) frequent brushing and bowl with a dropper.
airing, (2) clean storage when not in use iv. Steaming: The stained area is
(3) immediate mending when damaged by exposed to steam from boiling hot
tearing (4) stain removal before washing water.
or further use, (5) intelligent choice
of cleaning method - washing or dry Simple tips to remove stain
cleaning, (6) frequent laundering when from washable fabrics
the fabric is washable (7) proper method
zzAlcohol paints: Soak for 30 minutes
of laundering for type of fabric (8) proper
in strong ammonia solution and then
ironing or pressing.
wash.
zzBlood: Soak in cold water till stain
lightens then wash in warm soapy
4.8  STAIN REMOVAL water.
zzDyes: Soak or wash in cold or
Clothing can get stained with curry,
lukewarm water for 10 to 12 hours.
grease,  blood, tea/coffee and ink spills.
Then wash, dry in the sun.
It is very important that the stain is
removed while fresh, Most stains will zzEgg: Sponge with cold water. Then
be totally removed because they would wash in warm soap water.
not have penetrated into the fabric. The zzGrass: Dip in Javelle water sodium
stain removal should be systematic and hypochlorite (Naclo) for 1 minute
methodical. then rinse in cold water.
It should be remembered that zzGrease: Put soap on stain and soak in
many dilute applications are better than cold water.
one concentrated treatment as strong zzIodine: Hold over steam of boiling tea
chemicals can damage the fabric. kettle.
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 zzInk: Rub in glycerine, rinse with cold
water or use absorbent powder. Case Study 2
zzLipstick: Rub in glycerine or vaseline. Michael is a mechanic. His clothes
Then wash with soap and water. after gets stains with grease and
zzNail polish: Sponge with nail polish paints. How will you help him to
remover or peroxide and rinse. remove the stain.

S U M M A RY

zz Natural fibres play a very important zz Finishes gives a high level of

role in the growth and development satisfaction to the consumer in terms
of textiles and clothing.These fibres of looks, texture, color and suitability
are obtained from naturally available for dyeing, printing etc.,
sources like plants, animals and zz Basic stitches are used as a foundation
minerals. prior to garment construction. These
zz Man-made fibres are combination of are used to enhance the functionality
natural products and chemicals. and decoration of the garment. These
zz All man-made fibres and synthetic basic stitches are used as guidelines
fibres are filaments, their length and while sewing.
thickness can be modified based on zz Clothing can get stained with curry,
the end product. grease, blood, tea/coffee and ink
zz The burning test can be used to identify spills. It is very important that you
the group-cellouse protein, minerals remove that stain while fresh. The
etc., to which the fibres belong. stain removal should be systematic
and methodical.

G L O S S A RY

zz Absorbency: Capable of absorbing zz Extrude : thrust or force out.

heat, light, moisture etc. zz Tweezers : a small instrument like a
zz Crease: A line or ridge produced on pair of pincers for plucking out hairs
paper or cloth by folding, pressing, or and picking up small objects.
crushing.

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 E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer c) Cellulose layer

1. Match the following: d) all the above
Fibres Titles 5. Cotton plant is
A) Cotton i) Manmade fibre a) Lengthy
B) Silk ii) Best friend b) shallow
C) Wool iii) King of fibre c) bushy
D) Polyester iv) Queen of Fibre
d) hard
Options: 6. The silk fibre is invented by
a) i, ii, iii, iv. a) Egyptian
b) iv, iii,ii,i. b) Japanese
c) iii,iv,ii,i c) Indian
d) ii, iv,iii,i. d) Chinese
2. Assertion, (A) Cotton is a natural 7. Stitches are made of equal lengths
fibre in
Reason (R) it is taken from plants. a) Even Tacking
Options: b) Uneven Tacking
a) Both A and R are true, R c) Diagonal Tacking
explains A. d) Tailor’s Tacking
b) Both A and R are true but R does 8. ______________ is used for holding
not explain A two or three layers of fabric before
c) Only A is true and R is false. sewing
d) A is false and R is true. a) Even Tacking
3. Pick out the odd stitch from the given. b) Uneven Tacking
a) Back stitch c) Diagonal Tacking
b) Hem stitch d) Tailor’s Tacking
c) Running stitch 9. ______________ is used to finish the
d) Even tacking raw edges of the fabric

4. Cotton is stronger when it is wet. This a) Back stitch

is because of b) Hem stitch
a) Crystalline fibre c) Whipping Stitch
b) hydrophilic in nature d) Machine stitch

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 10. Polyester is referred as 5. Name the stitch used to cover the
a) dupont edges. How is it done?

b) work horse 6. Write a simple stain removal

procedure followed at home?
c) cellulose acetate
d) acrylic 7. Batik is done on the fabric to make it
more attractive-Explain?
II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) 8. Define dyes Give two example of
1. Name any two natural fibres? dyes?

2. Name the method of removing seeds 9. Vat dyes are applied to cellulose and
from dried cotton. How is it done? manmade fibres-Justify?

3. Is polyester man-made or natural? 10. What is block printing?

How is it made? 11. Care and maintenance of fabric is a
4. Name the process by which nylon is concern of consumers-Explain
manufactured? 12. Why are direct dyes appllied to
5. Do you agree that permanent stitches cotton?
are used in stitching? If so what are
they and where it is used? IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
6. Tacking makes the dress beautiful. 1. Describe the manufacturer of silk
How? fibre?
7. Name the fibre that is given weighting. 2. Discuss the different types of direct
Why is it given to the fabrics? printing methods?
8. Give some uses of nylon fabrics 3. How can natural fibres be classified?
9. Name the fibre which is made by Explain their sources.
combining two chemical and it is a 4. What is the difference between man
polymer. made fibres and natural fibres?
5. Do you prefer natural or synthetic
III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks)
fibres? Give reason for your
1. Cotton has multiuse in our daily life selection.
Explain?
6. Finishing is done on fabric to make
2. Can Nylon be manufactured in the product complete. Explain the
industry. Mention the raw materials various finishing methods?
used for Nylon fabric.
7. A Mechanic ’s clothes have lot of
3. What are the uses of even tacking? crease stain. What are the methods
4. Name the strongest stitch among you would suggest to remove those
stitches and give reason. stains?

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 REFERENCES

1. Marjory L. Joseph(1977) Introductory 3. Bernard P. Corbman(1983)Textiles

Textile Science 3rd Edition, California Fibre to Fabric, McGraw-Hill Book
State University, Northridge. Co, Singapore.
2. PremlataMullick(1995) Textbook of
Home Science, Kalyani publishers,
New Delhi, India.

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 ICT Corner
Textiles - Cotton

This activity enables the students to enrich themselves with the fibre cotton.
It helps them understand about the cotton plant as well as the cotton fibre. It
contains more facts also

Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code. A
page opens with OPTIONS on the top. When you click the games it shows
four options. All worthy with many informations on cotton.
zzFor example if you click drag and drop the game will display .
zzA picture of the scientist will be there in the centre with the question at
the bottom and two option at either side of the scientist. When we drag
the scientist to the correct option it shows ‘reveal the answer’ when we
click that we can check whether the answer is correct or not. Then for next
question have to click “Next”
zzThree more options are True or False, Choose the best and quiz time. Try
all and enjoy.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

URL:
h t t p : / / w w w. c o t t o n c a m p u s . o r g / C C - U S -
Environmental-Science/CC-Habitat/

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 UNIT

5 Housing and
Interior
Decoration

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing the chapter, the student should be able to:

zz Describe the importance of house

zz Gain information on site selection and principles of organising rooms while
planning a house
zz Identify activities in the house and space allocation
zz Understand the elements and principles of design
zz Learn about colour and colour schemes
zz Know the types of floor decoraions
zz Know about various plants that can be grown in kitchen/terrace gardening

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 roofs, etc. in which human
5.1 Introduction beings live and seek refuge from
Housing is one of our basic needs. tensions and worries of the outside
Home is where our heart lies. Nowadays, world.
the space in the home is of great 3. The house forms the centre of
importance because it is limited. Due to family life. It is a place where family
over population, land has become very members are bound together by
expensive. Therefore, within less available love and affection and enjoy group
space, many apartments are constructed living.
to accommodate many families. When we 4. The house provides space for group
purchase our homes, we need to consider and individual activities for the
many factors to ensure safety and economy. members of the family such as
We have a number of equipment, furniture, cooking, serving, washing, storage,
furnishings at home and they need to be disposal of waste, recreation, reading
properly organised and arranged to provide and hospitality.
maximum convenience and comfort. To
5. The house offers facilities for self-
lead a happy, satisfying life, our interiors
expression and a degree of freedom
must have pleasing environment in terms
of action.
of colour schemes, furniture, furnishings
and accessories. 6. A good house provides a healthy
environment for its members to
House is a shelter made of floors,
develop their personality, attitudes,
walls, windows, roof etc where family
values and a sense of security in
members live together and spend
addition to rest and privacy.
maximum part of their life. Housing,
next to food and clothing, satisfies one 7. An individual acquires customs,
of the basic needs of man. According to traditions, habits and culture of the
National Building Organization a house is familyonly in the house.
defined as a pucca or semi-pucca unit of 8. House is the place where some
dwelling that can accommodate an average family members who cannot support
household. Its importance is given below: themselves for reasons of sickness,
unemployment, old age, widow-
hood or other handicaps get shelter
and care.
5.1.1  Importance of house
9. Housing is the determining factor
1. The house protects the family for the standard of living of a family
members from excessive cold and and act as a status symbol of a
heat, wind and rain and from all family.
external anti-social elements. 10. Housing contributes to national
2. A house is a physical structure income, national wealth and national
consisting of walls, doors, windows, employment.

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 5.1.2  Classification of residential building

Detached house Semi-detached Row of houses Apartments or Skyscrapers

house flats
This is an This is preferred These are multi-
independent house A common for low-income This consists of storeyed building.
surrounded by its boundary wall to group of families. three to seven This is common in
own land on all the form a structural These rows of storeys and each big cities where the
sides. barrier and divides houses, have a floor or storey may price of the land is
an independent common wall accommodate two very high.
plot into two units. between two or four tenements.
houses, with The land and other
This helps
minimum amenities are
in achieving
requirements such shared by all the
economy by
as living room, and occupants.
sharing expenses
kitchen.
on amenities such
as water lines,
drainage lines, and
electric cables.

Fig 1  Types of residential buildings

5.1.3  F
 actors affecting choice considered. A family in the expanding
of house stage will need a larger house than a
family in the beginning or contracting
The following points should be kept stage.
in mind while looking out for a house. zzPermanence of residence: There are
zzPhysiological needs: The house two types of family in this regard.
should have adequate ventilation and 1. Transient family - which has to
proper orientation so that there is move from place to place, because
proper temperature balance, adequate of occupational or other needs.
fresh air circulation and light.
2. A Permanent family - which
zzPsychological needs: The house is reasonably sure of staying in
should provide privacy and safety. the same place for a long time.
zzFamily size: A large family with more This factor should be considered
than six members have to go for a while making decision to rent or
larger house than a small family with own a house.
four members. zzCost of living: The cost of living in a
zzFamily type: Families can be classified particular area should be taken into
as nuclear, extended or joint families. account while deciding on the locality
The size of the house will vary of the house.
according to the type of family. zzCost of building: The financial status
zzStage of family life cycle: The stage of the family should be considered
in which the family is should be while selecting a house.
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 5.1.4 Owning or renting a house

In general, many families feel that owning a house is far better than renting.

Owning: This is buying a house outright Renting: Rent is the compensation that
in order to secure it services. is paid to the owner, generally in terms
of money, by the user for the services of a
house, from month to month.
Advantages of Owning Advantages of Renting
1 People who own a house will Money spent on buying the house can
feel secure and have a feeling of be invested in other business to get more
belongingness. money returns.
2 Can develop longstanding friendship Can take advantage of different
with neighbours. occupational opportunities.
3 Become a means of compulsory Can change the house according to the
saving. needs and income of the family.
4 Can stay in a house for a long period. No responsibility of maintaining the
property.
5 Changes or improvement in the No need to invest on furnishings and
house can be made whenever furniture as furnished house can be rented.
needed.
6 Gives a feeling of happiness, pride Renting is cheaper.
and sense of security during old age.
7 Credit can be acquired easily. Higher living standards can be achieved
8 It is a good investment. The family will not get affected if the
property value decreases.
9 Have tax benefits. Freedom of mobility.
10 Better furniture and furnishing can Gives financial freedom.
be purchased.

5.2  Site Selection

One cannot change one’s residence
Each family attempts to meet its often. Hence it becomes essential
housing needs through the selection for each one of us to have adequate
of a suitable dwelling unit. The house knowledge about selection of a site and
is undoubtedly the largest single house planning. A site in a good locality
investment you will make in your life. should be selected.

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 iii. Sanitary Facilities
5.2.1  F
 actors to be
considered while a) There should be no stagnant pools or
selecting a site for the water tanks and unused wells around
construction of a house the site.
b) The site should not be surrounded
i. Physical Features by public drainage and toilet.
a) The site should be regular in shape c) The site should not be selected
and should have exact boundaries near cattle sheds, poultry farm and
marked on the land. factories for health reasons.
b) A low lying ground is unhealthy d) Reclaimed land filled with debris
because it is capable of causing and refuse is unhealthy for building
dampness during rainy season and purposes, as it will give out obnoxious
it becomes a breeding place for flies gases. During rainy season it becomes
and mosquitoes. a good breeding place for flies and
c) The site should be on an elevated mosquitoes.
ground for drainage of water e) The site should have fresh air, ample
especially during rainy season. lighting and good water supply.
d) A site on an elevated ground gives f) A site in a busy locality may not be
wider and brighter view of the suitable for health reasons because
house. Site which faces South/North of dust and the constant smoke from
direction is preferable. vehicles.
g) A site with modern sanitary facilities
ii. Soil Conditions is the most suitable.
a) The best soil is one where soft soil is
at the surface and hard soil beneath iv. Practical Convenience
3 or 4 ft.
a) The value of the site depends upon
b) A mixture of sand and gravel is good.
the convenience available around it.
c) Rocky surfaces afford good
b) The site should be within easy reach
foundation, but poses difficulty
to school, market, bank, hospital or
while levelling or excavating the
nursing home, railway station, bus
ground due to its hardness. On rocky
terminus and post office.
surface, laying drainage pipe is very
costly. Besides, it is not suitable for
v. Good Neighbourhood
growing plants.
a) The site should be selected near a
d) Clay and sandy soils are unsuitable
developed area for safety.
because clay surface holds water for
a long time and sandy soil absorbs b) Good neighbourhood adds to the
water. permanent happiness of the family.

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 c) The site in the neighbourhood of a sea zzThe living room can be north-east or
commands pleasant sea breeze. But south-east in its aspect.
one disadvantage is that sea breeze
carries with it a thin spray of salty ii. Prospect
water, which corrodes all iron articles. It is the impression that the house
creates on a person who views it from
vi. Legal Characteristics outside. It must be attractive in appearance,
a) The legal description of the plot and modern, cheerful and comfortable.
the exact location of the plot must be zzA beautiful window, carved pillars,
known. modern design on the walls and roof
b) The site should be a freehold land may add to the charm of the house.
without encumbrance.
c) A legal advisor should be consulted, iii. Privacy
the place surveyed and the boundaries Privacy is of two kinds-privacy
marked on. of the entire house from the road side;
privacy of each room from other rooms
5.2.2 Principles of Organising and from the entrance.
Rooms While Planning zzPrivacy from outside can be gained by
a House planting trees and growing creepers or
having a compound wall.
The principles to be considered for
zzPrivacy within the house can be
organising rooms while planning a house
obtained by proper arrangement of
are aspect, prospect, privacy, grouping,
doors and windows.
roominess, furniture requirements,
circulation, flexibility, sanitation and zzPrivacy to bedrooms, toilets, water
practical consideration. closets and dressing room is of utmost
importance.
i. Aspect
Aspect
Aspect is the arrangement of doors Praccal
consideraons Prospect
and windows on the outside walls of a
house which allows good breeze, sunshine
and a good view of the nature. Aspect is Sanitaon Privacy
PRINCIPLES
also needed from hygienic point of view. OF
ORGANISING A
HOUSE
zzWith careful placement of windows, it Flexibility Grouping
is possible to admit sun’s rays into any
desired room. Kitchen should face the
Circulaon Roominess
eastern side so that the morning sun’s
rays can purify air. Furniture
arrangement

zzBed rooms should have southern

aspect-either southeast or south west Fig 2  Principles of organising rooms
to facilitate enjoyment of good breeze. in a house
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 iv. Grouping independent entry to each living space
through a common space.
It is the arrangement of rooms in the
house in respect to their relative positions zzIt should provide privacy to the members
and activities towards each other. and not to disturb any member doing
his/her work in the room.
zzThe dining room close to the kitchen
and living room, the living room near zzStraight, short, direct passages must
veranda, the toilet near bed room and be provided.
so on. zzCirculation can be achieved by proper
zzGrouping is based on convenience. placement of the doors, grouping of
the rooms and furniture arrangement.
v. Roominess
It is the spacious effect a room gives viii. Flexibility
to those who live in. The available space This means making use of a room
should be fully made use of. originally designed for one purpose, for
zzOne can have built in wall cupboard, different purposes at various occasions.
shelves and storage area so that the zzConverting a living room to a dining
floor of the room is left free for various hall during function, a back veranda
activities. near the kitchen can be used as play
zzThe space under the staircase, window centre for children, a dining room
sill, area below the ceiling (attic/loft) converted as child’s study centre or
can be made use of for storage. play centre are examples.
zzIn addition the size and shape of the zzScreens, cupboards, folding partitions
room, the furniture arrangement as may help to make a room flexible and
well as the colour scheme used, have serve more than one purpose.
a bearing over the roominess of the
house. ix. Sanitation
It includes provision of light and
vi. Furniture Requirement
ventilation and attention to general
The rooms must be planned with cleanliness and sanitary conveniences.
due thought to the furniture to be placed
zzThere should not be any room in a
there.
house without enough light.
zzThe type, the position, size and the zzVentilation must be adequate. It means
number must be planned earlier in supplying fresh air and evacuating
respect to the size and placement of polluted air.
doors, windows and built-in cupboards
zzOpposite windows and doors as well
in the room.
as ventilators must be provided for
vii. Circulation easy movement of air.
The circulation from room to room zzSanitary conveniences as provision
must be good. Good circulation means for drainage of waste water, disposal

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 of refuse and human waste must be Table 1  Activities In The House And
planned ahead. Space Allocation
Household Space Allotted
x. Practical Considerations
Activities
One may have to take into 1. Sleeping Bed room
consideration, while planning the house, 2. Cooking food Kitchen
the following practical points as strength,
3. Eating meals Dining area
convenience, comfort, simplicity, beauty,
4. Washing clothes Laundry area/
possibilities of extending the house in
bathroom
future and above all economy.
5. Washing utensils Kitchen
6. Studying Study room/
Children’s room/
5.3 A
 ctivities in the House
bed room/Dining
and Space Allocation
room
A number of activities are carried 7. Staying of guests Guest room
out at home. Space is required to carry 8. Bathing Bath room
out these activities. Limited space is 9. Recreation Living room
available for carrying out various activities
within  home. It is therefore essential to
manage space for efficient household in a particular place for example: Bed
work. Some of the household activities and room can be used as study or dressing
space allocated for them are as follows: room in absence of separate area for these
It is sometimes not possible to assign activities. Space management therefore
space for these activities. In small houses, plays a vital role in carrying out different
a number of activities can be carried out household activities efficiently.

ACTIVITY 1

List the household activities your family members do in each room of your house.
S.No Living Bed Study Children’s Kitchen Bath Veranda
room room room room room
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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 is a place for keeping shoes, walking sticks,
5.3.1  E
 ffective Space
umbrellas and a place to store vehicles. It
Allocation in a House
provides place for business, the postman,
The house and its grounds can be the newspaper boy, milkman, and the
divided into three major areas based on vendors to call on the family members
the various activities of the house. at the entrance. It serves as a passage to
other rooms of the house. 2It protects the
walls of the house from the direct rays of
Social or the sun. It is a place for pets and also a
public area place for growing plants.

Service or The Back Veranda/ Balcony

work area
It serves different functions
Rest or such as grinding, drying clothes etc.
private area A veranda/balcony facing south or west is
comfortable.
Fig 3  Division of major areas in the
house Living Room
1) Social or public area - The rooms Living room is placed adjacent to
allotted are, veranda, living room, veranda. The living room should provide
reception, dining, music, reception place for many of the family activities
and games room. as reading, conversation, get together,
2) Service or work area - The rooms indoor games and light music. It is a place
allotted are kitchen, serving, laundry, to receive friends and also to hold social
drying yard, ironing room, garage, functions. In a small house, it can serve as
storage areas, office and study room. a study room for children, sleeping area
for one or two members. It can be a dining
3) Rest or private area - Bedroom,
room during special occasions. At times
dressing room, bathrooms, prayer
it can accommodate guests. Thus it may
room etc. It is not possible to allot
serve multi various functions, depending
room for each and every activity
upon the type of the family. A living room
separately, but it is important to allot
should express cordial welcome to the
spaces for the more important ones.
friends of the family. The furniture and
furnishing that are used in the living room
5.3.2  Rooms in the House must be comfortable and suitable for the
room. For example,
The rooms in the house and various
activities carried out there are discussed
For conversation- sofa, chairs,
in the following paragraphs:
For hospitality- a centre coffee table
A veranda serves many purposes. It
is a place for stranger or a visitor to wait. It For reading- table, chairs and bookcase
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 For recreation- radio and television Bunk beds (beds one above the other) can
cabinet, table and chairs also be provided to save space.
There should be enough wall space zzFurniture with sharp edges should be
for hanging pictures and for display of avoided in children’s room. The height
decorative articles. Flower arrangements of the furniture such as bed, chair,
add beauty to the room. A shelf may be table etc, should be low and it should
provided for art objects. be light weighted.
zzThe storage cupboards should be low
Bed Room in height for easy accessibility by the
children.
A bed room is included under the
private area of the house. It is used for
sleeping, relaxing and studying. It can Kitchen
provide place for dressing and storage Kitchen can be aptly described as
of clothes. An individual spends about the hub of the home. It is the nucleus of
one third of her/his day in a bed room. the house, a place where we cook food,
Therefore, it is important to plan the bed store our food, utensils and provisions.
room efficiently. Bed rooms should not be It can provide space for eating too. The
located around the busy area of the house comfort, health and happiness of the
such as kitchen. family mainly depends on the activities
A rectangular room is more carried out in the kitchen. Kitchen should
convenient than a square one. Ventilation is well lit and ventilated and should never be
of utmost importance in bedroom. It should a suffocating chamber of pungent smoke
be on the side of the direction of prevailing irritating the eyes, nose, and lungs of the
wind. The door of the bedroom should be housewife. Kitchen should have chimney/
located in such a way that when opened the exhaust fan to exhaust smoke and fumes
bed is not visible fully. Bathroom attached out of the kitchen. The floor of the kitchen
to a bedroom would add to the convenience should be selected properly so that it
of the family members. Adequate storage is easy to clean. It is very essential that
space should be provided in the bedroom. one gives enough thought to the kitchen
Built-in cupboards for clothes and bed arrangements.
linen save space. A chest of drawers could i. Location: The best location will be
also be provided. A small table and a chair eastern or north-eastern corner of
may find a place to keep some of the books the house. This is helpful in having
for light reading, table lamp, and flower purified air and also warmth in the
arrangements etc. morning and coolness during the
other part of the day.
Children’s Room ii. Size and shape: For actual efficiency
As children grow up they need a the kitchen should be neither too
separate room for studying, playing etc. small nor too large. A rectangular
children’s room should be planned wisely. kitchen is step saving.

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 iii. Activities and work centres: The and the cleaning centre in
main activities in the kitchen are food the middle. This is a compact
preparation, cooking and cleaning arrangement and labour saving
of food items and equipment. The too. In the ‘L’shaped kitchen
work area for these three activities arrangement of the work centres
should be carefully planned. The are placed on two adjoining
kitchen should have the preparation, walls. The one wall and two wall
cooking and washing centres arrangements are suitable for
adjoining each other at comfortable small kitchens.
heights to form a triangle. This work
zzCooking centre: The range with
triangle ensures convenience and
the storage of utensils needed for
safety.
cooking occupied an important
zzThe various shapes in which place in the kitchen. A peg board
the major work centres can for frying pans and sauce pans, a
be arranged are ‘U’ shaped, ‘L’ holder for knives and spoons and
shaped, one wall and parallel all the food items and equipment
walls. The ideal shape for the must be placed within easy reach
kitchen arrangement is ‘U”. in the cooking centre. The main
It consists of preparation and appliance in this area is a gas
cooking centres on either side burner or stove. The gas burner

L-Shape U Shape

One wall Two wall

Fig 4  Kitchen types
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 or stove is placed on top of the zzStorage facilities in the kitchen:
counter at an appropriate height Built-in cupboard or cupboard
to carry out cooking. with drawers and rack can be
zzWashing centre: Washing area provided. Care should be taken
should be near the cooking area. It to avoid insects. The wall area
should have proper arrangement above and below the counter
for water and proper drainage should be fully used.
system. Storage cupboard for
dishcloth and brushes can Bathroom
be hung in convenient place The purpose of a bathroom is to
provided there. Sink should provide facilities for bathing, washing and
always be placed in front of a dressing too. The main bathroom should
window. Garbage pail should be be in the ground floor not far away from
kept near or under the sink. the main rooms. It can be attached to the
zzPreparation centre: Placement bedroom for convenience. There should
of a refrigerator in the preparation be good ventilation in the bathroom.
centre facilitates easy handling A window at the usual level with frosted
of vegetable, milk, egg and glass shutters, admitting light but keeping
fruits during preparation. The privacy, is good. Loft can be provided to
equipment like blenders, beaters, store things if necessary. Small built-in
sifters, saucepans, measuring shelf may be used for keeping oil, soap,
cups, spoons, knives, and ladles brush, paste, etc. The flooring finish
should be stored here. This area should be easy to clean. It should never be
should have adequate electrical slippery. The wall should have a polished
points to use various appliances. surface to a height of 90cms from the
floor. There should be good drainage
facilities for removal of waste water from
the bathroom.

Storage
Successful housing needs the
provision of adequate storage facilities
throughout the various parts of the house.
Good storage facility with closed doors is
needed for the following reasons.
zzGives a neat and orderly background
for a family living.
zzAvoids unnecessary waste of time and
energy.
Fig 5  Peg board zzTo have easy access to things.
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 zzTo have maximum use of space warmth, coolness, sophistication, intimacy,
allotted. naturalness and delicacy.
zzTo preserve and protect the things A house constructed with floors,
against mice, flies, ants etc. walls, and roof can be made to look attractive
zzTo keep things away from dust, and comfortable by decorating its interior
sunlight, moisture, obnoxious gases tastefully. When our home looks beautiful, we
and adverse temperature. feel happy and satisfied. “A thing of beauty is
zzTo prevent pilferages. a joy forever”. All of us enjoy beautiful things
be it our possessions or surroundings. One’s
zzTo keep things out of reach of children.
imagination, good taste and aesthetic sense
Some of the things in the house that are very much needed to have a beautiful
need to be stored are clothing, bedding, and functionally useful interior.
food supplies, kitchen equipment, sports
Interior decoration is a creative art
equipment, garden and yard tools, cleaning
of adjusting the space and equipment to suit
agents, cleaning equipment, books,
the fundamental and cultural needs of the
medicines, disinfectants and recreational
inhabitants. Use of colours and accessories
equipment. Provision for storage in a
is one of the key ways of decorating the
house can be made in lofts, shelves and
house. Proper selection and arrangement
built in cupboards.
of accessories and colours helps in interior
The following points should be decoration of the house. Accessories such as
kept in mind when planning storage. curtains, lamps, carpets, upholstery, flower
1. Store materials and equipment near vases, potted plants and other art objects
the place of work. like statues etc. can be used in interior
decoration. Designs in the art objects make
2. Store materials at proper heights
them individualistic and beautiful.
to avoid unnecessary stooping and
stretching. Design is selecting and arranging
3. Arrange articles properly. of materials with two aims – order and
beauty. In which, the order denote
4. Group articles of similar nature
structure and beauty show character
together.
through the interpretation of an idea by
5. Label the items stored. an individual. While creating the design in
this way, the designer express various ideas,
moods and values and such expressions
evoke some response in the minds of the
5.4  Interior Decoration
viewers. Design can thus be defined as the
Decoration aims at beauty, selection and arrangement of elements of
functionalism and expressiveness. Beauty is art such as lines, form, colour and texture
a quality which is pleasing to the eye and ear, of an object or a drawing of it on a piece
functionalism represent usefulness, whereas of paper. A good design shows an orderly
expressiveness indicate definite idea or arrangement of the materials and creates
theme. The ideas expressed in a house are beauty in the finished product.
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 Design can be classified into two types.
DESIGN
Structural design Decorative design
Structural design is the design made by the Decorative design is the surface enrichment
size, form, colour and texture of an object. of a structural design. This adds luxury to a
Structural design is essential to every object. design.
Requirements of a good structural design Requirements of a good decorative design
1. It should be simple and beautiful. The decoration should be in moderation.
2. It should be suited to its purpose. The decoration should be placed at structural
points. It should strengthen the shape of the object.
3. It should be well proportioned. There should be enough background space to give
an effect of simplicity and dignity to the design.
4. It should be suited to the material of Surface patterns should cover the surface quality.
which it is made.
5. It should have originality. Designs, based on their source can be classified
into natural, conventional, geometric and
abstract designs.
6. It should strengthen the shape of the
object.
7. Surface patterns should cover the
surface quality

There are general characteristics design. Elements and principles of design

found in beautiful art objects that establish are foundation of all visual matter.
certain principles. Any piece of art that
The elements of art are as follows:
satisfies these principles is always admired
by all. One should have the knowledge 1. Line
of the principles fundamental to good 2. Shape and form
taste. Based on this, one can identify and 3. Texture
appreciate beauty in art objects. Now let
4. Space
us deal with the elements of art.
5. Colour

5.5  Elements of art 5.5.1 Line

Elements of art are parts of a work Line is the basic element of art.
of art that can be defined. These elements It is a series of points joined together
are the building blocks of a design. All in two-dimensional form. It has
art work is created by combining the length but no width. Line is capable of
elements of art guided by principles of communicating emotion, movement,
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 direction, growth and states of mind
through its character.

Types of lines
i. Horizontal lines: Horizontal lines
suggest a feeling of rest and repose. It
also creates the effect of width as they
carry eye from left to right or vice
versa and make objects appear broad
and fat.

Vertical lines

iii. Diagonal lines: Diagonal lines

suggest a feeling of movement
or direction, restlessness and
excitement. They also suggest
lack of stability. Diagonal lines
are associated with running
posture and signifies action
Horizontal lines and movement.

ii. Vertical lines: Vertical lines are

associated with upright position
of human body which signifies
alertness and stability. Vertical lines
communicate a sense of height. They
also suggest the feelings of strength,
regularity, loftiness, spirituality and
action. They move the gaze from top
to bottom or vice versa.
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 iv. Curved lines: There are two types of Form is the organization of visual elements
curved lines. in three dimensions. In addition to height
a) Soft shallow curved lines: / length and width, form also has actual
Soft shallow curved lines depth or illusion of depth. Basic forms are
suggest grace, joyful feelings, spheres, cubes and cones.
comfort, safety, familiarity and
relaxation. Types of shapes and forms
b) Deep acute curved lines: Deep
acute curved lines suggest
confusion, turbulence, even frenzy.

5.5.2  Shape and forms

Shape is an area enclosed by lines.

Shapes are flat and generally considered
two dimensional. Basic shapes are
rectangles, squares, triangles and circles.

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 i. Naturalistic shapes/forms: simplified versions of natural shapes/
Naturalistic shapes or forms are forms. Abstract shapes are usually
found in nature and are irregular or used to convey meaning or identity
asymmetrical forms such as mountains, without the use of written language.
flowers. Man-made objects may also Many signs, icons and logos found in
imitate the naturalistic shapes. advertisements, posters use abstract
ii. Abstract shapes/forms: Abstract shapes and forms.
shapes of forms are stylized or iii. Geometric shapes/ forms: These
corresponds to mathematically
shapes and forms such as circles,
squares, cubes, cylinders and
cones etc.

5.5.3 Space

It is the area around, between,

above, below or within object. Space
can be two-dimensional as well as three
dimensional. Two dimensional space has
only height and width whereas three-
dimensional space also has a depth.
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 zzToo much empty space is as bad as too
little space.

5.5.4 Texture

Texture refers to the tactile

quality of an object which may be felt
by touch or may be identified through
visual examination. The different kinds
of texture are furry, fuzzy, satiny, silky
and rough. Texture helps in adding
beautification to the objects. Textures are
very important in designing any artwork
as it helps in creating emphasis or unity
between different components.
Texture can be of two types:
1. Visual texture is what you see
through sight.
2. Actual/tactile texture is what you can
feel by you.
Implications of space
Effects of texture
zzLarge spaces without boundary give a
feeling of being exposed and lonely. 1. Rough textures suggest informality.
zzSmall spaces may lend a feeling of 2. Smooth textures suggest formality.
protection and privacy. 3. Textures are helpful to create
zzSpace be judiciously used in design emphasis, harmony or separation
for best impact. between parts of a whole.

ROUGH MEDIUM SMOOTH

Fig 6  Visual texture- rough, medium and smooth

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 It is rest or repose. Balance is the
5.5.5 Colour
fundamental principle of design. Balance
Colour is an important element of is the arrangement of elements so that
art. It is defined as the impression formed all is equalized. Visually all the weight is
by the mind according to stimulations of equal and no part dominates completely.
the retina. Objects in the environment It is a way to compare the right and left
absorb certain wavelengths of light side of a composition. The placement of
and reflect back others, the reflected elements of design should be in such a
wavelengths enter the eye, act upon the way so as to make them look appealing
optic nerves cause sensation of light on a particular space. Balance can be of
and colour. Light waves with different three types:
wavelengths produce different sensations a) Formal or symmetrical balance
and appear as different colours. b) Informal or asymmetrical balance or
occult balance
c) Obvious balance

a) Formal or symmetrical balance:

Green Blue Orange Yellow Symmetrical or formal balance
is referred to as when sides of a
composition from a centre/focal
5.6 Principles of Design point, are similar in visual weight
and almost mirrored. Formal balance
The principles are concepts used gives a sense of formality, stiffness,
to organize or arrange the structural precision, exactness and carefulness.
elements of design. The principles of Symmetrical or formal balance is of
design help in determining whether an two types.
object is aesthetically good or poor. They zzBisymmetrical Balance: In
are just guidelines in creating an effective bisymmetry, the elements are
art work or design. The principles of arranged equally on either side
design are as follows. of a central axis.
1. Balance
2. Proportion
3. Rhythm
4. Emphasis
5. Harmony or unity

5.6.1 Balance

Balance is equalization of
attraction on both sides of the centre.
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 c) Radial Balance: Radial balance is
obtained by arranging elements
equally around a central/focal point.

a) Obvious balance: obvious balance

is created when objects, which are
not alike but equal in their power of
5.6.2  Proportion and scale
attraction, are placed on the two sides
of the centre/focal point. This balance Proportion is the feeling of unity
is in between formal and informal created when all parts relate well with each
balance and has features of both. other. Proportion means the relationship
b) Informal or asymmetrical balance of sizes or areas to one another or to
or occult balance: Informal balance a whole. The principle of proportion
is achieved when both sides of a is sometimes called ‘the law of
composition from centre/focal point, relationships’.It also refers to the relative
are dissimilar in visual weight and size and scale of the various elements in a
also not mirrored. Informal balance design. Proportion is achieved when the
is more subtle, casual, dynamic, different sizes of objects are successfully
active and suggest informality and grouped in an arrangement the elements
flexibility. making up the structure having a pleasing
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 relationship for the whole and to one 5.6.3 Rhythm
another. For example, a very small sofa
would be ‘out of scale’ in a very large room. Rhythm is organized movement
in continuity. It is one of the fundamental
principles in any design. Rhythm is
created when one or more elements
such as colours, shapes, forms and size
are used repeatedly to create a feeling of
organized movement. Variety is essential
to keep rhythm exciting and active and
moving the viewer around the artwork. If
a piece has a rhythm the work should flow
freely without interruption. Rhythm can
be achieved through four ways. They are
continuous line, repetition, progression
of sizes/gradation and radiation.

REMEMBER

Scale refers to the size of an object.

Proportion is part of an object in
relation to whole.

Greek oblong or Golden Oblong

refers to proportions of parts to one
another and to the whole. Golden section
is a standard of good proportion and Continuous line
divides the space interestingly. This
oblong uses the ratio of 2:3 or 3:5 in case
of flat surfaces and 5:7:11 in case of solids.

2 3 PARTS
P
A
R
T
S
Repetition
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 and from that point to every other
detail in order of importance. Emphasis
is the part of the design that catches
the viewer’s attention. In a particular
composition, there are things which the
Progression of sizes artist wishes to highlight and these things
should dominate, whereas there are other
things which play just a supportive role
and hence should not be emphasized. By
emphasis one can stress important parts
of an artwork.
Emphasis can be created by various
ways.
zzIt can be done by using different
colour, size, texture and shape.
zzAnother way of creating emphasis is
by the use of decoration, contrasting
colour, by grouping objects, by
Radiation.
placing things with sufficient space as
background.
5.6.4 Emphasis
zzEmphasis can also be created by
Emphasis is the art principle by making a focal point.
which the eye is carried first to the most
important thing in any arrangement
5.6.5  Harmony or unity

Harmony is the fundamental

requirement of any piece of work. It means
a single idea or impression. All objects
in a group have a ‘family resemblance
or friendliness’. Unity is the feeling of
harmony between all parts of the artwork
Fig 7  Methods of creating emphasis creating a sense of completeness. It is
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 used to create a feeling of completeness When white light falls on an
where everything flows together. opaque object, selective absorption
According to Goldstein and Goldstein occurs. The surface of the object absorbs
V., Harmony is the art principle which certain wavelengths of light and reflects
produces a feeling of unity through the others. Our eyes pick up the colour of the
selection and arrangement of consistent reflected light as the colour of the object.
objects and ideas. One element should Pigmentation of a surface determines
merge with another in terms of line, which wavelengths or bands of light are
shape, form, colour, idea, texture etc. to be absorbed and which are reflected as
Unity can be achieved through the object colour. For example, a red surface
effective and consistent use of above appears red because it absorbs most of
mentioned elements. Pattern is the most the blue and green light falling on it and
fundamental element for a strong sense reflects the red part of the spectrum,
of unity. similarly, a black surface absorbs the entire
spectrum, and white surface reflects all of
it. This distribution of colour in light rays
is reflected as a rainbow on a rainy day
when the light ray passes through a water
droplet, which acts as a prism.

5.7.1  Dimensions of colour

There are three properties or

qualities which may be called the
dimension of colour, and which are just
as distinct from one another as the length,
breadth, and thickness of an object. All
three of these dimensions-hue, value and
intensity-are present in every colour, just
as every object has length and breadth and
thickness.

5.7 Colour and Colour These colour dimensions are Hue,

Schemes Value, and Intensity or chroma.

Colour is an inherent visual

property of all forms. It is an essential part 5.7.2  C
 lassification of
of our environmental settings. The colours colours-Prang
we attribute to objects, however, find their colour chart
source in the light that illuminates and
reveals form and space. Without light, In the Prang System, colours may
colour does not exist. be divided into five classes: Primary,

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 DIMENSIONS OF COLOUR
HUE VALUE INTENSITY / CHROMA
zzHue refers to the name zzIt indicates the lightness zzIt refers to the brightness
of the colour such as or darkness of a colour or dullness of a colour.
red, yellow and blue in relation to white or zzIt also refers to the
and it describe the black. degree of purity or
kind of colour and also zzLight values are called saturation of a colour
represents the difference tints and dark values are with respect to grey.
between the colours. called shades. zzIt can be said it is the
zzThe hues or colours zzTints are made by property describing the
can be divided into addition of white and distance of the colour
warm and cool colours. shades are made by from grey or neutrality
The colours that have addition of black. line. e.g as in the case
more of yellow, red are of the lemon which is
zzThe lightness and
considered to be warm brighter than the banana
heaviness are given by
colours as they represent though both of them are
the use of the different
the colours of fire, sun of the same colour.
colours.
and heat.
zzRed and yellow seem zzA colour in its purest
zzThe colours which to be heavy colours form has the greatest
have more of blue are brilliance or intensity.
while blue or purple are
considered to be cool considered to be light zzAdding more of
colours as they represent colours. hue strengthens the
the sky and water.
zzHeavy colours are used intensity, adding grey or
zzWarm colours make the at the lower part of the complementary colour
objects appear bigger lowers it. Hues that are
room and light colours
and closer where as cool neutralized or greyed are
are used on the upper
colours make the objects called tones.
side of the room.
appear smaller and far
zzLight values increase zzWarm colours like
away.
the size of the rooms/ yellow, orange and red
zzWarm colours are objects and dark values with high intensities
cheerful and stimulating are stimulating, visually
reduce the size.
where as cool colours are active and therefore
calm and restful. should be used in small
zzAdvancing colours such areas.
as yellow, red are those zzCool colours like blue,
that tend to advance purple and green with
towards one by reducing low intensities are
the distance. subdued and relaxing,
zzThe advanced colours can be enjoyed in large
make the room smaller. areas.
zzReceding colours are
those that tend to recede
or go back by increasing
distance and make the
room larger.

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 Case Study YELLOW
YELLOW
YELLOW
GREEN ORANGE
1. Sharmila’s study room looks ORANGE
GREEN
small. The walls are painted with
SECONDARY
dark purple colour paint. What COLOUR

change can she do to make that PRANG

ORANGE
COLOUR

GREEN

RED
BLUE
room look bigger? WHEEL
2. In Raji’s house, the living room PRIMARY

is too narrow and long. How

COLOUR

BLUE RED
can she make the room to look
BLUE RED
approximately square? PURPLE PURPLE
PURPLE

Answers
1. The walls can be painted with
light colours as they give the
feeling of spaciousness e.g
banana yellow, light pink etc.
2. The two narrow walls in the
living room can be painted with
light value colours to make them
recede/go back, while other two
walls can be painted with full
bright intensities to advance.
Thereby making the room look
like a square room. yellow
yellow-green yellow-orange

secondary, intermediate, tertiary and green orange

quaternary.
1. Primary colours: All colours may blue-green orange-red
be obtained by mixing in various
proportions three fundamental hues:
red (R), Yellow (Y), and blue (B). blue red

These are called the three primary

blue-violet red-violet
colours, because they are the elements violet
in the use of pigment. They are the
Fig 8  Prang colour wheel -Primary,
only hues in pigment that cannot be
secondary and intermediate colours
obtained by mixing other hues.
2. Secondary colours: When two Yellow + Blue = Green.
primary colours are mixed in equal Blue + Red = Violet or Purple.
proportions, we get secondary colours. Red + Yellow = Orange

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 The primary and secondary There are three quaternary colours.
colours together are called basic They are
colours. Smoky Yellow + Old Brick Red=
3. Intermediate Colours: When Grey Orange or Buff.
a primary and an adjacent Smoky Yellow + Slate Blue = Grey
secondary colour is mixed an Green or Olive Green
intermediate colour is produced.
Old Brick Red + Slate Blue = Grey
There are six intermediate colours.
Violet or Prune.
They are
The three tertiary and three
Yellow + Green = Yellow
quaternary colours form the inner circle
Green.
of the prang colour chart. Grey colour
Blue + Green = Blue Green. is in the centre of the Prang colour
Blue + Violet = Blue Violet chart.
Red + Violet = Red Violet
Red + Orange = Red Orange
ACTIVITY 2
Yellow + Orange = Yellow
Take red colour pencil and yellow
Orange.
colour pencil and fill up the circles.
The three primary colours, In the third circle apply both red
three secondary colours and six and yellow colours at the same time
intermediate colours form the in equal proportion and see the
outer circle of the Prang colour colour change. For the second one,
chart. take red and blue colour pencils and
4. Tertiary Colours: When two apply simultaneously in the third
secondary colours are mixed a circle.(Answer: Refer Classification
tertiary colour is produced. of colours-Prang colour chart-
Secondary colours)
There are three tertiary
colours. They are
1. Red + Yellow = ?
Green + Orange = Grey Yellow
or Smoky Yellow.
+ =
Orange + Violet = Grey Red
or Old brick Red.
Green + Violet = Grey Blue or 2. Red + Blue = ?
Slate Blue.
5. Quaternary Colours: When + =
two tertiary colours are mixed a
quaternary colour is produced.

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 5.7.3 Colour Harmonies/
Schemes

Harmony can be defined as a

pleasing arrangement of various parts in
to a complete one. In visual experiences,
harmony is something that is pleasing
to the eye. It engages the viewer and
it creates an inner sense of order, a
balance in the visual experience. Colour
harmony delivers visual interest and
ii. Analogous colour harmony:
a sense of order. Colour combination
a) In this colour scheme the
or colour harmonies can be classified
into related and contrasting colour colours which are lying
harmonies. adjacent to each other in the
prang colour chart are used.
1. Related colour harmony: They are b) They provide interesting
obtained by using colours which variety than monochro-
are similar. They are classified into matic harmony.
monochromatic and analogous
c) The colours should be of
colour harmony.
different intensities and
i. Monochromatic colour values. Examples: Red,
harmony: Red Orange, Orange.
a) This is also known as one d) One colour is used as
hue colour harmony. It dominant while others are
involves use of tints, shades used to enrich the scheme.
and tones of the same hue.
e) It is used widely in creating
Example: yellow.
art work.
b) In a monochromatic
colour scheme, charming
effects can be obtained
through contrast in
textures of the materials
used.
c) Neutral colours such as
white, black and grey
can be integrated into the
colour scheme.
d) It results in less vibrant
colour scheme compared Yellow, yellow green and green Orange.
to other harmonies. Yellow orange, yellow
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 2. Contrasting colour harmonies: ii. Double complementary colour
Contrasting colour schemes are harmony:
based on opposing colours and a) Two adjacent colours and
tend to be stimulating and balanced their opposite colours
because they include both warm and in the Prang colour
cool colours. chart are combined. For
i. Complementar y colour example: Yellow, Yellow
scheme: Green, Violet and Red
a) Two colours that are Violet.
directly opposite in the b) In this colour scheme,
Prang colour chart are one colour should be
combined. Example: dominant, other colours
Yellow and Violet, Blue should be used as the
and Orange. subordinate colours.
b) In this colour scheme, c) Attention should be given
one colour should be to balance between warm
dominant, other colour and cool colours.
should be used as the
subordinate colour.
c) This scheme makes use of
one warm and one cool
colour.
d) High degree of contrast
in this scheme makes
it striking drawing
maximum attention.

Red, red orange, blue green and green

iii. Split complementary colour

harmony:
a) In this scheme, one
dominant colour and two
subordinate colours that
lie on either side of its
complementary colour are
combined. For example:
Yellow, Blue Purple and
Blue and orange
Red Purple.
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 b) Due to the contrast, this
colour scheme is attention
seeking.

Primary Triad - Yellow, Blue and Red

Secondary Triad - Green, Orange
and Violet
Orange, blue purple and blue green
iv. Tetrad colour harmony:
iii. Triad colour harmony:
a) This is formed by any
a) In this, three colours four hues equidistant on
which are at equal distance the Prang colour chart.
in the Prang colour chart Example: Green, Yellow
are combined. Orange, Red and Blue
b) It is a rich colour scheme Purple.
which offers plenty of b) It works best if one colour
possibilities for variations. is dominant
c) Utmost care is required c) Attention is to be paid to the
to balance the colours in balance between warm and
a pleasing triadic colour cool colours in the design.
harmony.
d) We get four triads namely
primary, secondary and
two intermediate triads.
Primary Triad - Yellow, Blue
and Red.
Secondary Triad - Green,
Orange and Violet.
Intermediate Triad
a) 
Blue Green, Red Purple
and Yellow Orange
b) Yellow Green, Blue Purple Green, Yellow Orange, Red and Blue
and Red Orange. Purple
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 ACTIVITY 3 zzThe activities to be carried out in each
room.
Match the following zzColours of other existing furniture
1. Analogous three colours and furnishings in the house.
which are at zzOnly one colour should dominate.
equal distance
zzThe basic colour should occupy at
2. Monochromatic Directly least 60-70% of the whole colour
opposite hues scheme. Second hue should be used
3. Complementary Hues lying in lesser quantity and if a third colour
adjacent is used, it should be used in least
4. Double one dominant quantity.
complementary colour and two zzFollow ‘Law of areas’ that is, larger the
subordinate area lighter the colour and smaller
colours either the area brighter the colour.
side of its
zzThe current trends and fashions.
complementary
colour
5. Split Two adjacent
complementary colours and 5.8  Flower Arrangement
their opposite
Flowers are nature’s gift to mankind.
colours
Flowers are artistically arranged along
6. Triad Four hues with other plant materials in receptacles
equidistant and organized into compositions having
7. Tetrad One hue harmony of form, texture and colour.
Flowers brightens up any room in the
house and provide variety and interest.
5.7.4  F
 actors to be Flower arrangements are used at various
considered while locations such as tables, window sills,
planning colour scheme walls and corners to suit the space and
occasions.
The following points must be taken
into consideration while planning colour
scheme for the interiors. 5.8.1  M
 aterials used in flower
zzThe expected effect in size, shape and arrangement
direction of the room.
There are three basic materials are
zzThe mood to be created in the room. needed for creating flower arrangements:
Example: Masculine, feminine,
traditional, formal, etc. 1. Flowers, foliage, fruits and berries

zzIndividual preference of the family 2. Vases/containers

members. 3. Stem holders, knife, scissors and wire
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 1. Flowers, foliage, fruits and 2. Selection of Vases/
berries: Containers
Any kind of flowers, foliage, fresh, The main function of the vases
dry or artificial ones can be used in this or container is to support the flowers
art. and foliage. The container should be
Selection and preservation of subordinate to the flower arrangement. It
flowers should be of the right size, shape, colour
and material.
1. Flowers should be collected either
early morning or evening. Types of vases or containers

2. Select buds or flowers just blossoming zzJars, attractive bottles, tins.

than flowers in full bloom. These zzTall cylinders, narrow necked vases,
flowers are liable to shed their petals flat round dishes, deep trays, low
or droop and wither fast in a short round bowls.
period. zzBottles of different colours.
3. The stems should not be broken zzBlock of wood or bamboo baskets.
with the hand. It should be cut with
zzHousehold pots, vessels, tumblers,
scissors or a sharp knife. The stem
shallow dishes.
should be as long as possible.
4. The cut portion of the stem should
be immersed in water. Only the 3. Flower Holder
petals of the flowers should be A flower holder is one which has
exposed. sharp spikes upon which the stems can
5. The leaves close to the base of the be firmly placed. This is known as pin
stem should be removed. type holder. Other than this we also have
6. The flowers should be wrapped crumpled wire, split twigs etc. Flower
either in a piece of paper or a holders must be strong and flexible, so
broad leaf, such as the banana leaf, that any type of stem can be easily fixed.
above the stem ends and stored in It should also be rust proof. Pin
dark corner of a room in a bucket holders can be fixed to the bottom by clay
of water, to protect them from or candle. This fixing must be done when
sunlight. If they are not going to the vase as well as the holders are dry. Large
be used soon, polythene covers flowers and foliage can be arranged at the
may also be used to cover the cut bottom so that the holders are concealed.
flowers. Oasis is a trademarked name for wet floral
7. The container or the vase should be foam, the spongy phenolic foam used for
filled with warm water. The water real flower arranging. It soaks up water like
should be changed every day. Add a sponge and acts both as a preservative
sugar or salt to enable the flower to to prolong the life of the  flowers  and a
last. support to hold them in place.

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 refers to the man (soe) and lowest
5.8.2  S
 tyles in flower indicates the earth (hikae).
arrangement
zzHeaven- 1 ½ times to 2 times the
1. The traditional style: Where a mass height or width of the vase.
of flowers of all kinds, colours and zzMan - 3/4th the height of heaven.
size are used together. This produces zzEarth - 1/2 the height of man.
a multi-coloured mass effect.
The arrangement of these
2. Oriental style: This is Japanese branches and the kenzan or spiked
mode of flower arrangement. metal holder are drawn in a simple
Ikebana  which means «living diagram, called a  kakeizu. Today
flowers» is the Japanese art of flower there are four main styles of flower
arrangement.   Ikebana can be arrangement: 1)  rikka  (standing
divided into two styles - the flowers); 2)  nagarie  (throw
moribana shallow vase style and in); 3)  moribana  (piled-up);
the nageire tall vase style. It gives and shokai (living flowers).
an impression of a natural growing
3. The modern style: A combination of
plant. The stems are so arranged
traditional and oriental style.
that their lines form an attractive
pattern. The flowers are placed 4. Floating arrangement: This
in such a way so as to produce arrangement can be made in shallow
balance. The flowers are always in bowls and trays with short stemmed
odd numbers, three, five, seven or flowers. The largest, highest and
eleven.The Japanese oriental style most attractive flower can be
usually follows three principles at allowed to float in the centre and
different levels. The highest level others grouped around. Flowers
signifies heaven (shin), the middle should not completely cover up
the water.

15
Frontal
45 View

75
90

Shin
Soe
hikae

Overhead Kenzan
View

Ikebana KakeizuMoribana (piled-up flowers)

Source: Sogetsukai Foundation

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 Points to be considered while
5.8.3 Types of Flower
arranging flowers
Arrangements
1. Have an idea about the arrangement.
Mass Arrangement: A group of
2. Arrange the flowers first and then fill
flowers of all kinds, colours, size and
up with leaves and twigs.
textures are combined in a container.
3. Have big bright flowers at the bottom Usually decorative container is used.
and small light coloured flowers on
higher levels. Line arrangement: This
arrangement is simple, meaningful,
4. Work from centre and then deviate beautiful and informal. This arrangement
from that to one points in the gives an impression of natural, free
arrangement. growing plant. Odd numbers of flowers
5. Fill the flower vase with enough are used at various levels.
water to dip the stem ends. Combination arrangement: A
6. Sprinkle salt, sugar or suitable combination of line and mass arrangement
preservative to keep up the freshness gives rise to geometric shapes as cone,
of flower for long. crescent, circle, triangle, ‘L’ shape and so on.
7. Display the flower arrangement Foliage arrangement: Arrangements
beautifully in a place to be seen using leaves or branches of plants are foliage
and enjoyed. Select suitable arrangements, (e.g.) ferns, crotons, cannas,
accessories to go in with the cactus, weeds can also be arranged effectively
arrangement. with a touch of imagination.
8. All the principles of design should be Miniature arrangement: They are
followed for pleasing effects. small arrangements usually within four

Arrangement of Flowers

Mass arrangement Line arrangement L-shape arrangement Crescent arrangement Foliage arrangement

Miniature arrangement Dry arrangement

Types of Flower Arrangements

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 inches in height arranged in small containers in various designs. For drawing kolams,
like egg shell, small bottles, lids, etc. either white stone or chalk powder,
Dry Arrangement: These are enamel paint, white or coloured salt,
particularly useful during rainy season when sand or powders and solutions prepared
there are very few flowers, Dry arrangements by mixing rice flour and water is used.
with fruits, vegetables, seed pods, bare Red mud solution is used as painting
branches, flower plumes of tall grasses, to give added brightness. In rural areas,
sugar cane, roots, stems of money plant, a people spray cow dung mixed with water
small dead tree, the clustering, especially as base on floors before putting Kolam.
peacock feathers if well-arranged presents zzRangoli: Coloured dry powder which
a unique appearance and are suitable for are usually made from kolam powders
interior decoration. Dry arrangements with are used. They are mixed with either
wood can be painted in silver, white or gold sand or salt.
for variation in style. zzAlpana: Alpana is a traditional art
where the design is painted with white
5.9  Floor Decorations paint. Usually zinc oxide and gum are
mixed to keep it for a longer duration.
Floor decorations are essential part zzFlower Carpet: Different coloured
of the rich heritage of Indian culture and flowers, petals and leaves are arranged
imparts colour, joy, and happiness. The over the design. Wet sand may be
various types of floor decorations are: evenly spread beneath the flower
zzKolam: Kolam is a free hand drawing of carpet to have a raised effect.
various designs. It can be either dotted or

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 5.10 Kitchen/Terrace The advantages of Kitchen/ terrace
Gardening gardening are given below:

Landscape gardening is an art zzFresh  fruits and vegetables high in

of laying out grounds in a way which is nutritive value.
ornamental imitating natural scenery. zzFruits and vegetables  free  from toxic
Such gardening is difficult nowadays, due chemicals.
to limited space and increased population. zzHelp to save expenditure on purchase
Kitchen/ terrace gardening is a new option of vegetables.
available. Kitchen/ terrace gardening is
zzVegetables harvested from home
growing of greens, fruits and vegetables
garden taste better.
at the backyard or terrace of the house by
using kitchen waste water. Even balconies zzEffective  utilization of kitchen waste
can be used for this garden. Old buckets, water and kitchen waste materials.
unused bottles, jars can be used for
growing plants. Neem oil and Neem seed
kernel extract can be used to protect the
plants from weeds.

Plants suitable for kitchen/terrace garden

Vegetables Medicinal Plants Flowers Fruits Spices

Tomato Bottle gourd Aloe vera Pirandai Rose Guava Turmeric

Brinjal Amaranthus Vasambu Thoothuvelai Jasmine Papaya Coriander

Chilly Moringa Vallarai Ponnanganni Hibiscus Lemon Fenugreek

Alari
Onion Curry leaf Mint Poduthalai Amla Ginger
(Nerium)
Big Pome
Spinach Basil Manathakali
Onion granate
Lady’s
Cowpea Thulsi Vettiver Sapota
finger
Bitter Kandanth
Cluster bean Omavalli
gourd thippili
Snake
Beetroot Karisilanganni Thippili
gourd
Ribbed
Radish Keela nelli
gourd

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 S U M M A RY z Shape is an area enclosed by lines.
Shapes are flat and generally considered
z House is a shelter made of floors,
two dimensional. Basic shapes are
walls, windows, roof etc where family
rectangles, squares, triangles and circles.
members live together and spend
maximum part of their life. z Form is the organization of visual
elements in three dimensions. In
z The residential buildings may broadly
addition to height/ length and width,
be classified into five categories –
form also has actual depth or illusion
namely detached houses, semi-
of depth. Basic forms are spheres,
detached houses, row houses,
cubes and cones.
apartments and sky scrapers.
z Texture refers to the tactile quality of
z While selecting a site for the
an object which may be felt by touch
construction of a house the factors
or may be identified through visual
such as physical features, soil
examination.
conditions, sanitary facilities, practical
convenience, good neighbourhood z The principles of design are harmony
and legal characteristics are to be or unity, proportion, balance, rhythm,
taken into consideration. and emphasis.

z The principles to be considered for z Harmony is a single idea or impression.

organising rooms while planning a z Proportion means the relationship of
house are aspect, prospect, privacy, sizes or areas to one another or to a
grouping, roominess, furniture whole.
requirements, circulation, flexibility, z Greek oblong or Golden Oblong
sanitation and practical consideration. refers to proportions of parts to one
z Design is selecting and arranging of another and to the whole. Golden
materials with two aims – order and section is known as law of relationship
beauty. which helps in dividing the space
z Structural design is the design made interestingly. This oblong uses the
by the size, form, colour and texture of ratio of 2:3 or 3:5 in case of flat surfaces
an object. Structural design is essential and 5:7:11 in case of solids.
to every object.Decorative design is z Balance is equalization of attraction
the surface enrichment of a structural on both sides of the center. Rhythm
design. This adds luxury to a design. is organized movement in continuity.
z The elements of art are line, shape and Emphasis is the art principle by which
form, texture, space and colour the eye is carried first to the most
important thing in any arrangement
z Line is the basic element of art. It is
and from that point to every other
a series of points joined together in
detail in order of importance.
two-dimensional form.
z All colours may be obtained by
mixing in various proportions three

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 fundamental hues: red (R), Yellow z Contrasting colour schemes are based
(Y), and blue (B). These are called the on opposing colours and tend to be
three primary colours, because they stimulating and balanced because they
are the elements in the use of pigment. include both warm and cool colours.
They are the only hues in pigment that z In Complementary colour scheme,
cannot be obtained by mixing other two colours that are directly opposite
hues. in the Prang colour chart are
z When two primary colours are mixed combined. Double complementary
in equal proportions, secondary colour harmony include two adjacent
colours are obtained. When a primary colours and their opposite colours in
and an adjacent secondary colour the Prang colour chart are combined.
is mixed an intermediate colour is z Split complementary colour harmony,
produced. There are six intermediate combines one dominant colour and
colours-Yellow Green, Blue Green, two subordinate colours that lie on
Blue Violet, Red Violet, Red Orange either side of its complementary
and Yellow Orange. colour. Triad colour harmony makes
z When two secondary colours are use of three colours which are at equal
mixed a tertiary colour is produced. distance in the Prang colour chart are
When two tertiary colours are mixed a combined. Tetrad colour harmony is
quaternary colour is produced. There formed by any four hues equidistant
are three quaternary colours. on the Prang colour chart.
z Warm colours with dark values and z Flower arrangement is defined as an
in bright intensities make the objects art of arranging flowers with other
appear bigger and closer where as plant materials in receptacles and
cool colours, light values and dull organized into compositions having
intensities make the objects appear harmony of form, texture and colour.
smaller and far away. z Floor decorations are essential part of
z Related colour harmony is obtained the rich heritage of Indian culture and
by using colours which are similar. imparts colour, joy, and happiness.
Monochromatic colour harmony also The various types of floor decorations
known as one hue colour harmony. It arekolam, rangoli, alpana and flower
involves use of tints, shades and tones carpet.
of the same hue. Analogous colour z In Kitchen/ terrace gardening greens,
harmony involves colours which are fruits and vegetables can be grown at
lying adjacent to each other in the the backyard or terrace/ balcony of the
prang colour chart are used. house by using kitchen waste water.

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 G L O S S A RY

zz Peg board - Perforated hardboard zz Complementary- opposite

which is pre-drilled with evenly spaced zz Tint-light value
holes. The holes are used to accept
zz Shade- dark value
pegs or hooks to support various
items, such as frying and sauce pans zz Tactile quality–texture felt by touch

zz Loft- roof storage space zz Florist foam-oasis/ spongy foam used

for flower arranging
zz Built-in- cupboard - cabinet attached
with wall

E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer a) Horizontal

1. ______________ is the impression b) Vertical
that the house creates on a person c) Diagonal
who views it from outside.
d) Curved
a) Aspect
5. ______________ shapes of forms are
b) Prospect stylized or simplified versions of
c) Flexibility natural shapes/forms.
d) Grouping a) Abstract
2. The best location for kitchen will be b) Natural
______________ corner of the house. c) Geometric
a) East d) Actual
b) West 6. ______________ balance is more
c) North subtle, casual, dynamic, active and
d) South suggest flexibility.
a) Informal
3. This ______________ design adds
luxury to a design. b) Formal
a) Structural c) Bilateral
b) Decorative d) Radial
c) Natural 7. ______________ is organized
d) Artistic movement in continuity.
a) Rhythm
4. The ______________ lines suggest the
feelings of strength, regularity, b) Emphasis
loftiness, spirituality and action. c) Proportion

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 d) Harmony 9. What are the various types of lines?
8. White, black and grey are 10. What does vertical and horizontal
______________ colours. line suggest
a) Neutral 11. Name three common shapes
b) Secondary 12. Give the meaning of naturalistic
c) Tertiary shapes

d) Primary 13. What do you understand by geometric

shapes?
9. ______________ refers to the
brightness or dullness of a colour. 14. Give examples of naturalistic,
geometric and abstract shapes
a) Hue
15. Define space as an element of art
b) Value
16. Name two types of space
c) Prang
17. Name two types of texture
d) Intensity
18. What do you understand by tactile
10. This colour scheme involves two
texture?
colours that are directly opposite in
the Prang colour chart. 19. What do mean by visual texture?

a) Complementary 20. Name three qualities of colour

b) Double complementary 21. Define value

c) Split complementary 22. Define intensity of colour

d) Triad 23. Name tertiary colours

24. Name two neutral colours
II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) 25. Name any two light colours and two
1. Define housing heavy colours
2. What do you mean by owning a 26. What is the difference between shade
house? and tint?
3. What do you mean by renting a 27. Name two warm colours
house? 28. Name two cool colours
4. List the type of furniture that can be 29. Name any two intermediate and
used in a living room quartnery colours
5. What are the different types of kitchen 30. Define prang colour chart
arrangements?
31. What are the types of balance?
6. What is design?
32. What is symmetrical or formal
7. What is structural design? balance?
8. What is decorative design? 33. Name any two asymmetrical or
informal balance
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 34. What is obvious balance? f) Double complementary colour
35. What do you understand by scheme
proportion? g) Tetrad colour scheme
36. What is meant by harmony? 9. Write short note on dimensions of
37. What is flower arrangement? colour

38. What do you mean by kitchen/terrace 10. Blue and green are considered to be
garden? receding colours. Why?

39. What is floor decoration? Give two 11. Which colours are considered to be
examples advancing colours? Where can be used?

40. Give the names of two medicinal 12. Highlight the importance emphasis
plants as a principle of design
13. What do you understand by Greek/
III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks) golden Oblong?
1. List various activities carried out and 14. Bring out the significance of
space allotted for them at home proportion in designing
2. Classify major areas based on various 15. What are the ways of bringing
activities carried out at home. emphasis in interiors?
3. What points should be kept in mind 16. What are the various styles of flower
while making arrangement in living arrangement?
room 17. What are the points to be considered
4. What are the requirements of while arranging flowers?
structural design? 18. What are the different types of floor
5. What are the requirements of decorations?
decorative design? 19. Explain the different types of plants
6. Highlight the importance of veranda that can be grown in kitchen/terrace
garden.
7. What do understand by colour
harmonies? 20. What the advantages of kitchen/
terrace garden?
8. Give an account of the following
colour schemes
IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
a) Monochromatic colour scheme
1. Explain the importance of housing
b) Analogous colour scheme
2. Give an account of various types of
c) Complementary colour scheme
residential buildings
d) Split complementary colour
3. List the factors affecting choice of
scheme
house
e) Triad colour scheme

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 4. Compare the advantages of owning 13. Elaborate on different types of colour
and renting a house schemes
5. How kitchen should be organized? 14. What do the diagonal and curved
Discuss in detail lines represent?
6. Explain the points to be considered 15. Explain the different types of shapes
while making arrangements for bed and forms.
room? 16. Differentiate between formal and
7. Explain the factors to be considered informal balance
while selecting a site for the 17. In Sheela’s house, there is a room
construction of a house with dark coloured walls. How can
8. Discuss the principles of organising we make the room bigger?
rooms while planning a house in detail 18. What are the different colour
9. Enlist the various elements of design harmonies? Give suitable examples.
10. Elaborate on the various principles of 19. Differentiate triadic and tetrad colour
design in detail with suitable schemes.
examples. 20. Kavitha is a seven year old girl. To
11. Bring out the effect of vertical and improve her general health, suggest
horizontal lines in interiors of home. her few medicinal plants she can take
12. Pavithra is short and obese. What from kitchen garden.
type of lines she should choose in her
dress to overcome height and why?

REFERENCES

Books 3. PremavathySeetharaman and

1. PremavathySeetharaman, Sonia ParveenPannu (2009), Interior
Batra, PreethiMehra, (2015), An Design and Decoration, CBS
Introduction to Family Resource Publishers and Distributors (P)
Management, CBS Publishers and Limited, New Delhi.
Distributors (P) Limited, New Delhi. 4. Narayana Tanthry, (2002), Practical
2. Varghese M.A, Ogale M.N, Srinivasan House building Manual, Tantry
K, (1985), Home Management, New Associates, Bangalore.
Age International (P) Limited, 5. Pratap Rao M, (1998)Interior Design
Publishers, New Delhi. Principles and Practice, Standard
Publishers Distributors, Delhi

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 UNIT

6 Preschool
Organisation

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

zz To know the importance of preschool education.

zz To understand the different needs of preschool children.
zz Helps the student to understand the importance of inculcating good habits among
preschool children.
zz To enhance the knowledge of students about different types of pre school.
zz Helps the students to understand the need of day care center and the procedure to
start a crèche/ day care center.

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 an ideal pre-school. Preschool education
6.1 Introduction
is the foundation for a child’s education.
Modern thinking on preschool It is described as an important period
education concentrates on “how to in child’s development. The emotional,
learn”. This process initiates the child to social and physical development of young
explore,discover and practice thinking children or preschoolers has a direct
skills. And also to process information to effect on their overall development and
understand the world around them. This on the adult they will become. That is why
cannot be taught, but also has to be learnt. pre-school education is so important to
maximize children’s future well-being.
The preschool years are one of the
most important stages in a child’s life,
since it is rapid. The child’s cognitive and
physical growth lays the foundation for
6.2 Need for pre-school
social and personal habits and values.
organization
Ninety percent of the child’s brain growth
occurs during this period, which is mostly Preschool age (2  yrs – 5 yrs) is
influenced by environmental experiences. the most suitable age for acquiring skills.
Hence, varied experiences should be If this period is not utilized properly for
provided during this period. These the all-round development of the child,
experiences and skills will be acquired in the damage cannot be easily rectified.

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 Cleanliness and healthy habits can be zzto develop healthy habits in the child
taught very effectively at this age. and necessary skills for personal
zzGood habits and moral values can adjustment like putting on clothes,
be developed through preschool eating on his own, observing
education by means of interesting, cleanliness etc.,
entertaining and goal-oriented
play activities. Thus, we can mould
children in the right direction.

I have the Right to a good

education and everyone has the
Responsibility to encourage all children
to go to school.(Article 28, 29, 23).

zzChildren can be provided with a zzto help children in expressing,

healthy and progressive environment. understanding, accepting and
controlling their views, feelings and
zzThe feeling of security and self-esteem
emotions.
in children can be strengthened.
zzto develop good physique, adequate
zzThe best foundation for lifelong
muscular co-ordination and basic
learning can be laid in this period.
motor skills.
zzDevelopment of children of
zzto observe and identify interests,
educationally and economically
needs and capabilities.
backward families can be facilitated.
zzto observe the pace of child’s
development.
zzto organize a supportive learning
6.3 Objectives of preschool environment by taking care of the
education physical environment, equipment,
The broad objectives of preschool scheduling of learning experiences,
education aim at the overall development events and the grouping of
of the child namely physical, social, children.
emotional and intellectual. The zzto interact with children in a calm,
objectives are: positive, respectful and friendly
manner.
zzto sharpen aesthetic sense of the
children by encouraging them to zzto provide numerous activities for co-
appreciate the beauty of nature by ordination and concentration.
observing flowered plants, trees, birds, zzto encourage the child to experiment
green grass lawns, etc., and investigate their immediate
environment.
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 zzto develop the child’s ability to express (i). Day care
spontaneously their thoughts and
Day care means day time care for
feelings in fluent, correct, clear speech.
preschoolers who are dependent. This is
provided in the absence of child’s parent.
Parents are employed and are not available
Behavioural problems like to cater to the needs of their preschoolers.
nail biting can be controlled among
preschoolers in preschool. Day care refers to the care provided
for toddlers, preschoolers and school-aged
children, either in their own homes, in the
home of a relative or other care givers, or
in a center-based facility. Center based
6.4  Types of preschool care is also called child care centers or
Preschools vary greatly. One type day care centers.These facilitate care for
of school may emphasize social and groups of children. Many parents prefer
personal growth, getting along with center-based care because they want
others and gaining a feeling of mastery their children to be safe and have a better
over the environment. While, another learning environment.
may stress on the importance of the senses
and developing motor abilities. Still some
other preschools may concentrate on
cognitive growth in one or many ways.
But many preschools claim that they have
goals in all these areas.
The types of preschool included
are,
(i) Day care
(ii) Montessori school
Day care center have trained staff
(iii) Kindergarten and their work is supervised. Care is still
(iv) Nursery school available even when a staff member is
(v) Balwadi absent/on leave. More resources and
equipment are available. In day care
(vi) Anganwadi
(vii) L aboratory nursery school

The medium of education at

ACTIVITY I preschool must be in mother tongue
or in regional language of the child.
zzVisit a nearby preschool and
Because, it helps the preschooler to
observe the children.
learn the language that lays foundation
zzWrite a report on it. for their future learning.

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 center, children’s cognitive development is Importance of Day
enhanced. This may be because of day care center
care children have opportunities to
Children’s eating habits are
interact with other children and are
improved by giving them good nutritious
exposed to more learning materials.
food. It helps in keeping the body and
The only drawback of day care center mind, fit and fresh all through the day. Day
is that is quite costly and permanency of care center has a crucial role in making a
staff is doubtful. child’s future.

Family child care providers

(ii). Montessori school
Family child care providers offer
care for children in the provider’s home. The concept of Montessori
This is also a part of day care for children. schooling was developed by Maria
Parents often make this child care choice Montessori and has gained popularity all
because they prefer their children to over the world. Montessori believed that
stay in a home like environment. This there is a close relationship between senses
arrangement may be less expensive than and intellect.
day care centers. Moreover, the children’s
groups are small so better care is given.

In-home care givers

In-home care is given in the child’s
own home. Children receive one-on-one
care. Children may be safer and feel more
secure in their own home. Parents have
more control over the type of care their
children receive. However, this care is often
more expensive. The parent may bear the Training the senses is the basis
burden of conducting background checks for reading and writing in Montessori
and constant supervision. school education. Every activity in the
school has an educational purpose. Many
activities are self-correcting so that
children can proceed at their own rate
and no pressure is placed on them. There
is no punishment for not finishing an
exercise. In Montessori classroom, each
item has its proper place and children
are expected to pick-up and keep it
back in its place once the activity is
completed.

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 The significant features in The drawback of Montessori
Montessori school training are as follows: training is that which does not consider
zzIt is a process of unfolding of the on play activities which play an important
children inherent potentialities to role in a child’s development.
learn and to acquire knowledge.
(iii). Kindergarten
zzIt attempts at educating children
based upon the desire of the child to Friedrich Froebel was the originator
learn spontaneously. The classroom of the “Kindergarten”.Kindergarten
environment is planned to meet the means“children’s garden” in German. It is
interest of the child, and to guide the a preschool where educational approach
child. is based on playing, singing, practical
activities such as drawing and social
interaction as part of the transition from
home to school.

Items arranged neatly

zzSelf-activity by the child is given Friedrich Froebel

emphasis as it leads to better and more
“Play is the highest expression of
permanent learning.
human development in childhood for
zzExercises in practical life is an essential it alone is the free expression of what is
part of the programs. in a child’s soul.” - Froebel
zzExercises are mainly focused on
helping the child become self-reliant “Children are like tiny flowers; they
and efficient.eg.,reading, writing and are varied and need care, but each is
number Work. beautiful alone and glorious when seen
in the community of peers.” - Froebel
FA C T
To develop confidence among children, At Kindergarten, the child
encourage them to perform individually grows socially and emotionally. Most
before other children. E.g.., storytelling, importantly, the child learns the art of
reciting rhyme, narrating an experience becoming an effective learner. This form
and free conversation. of education helps children develop
and extent their communication skills,
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 zzDevelopment of self-caring skills,
perceptual motor learning as well as
activities for academic readiness is
acquired.

ACTIVITY 1

Provide children with multicolor

beads and string. Ask the children
to thread the beads under the
Children drawing supervision of the teacher.

(v). Balwadi
build their self-confidence and learn to
be creative. It helps children to develop Grewal defines balwadi as “A rural
skills that assist with reading, writing and pre-primary school run economically
mathematics. but scientifically and using as many
educational aids as possible, prepared
(iv). Nursery School from locally available material”

The Macmillan sisters started the Balwadi is a preschool in rural

first nursery school in London, in 1911. areas. It is run by the state government
In India, a preschool located in an urban and funded by the Social Welfare Board.
area is called nursery school. This form of Free meal is provided for all the children.
schooling emphasises the following : Regional language is used as a medium
of instruction. Education is provided free
zzCreativity- It is developed in children
in Balwadi’s and teaching is done mainly
by providing them with expressive
through play way method. Balwadi also
activities, play, art and movement.
offer crèche services for children below
zzImagination - This grows naturally 2 years. Balwadi is run for economically
in young children and if fostered weaker sections. The purpose of balwadi
will help them advance in all areas of is to provide a child, facilities for physical
development. and mental growth at school and at home.

Balwadi
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 (vi) Anganwadi
Anganwadi is a rural child
care center. It was started by Indian
government in 1975 as part of the ICDS
program to eliminate malnutrition among
preschoolers. The preschool children are
given education non-formally. No specific
curriculum is followed to educate the
children. Songs and stories are taught to the
children .As a part to alleviate malnutrition Children spend most of their time during
and deficiency diseases, supplementary the day in the preschool rooms or grounds.
food is supplied throughout the year to The elements which characterize the
the preschool children. total situation of a building significantly
influence the behavior of children.
(vii). Laboratory Nursery School Therefore the school building, its situation,
design, lighting and ventilation have an
Laboratory nursery schools are run
important role to play in the behavior and
by Home Science departments which aims
welfare of the children.
at the all-round development of a child.
Non-formal education system is adopted.
It helps the Home Science students to Essential Requirements for a
observe the children and their various Preschool
aspects of development, without being Preschool is the place for children
aware of. to perform different activities and to
play with their peers. It is the owner’s
responsibility to have a well-planned and
6.5 Infrastructure need for good building.
a pre-school The essentials of a good preschool
The place and the infrastructure building include:
are both dependent factors required for i. Surroundings
a good preschool. Pre-school is the place
ii. Site
to educate the children about “the art
iii. Plan
of living”, but not the place for formal
learning. The environment helps the child
to realize their goals. To meet this, the (i). Surroundings
place of pre-school must be stimulating
A child’s health, attitudes and
or conducive to the development of
development of personality is greatly
children.
influenced by surroundings. So, a pre-
A clean, pleasant and well- school cannot be built anywhere and
maintained building help the preschoolers everywhere, if it is to satisfy its functions
to achieve their “gracious living”. efficiently. If the aim of the preschool
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 is to bring about mental, moral and pollution. It should also avoid physical
physical development of children. The dangers such as factories, rail-roads or
school building must be in the desirable bus services. A garden in the vicinity of
surroundings. On the other hand, unclean the school or public park near the school
surroundings are detrimental to the proximity develop children’s appreciation
mind and body. Unclean surroundings of beauty.
have adverse impacts on character
formation.
Nature walk means taking
(ii). Site children on an outing in a park,
garden, etc., It plays an important role
Site means the location selected for
in children’s language development as
the preschool. Site includes:
they converse about what they see/
a) Vicinity watch.
b) Soil
c) Aspect and Elevation
(b). Soil
Soil makes the school building
(a). Vicinity
strong, safe, congenial and educational.
Vicinity indicates the area. The The soil condition of the preschool should
preschool area must constitute a refreshing have a raised area, dry and have natural
environment.But should avoid stagnated drainage free from water-logging.
pools, swamps, sewers or other settings
which are sources of disagreeable odour,
mosquitoes, flies and harmful micro- (c). Aspect and Elevation
organisms. It is essential for the preschool zzSouth facing is ideal for the preschool.
to have a good water supply.
The preschool may be located at
a short distance from the towns to get a zzsouth facing helps to
fresh air and have less risks of epidemics. absorb sun’s heat energy, to warm
This will also reduce the cost of the the building during winter.
land to be purchased or the building to zza system of shading or an overhang
be rented. can be made to keep the building
The preschool must be close to a cool during summer.
road, but not on its brink. It should be zzconstructing building in this way,
well back from the road. It should not can reduce its heating and cooling
be in close to the proximity of a burial costs by 85%
or cremation ground. The selected
location must permit any expansion zzVerandah should be planned on only
in future. The preschool must be away one side of the rooms to allow free
from industrial noise, dust, smoke and light.
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 zzPlanting trees and herbs on the Rooms
otherside will act as a sun-breakers
zzRectangular rooms ease the activity of
especially during very hot climate
the children.

Building plan zzRooms should have outlet and inlet.

zzRooms for indoor play should be large
Building plan would vary according
enough for children.
to the type of preschool. Blue print can be
decided based on the following. zzThe area must be adequate for the
child to move around.
zzthe building plan should strictly
zzThe area specification must be 1.5
adhere to the laws of sanitation,
square meter per child and 3 meters
hygiene, ventilation and lighting and
above for ceiling.
allows the sun rays to reach all the
rooms.
Walls
zzto permit free and easy access of fresh
zzThe wall space should be functional
air to all parts of the building.
and lend itself to promote
zzto fulfill the minimum requirements activities
of play rooms, laboratories and wash
zzPinning space should be available
rooms.
at the eye level of the child to have
zzsingle storey building is preferable for picture boards.
convenience and safety.
zzWalls should be painted with pleasant
zzfirst aid facilities and place for colours.
isolation of sick child should be
provided.
FA C T
zzSafety exits and fire extinguishers
Black board in preschool should be at
should be available.
low height, at the level of children to
allow them for drawing, scribbling, etc.,
Table: 6.1  Space requirement of a
preschool based on play
rooms zzThe windows and doors of the room
should have large spaces for bulletin
Plinth area of Total boards for attaching things.
Types
built up space area
zzThe walls should be coated with
Preschool with 218sq.m 318sq.m suitable, washable material to deaden
two play rooms
the noise.
Preschool with 164sq.m 264sq.m
single play Floors
rooms
zzFloors should be made of such
Source: Sushila Srivastava, Sudha Rani k, material that can be cleaned easily
Textbook of Human Development-A and maintained in a good sanitary
Lifespan Developmental Approach (2014) condition.
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 Windows and doors Storage space
zzThe place to fix windows and doors zzStorage space is necessary in the
need careful consideration. preschool for keeping play equipment,
zzThe windows should be low enough linen, books, teaching aids and
to enable a child to look out and records.
should be fitted with shades or zzAll storage space should be well
blinds. ventilated and kept free from insects
zz Light weight doors must be and cobwebs.
installed to facilitate easy handling zzPlace for large toys and blocks should
by the children. be provided.
zz The knobs in the door should be
in easy reach of the children. Outdoor space
zz The door can be operated without Children’s most important need is
being hurt. playground. It should be large enough and
safe. A minimum of 2 square metre is a
Sanitary facilities desirable play-space for a child. In case of
limited space, schedule should be planned
zzWater facilities are essential
and provided to avoid all children out
for cleaning up activities in the
doors at the same time.
preschool.
Some specifications can be adhered
zzOne toilet for every ten children is
for a play area. They are:
important.

zzspace for sand play.

zzToilet fixtures with seats varying at
heights from 25-30 cm from the floor zzspace for water play.
are desirable. zzspace for wheel toys and bouncing
zzToilet floor should be of washable but balls (usually the area needs to be a
not slippery tiles. hard surface).

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 zzgreen lawns for the children to romp is familiarized with the idea, new
around. experiences can be added gradually.
zzan area for pets and gardening. zzThe teacher needs to refresh the child
at frequent intervals.
ACTIVITY 2 zzPlanning above the level will frustrate
the child and planning below his level
To inculcate creativity among bore him.
children, allow the child to do the
zzThe readiness of children must be
following activity without teacher’s
identified and programs should be
instruction except providing the basic
planned accordingly.
need or arranging the area:-
zzPlanning should include free play (both
zzProvide the children with colour indoors and outdoors), creative time to
chalk and allow them to draw on explore and express their feelings, music
a slate or board. and story time, muscle development
zzPrepare wet mud area and provide and language development.
them with a stick. Ask them to
draw shapes/scribble on the wet
mud as they like. ACTIVITY 3

During the visit to nursey school,

encourage the child to perform
the activities for finer motor skill
6.6  Preschool Lesson Plan
development.
Every individual child needs to be
zzClay activity _Provide the child
given attention while planning a lesson
with clay and allow them to make
plan. The plan should include a variety
any shape or design that they want.
of experiences such as interpersonal
relationships, sensory experiences, zzVegetable printing on a fabric or
exploration of natural and physical paper.
surroundings, intellectual stimulation -provide the child with vegetable
development of large and small muscles cuttings, paper/fabric and paints/
and opportunities to hear and use water colours. Ask the child to
language. Active play and quiet play also print the paper/fabric with cut
should be considered. National festivals vegetables after it is smeared with
and community festivals, celebrations paint/water colour.
need to be included. (cut vegetables like lady’s finger,
To make a very good lesson plan, brinjal,potato, etc., canbe used to
the following points must be considered. print).
zzThe plan must be simple.
zzProper time must be allocated to zzPlans should not be rigid. Allow to
experience one idea. After the child include changes or additions.
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 zzTo encourage independence and 10.30-11.00am. Break-snack
creativity, play equipment and
11.00-11.30am playground
materials should be placed in easily
11.30-11.50am. Writing work
accessible levels.
11.50-12.10am Reading/oral classes
Types of curriculum 12.10-12.50am Lunch break
12.50-1.00 Story time
Careful and creative planning is
required in carrying out the appropriate 1.00-2.00 Sleep/quiet activities/
learning programmes for preschool children. dispersal

PRE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

6.7 Setting up a crèche/
Daycare center
LONG TERM SHORT TERM
For the academic Dividing the en re year plan In setting up of a day care center
year. to pics into smaller ones to
achieve the long term plan.
either in the home or in a separate
facility needs to follow certain rules and
WEEKLY PLAN DAILY PLAN regulations.
Steps involved in setting up a day
Considering the age, interest, care center:
abilities of the preschool children, a Identify the kind of day care, that
flexible plan can be planned. The table is needed.
below is an example of a daily program.
zzIn-home
In the daily program, music, dance,
discovery learning, excursion, etc., can be zzSeparate place
suitably included.
Table 6.2  T
 he daily programme for a In home:
preschool zzIts cost operative as it does not need
Hours Activities rent.
8.30-8.45 am. Arrival and zzOnly limited children can be admitted.
preparation of the zzIt will be stressful as living and
teacher working in the same place.
8.45-9.00am. Arrival of the children
9.00-9.15am. Morning prayer and Separate place:
exercise zzNeed to find a suitable commercial
9.15-9.45am. Independent, creative space for the center.
activity
zzMay be costly.
9.45-10.30am. Group work-drawing,
zzNeed to enroll more admissions to
coloring
meet out the expenses.
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 zzKnow to draw a boundary line between
Why start a crèche?
your work and personal life. Otherwise
leads to unfavorable changes. Families with two working parents are
common. Creche is an alternate place
Licensing and approval for day to provide the essential need of the
care center: child to meet out.
Before strating a preschool organisation,
it is important to understand the kinds Skills needed for a crèche
of permit and licenses needed to start employee:
day care. The following points are
zzPatience
needed to be considered while starting
a center. zzTime management

zzLocation approval: Location must zzOn time care provider

meet specific area, health and safety zzEnthusiasm
standards. zzCommunication skills
zzBackground checks: Check out for zzDecision making skills
adults help from your family or trained
To get approval of a crèche, the
employees to run the center
following essential facilities should be met.
zzTraining requirements: staff may These include:
need to undergo an approved training
zzThe amount of space required per
program.
child-food, sleep, play and other
zzBusiness licensing: It may need one or activities.
more licenses namely general license
zzThe ratios of children to staff.
and a separate license for day care
service. zzMinimum provision of toilets and
washing facilities.
Setting up a crèche: zzPremises safety.
Creche is a place where small zzAdequate parking.
children can be left to be looked after zzPromotion of children’s emotional,
while their parents are working and away social and physical welfare.
from the home. The parents must research locate
Starting a crèche is challenging and select a child care facility. They
for several reasons due to the regulations can be confident in their decision and
and laws. It is given utmost important know that they have provided the best
because the crèche need to work close possible setting for their child. The
relation with children. Financially, parents also should ensure that the child
running a crèche can also be tough, as is comfortable, safe and feels happy in
profit margins are low and overheads the selected center. Utmost care for the
high. But running a crèche is a rewarding emotional and physical well-being should
business. be given.
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 S U M M A RY

zz Modern thinking on pre-school zz Creativity is developed among children

education concentrates on “how to by providing them with expressive
learn”. activities, play, art and movement.
zz The preschool years are one of the zz Balwadi is a pre-school available in
most important stages in a child’s life, rural areas where rural preschoolers
since it is rapid. given opportunity to learn basic skills
zz Preschool age is the most suitable age in their local languages at free of cost.
for acquiring skills. zz The place and the infrastructure are
zz Cleanliness and healthy habits can be both dependent factors required for a
taught very effectively at this age. good preschool.
zz The objectives of preschool education zz Building plan would vary according
are focused on over all development of to the type of preschool. Blue print
children in physical, social, emotional can be decided based on sanitation,
and intellectual. hygiene, Ventilation, lighting, play
rooms, laboratories, etc.,
zz Day care, Montessori school,
kindergarten, Nursery school zz Careful and creative planning is required
and Balwadi’s are various types in carrying out the appropriate learning
of preschool available to impart programs for preschool children.
preschool education. zz Curriculum can be long term and
zz Day care means day time care for short term.
preschoolers who are dependent to zz Creche/Day care center is an alternate
meet their needs. arrangement for the preschoolers and
zz Training the senses is the basis for school going children to meet out their
reading and writing in Montessori needs in the absence of their parents.
school education. zz Safety premises, enough toilet and
zz In Kindergarten, the educational washing facilities, adequate parking,
approach is based on playing, singing, good and spacious rooms are essential
and practical activities. to start a crèche/day care center.

G L O S S A RY

zz Rapid- Fast zz Preschoolers-below the age of 6 years.

zz Cognitive-Mental process of knowing, zz Security-defence
learning and understanding zz Self-esteem-self respect
zz Preschool-learning space for the zz Aesthetic sense-appreciation of beauty
children of yrs to 5 years

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 zz Physique-physical structure of the zz Doubtful-Not clear
body zz One-on-one-Individual
zz Interact-communicate and react zz Unfolding-to open
zz Supervise-watch over zz Drawback-disadvantage/Hindrance

E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer 3. I have the right to a good education
1. Pick out the correct statement and everyone has the responsibility
to encourage all children to go to
a) Good habits and moral values can school. Select the article, that assures
be developed through preschool this right to the children.
education.
a) 28,29,23
b) Cleanliness and healthy habits
b) 27,28,29
need not be taught during
preschool education. c) 26,27,28
c) Preschool education is not d) 25,26,27
important to maximize the 4. Preschool education aims at
children’s well-being
a) Physical and social development
d) Preschool education is not
b) Social and emotional development
described as an important period
in child’s development c) emotional and intellectual
development
2. Choose the correct option, that
supports the statement. Preschool d) physical, social, emotional and
education helps to intellectual development
i) strengthen the preschoolers. 5. Pick out the wrong statement. Healthy
habits of preschool children include
ii) lay best foundation for life -long
learning. a) putting on clothes
iii) educate economically back ward b) muscular co-ordination
children. c) eating on his own
iv) Provide a healthy and progressive d) observing cleanliness
environment. 6. Day care means care provided to children
a) (i)&(ii) is correct a) in the absence of mother
b) (iii)&(iv) is correct b) in the absence of father
c) (i)&(iii) is correct c) in the absence of parents
d) (i),(ii),(iii),(iv) is correct d) All the above

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 7. One-on-one care given to II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks)
preschoolers in
1. Preschool years are so important in
a) In-home care one’s life.How?
b) Day care 2. To set an objective is an important
c) Creche task in any organization. If you feel
so, write any two objectives of
d) All the above
preschool education.
8. Montessori system of pre-school
3. List out any four activities that help
education establishes the relationship
the preschooler for finer muscular
between
co-ordination.
a) Physique and physical activity
4. Many parents select center-based
b) reading and learning care for their children in their
c) Writing and drawing absence. Justify
d) Senses and intellect 5. What do you understand by the term
9. Balwadi is a preschool in family child care providers. Justify
the reasons for selection of this care
a) rural areas option by parents.
b) urban areas 6. List out the different types of
c) Sub-urban areas preschool that are available .
d) All the above 7. Surrounding of pre-school building
10. Choose the correct match plays an important role in child ’s
health and attitudes-Explain.
A B 8. Write the components of site?
(i) Kindergarten Macmillan 9. Write the space requirement of a
(ii) Nursery Maria preschool?
school Montessori
10. Fill in the empty boxes with correct
(iii) Balwadi Friedrich words
Froebel
(iv) Senses and Grewal
intellect Playing

a) (i), (ii),(iii)&(iv) Kinder garten

b) (ii),(iii), (iv)&(i)
c) (ii), (iv),(i)&(iii)
d) (iii),(ii),(i)&(iv)

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 III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks) III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks)
1. The preschool years are one of the 1. Preschool is an essential need of
most important stage in a child’s life. preschoolers. Explain?
How? 2. Objectives help us to focus and reach
2. Balwadi plays an essential role in our aim. Explain how the objectives of
rural preschoolers ’ education. preschool education help preschoolers
Support the given statement with to reach their different needs?
your justification. 3. Day care is an alternate for parents-
3. List the emphasis focused by nursery Justify
school? 4. What are the various types of
4. Soil type plays a major role in preschool that are available. List out
preschool building. Why? and explain any two.
5. Storage space is needed in preschool. 5. Different factors ensure good
Explain the statement. preschool building- Enumerate and
6. Curriculum is an essential explain?
component of preschool. Classify 6. Vicinity determines the selection of
the curriculum. the preschool. Is it true? Explain.
7. Crèche employees must have a skill. 7. Systematic program planning plays
What are they? How does it help in an important role in educating the
upbringing of preschoolers. preschoolers. Plan a model daily
8. How should the walls of preschool program for a preschool child.
classroom be? 8. Nirmala is interested in starting a
9. Why are certain specifications needed crèche to supplement her family
for windows and doors in preschool income. Guide her on steps to be
classroom?. taken to start a crèche.

10. Aspect and elevation is an essential

criteria for a preschool building.
Explain?.

REFERENCES

1. Mina swaminathan& premaDaniel . 2. Padma yadav, Exemplar Guidelines

Play Activities for Child Development for Implementation of Early
A guide to preschool teachers.. childhood care and Education
National Book Trust, India, First Curriculum, 2015, NCERT,
Reprint Green park, New Delhi-110 New Delhi
016(2005)

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 3. Romilasoni, Theme Based Early A Lifespan Developmental Approach.
childhood care and Education S. Chand & Company Pvt., Ltd., New
programme- A resource book., Delhi, 2014.
NCERT-2015 6. www.child.encyclopedia.com/.
4. Elizabeth B.Hurlock, Developmental 7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/early
psychology-A Life-span approach, childhood education.
fifth Edition, TATA Mcgrow Hill
8. www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood
publishing company Ltd.,New Delhi.
1980 9. pt.slideshare.net
5. Srivastava, Sushila, and Sudha Rani 10. https://www.workspace.co.uk/
K. Textbook of Human Development - 11 https://smallbusiness.chron.com/

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 UNIT

7
Entrepreneurship

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter will enlighten students about

zz To understand the meaning of the term Entrepreneur on the basis of various

definitions.
zz To analyse the characteristics elements, classification and functions of the term
entrepreneur
zz To learn the business requirements for an entrepreneurship
zz To learn about cottage industry

7.1 Introduction growth both in developed and developing

countries. Entrepreneurship is the process of
Over the past few decades
exploring the opportunities by an individual
entrepreneurship has assumed great
or group of individuals in the market place
importance for accelerating economic
and arranging resources required to exploit
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 these opportunities for long term gain. This
7.2.2 Concept of
systematic process requires proper planning
Entrepreneurship
and forecasting in order to promote capital
formation and create wealth in country.
What is Entrepreneurship?
It also helps to pave the way to reduce
unemployment and poverty. In view of Entrepreneurship is the process of
this in recent times entrepreneurship has designing launching and running a new
become the hope and dreams of millions of business.
individuals around the world

Who is an Entrepreneur?
A person who creates and runs a
7.2 Entrepreneurship business is called an entrepreneur.
definition & Concept
The 3 main reasons that en­
The word Entrepreneurship has courage people to become entrepreneurs
been derived from French verb which and start their own firms are
means “to undertake” Today, people call
zzTo be their own boss
it by various names, e.g., “Adventurism”,
“Risk taking”, “Innovating” zzTo be pursue their own idea
zzTo realize financial rewards

7.2.1 Definition of
Entrepreneurship

According to Higgins, 7.3 Scope of

“Entrepreneurship is defined as the function Entrepreneurship
of seeking investment and production
The scope of entrepreneurship is
opportunity, organizing an enterprise to
very great in a developing country like
undertake new production process, raising
India. This is because entrepreneurship
capital, hiring labour, arranging the supply
is powerful tool that can combat
of raw materials, finding site, introducing
unemployment and under employment.
new techniques and commodities,
The Labor Bureau reports that the
discovering new source of raw materials
unemployment rate was 5 % in 2015- 2016
and selecting top managers of day-to-day
which was highest in the last five years.
operations of the enterprises.”
Entrepreneurship offers itself as the only
A.H. Cole defines entrepreneurship solace to encourage people to start their
as “The purposeful activity of an individu­ own business that would in-turn lead
al or a group of associated individuals to financial independence. Particularly,
undertaken to initiate, maintain or entrepreneurship can be emphasized
aggrandize profit by production or among young people as they are ambitious,
distribution of economic goods and bold enough to take risks, equipped with
services”. skills and information acquired though
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 the wide array of information available zzEconomic Independence
through technological advancement. It Entrepreneurship gives economic
also gives them the opportunity to be their independence which can help in the
own boss and pursue their own ideas overall development of an individual.

7.3.1 Importance of 7.3.2 Functions of
Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurs

Entrepreneurship is important for The main functions of an

the following reasons: entrepreneur are classified into four broad
categories:
zzDecreases Unemployment
(1) Entrepreneurial Functions (2)
Development of entrepreneurship can
Managerial functions (3) Promotional
reduce unemployment dramatically
function and commercial functions
as it creates opportunities for self-
employment.
1. Entrepreneurial functions
zzCreates competition in the market:
The major entrepreneurial functions include
Entrepreneurship can create organizing, risk bearing, and innovation.
competition in the market thereby
enabling customers to acquire new An organizer mentally first of all
products with greater variations at decides certain things like what, how and
competitive prices. how much to produce. This is based on the
demand for the commodity. The location
zzEconomic balance of the country of the industry, scale of production is
It can promotes the economic balance then determined by the availability of raw
of a country because when a business materials, labor, capital etc.
entrepreneur starts its operation it An entrepreneur not only organizes
involves many people. This in-turn will the entire production process but also
improve their economic condition. undertakes risks and uncertainties.
zzUtility of the local resources can be Successful entrepreneurship involves an
used anticipation of demand for the new product.
Sometimes, there may or may not be demand
Entrepreneurship development
for the new product. This is a non-insurable
ensures uses of local resources and it
risk an entrepreneur has to undertake. Thus
increases local cash flow.
a brave organizer has to shoulder certain
zzImproves the living standard insurable and non-insurable risks also.
Successful business endeavors improve
the financial status of the individual Innovation is the skill of introducing
and this subsequently improves the new changes in production or
standard of living technology or market for the product

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 An entrepreneur must be an (ii) Organising:
innovator to survive in the market and to The organizing function of an
retain the same position for his product. entrepreneur involves the bringing together
One cannot be assured of innovation the men, material, machine, money, etc. to
always. It appears, disappears and execute the plans. Thus, organizing function
reappears. This unpredictable outcome of an entrepreneur ultimately provides a
calls for boldness, confidence and mechanism for purposive, integrated and
perseverance for an entrepreneur to be co-operative action by many people in a
successful in his mission. joint and organized effort to implement a
business plan.
2. Managerial Functions-
(iii) Staffing:
Management is the art of
getting things working with and Staffing involves human
through others. According to Henri resource planning and human resource
Fayol (1949) who is known as the management. Thus, staffing function of an
father of ‘principles of management,’ entrepreneur includes preparing a list of:
“management is to forecast, to plan, to zzAvailable personnel
organize, to command, to co-ordinate, zzRequirement of personnel
and to control.”
zzSources of manpower recruitment
The managerial functions zzSelection of personnel and
performed by entrepreneur are classified remuneration,
into the following five types:
zzTraining, development and periodic
(i) Planning appraisal of personnel working in the
(ii) Organising enterprise.
(iii) Staffing
(iv) Directing:
(iv) Directing
Direction is the process, by which
(v) Controlling
the entrepreneur guides, counsels, teaches,
stimulates and activates his/ her employees
(i) Planning: to work efficiently to accomplish the set
Planning is a pre-determined objectives.
course of action to accomplish the set
objectives. An entrepreneur has to make (v) Controlling:
decisions as to what is to be done, how Controlling is the last management
it is to be done, when it is to be done, function performed by the entrepreneur.
where it is to be done, by whom it is to be It is the comparison of actual performance
done and so on. Proper planning prevents with the target or standard performance
confusion which, in turn, affects the and identification of variation between the
smooth performance of job whatsoever it two, if any, and taking corrective measures
may be. so that the target is accomplished.
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 3. Promotional Functions: structure. Long term as well as short term
requirements is to be identified separately.
(i) Identification and Selection
Then, the sources of supply to acquire the
of Business Idea:
required fund are also to be mentioned.
The selection of a profitable and The share capital in terms of equity and
rewarding business project involves a preference shares and how much will be
process. This is based on the knowledge borrowed capital from different financial
and prior experience of the individual as institutions and banks are to be clearly
well as information gathered from friends determined.
and relatives. The information acquired can
enable the individual identify new profitable 4. Commercial Functions:
innovative ideas which can be examined
(i) Production / Manufacturing:
and pursued as a business enterprise.
Goods are produced once
This process is also described as the enterprise is finally established.
‘opportunity scanning and identification’. Production function includes decisions
The generated ideas are analyzed in terms of relating to the selection of factory site,
costs and benefits associated with them and design and layout, types of products to be
the most beneficial idea is finally selected produced, research and development, and
to be pursued as business enterprise. design of the product.
The additional activities include
(ii) P
 reparation of Business
production planning and control,
Plan or Project Report:
maintenance and repair, purchasing,
The entrepreneur prepares a store-keeping, and material handling.
statement called ‘business plan’ which is Proper production planning and control
a well evolved course of action devised are crucial for the effective performance
by entrepreneur to achieve the specified of production function.
objectives within a specified period of time.
(ii) Marketing:
It contains information about
the intending entrepreneur, location of Marketing is the performance of those
enterprise, requirement for land and business activities that direct the flow
building, plant and machinery, raw material, of goods and services from producer
utilities, transport and communication, to consumer or user. Thus, marketing
manpower, requirement for funds essentially begins and ends with the
including working capital along with its customers. Marketing is not just selling.
sources of supply, break-even point and It includes other marketing activities
implementation schedule of the project. such as market or consumer research,
product planning and development,
standardization, packaging, pricing,
(iii) Requirement for Finance:
storage, promotional activities,
The entrepreneur should plan distribution channel, etc. The success
requirement for funds with its detailed of marketing function is linked with an
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 appropriate ‘marketing mix’. Traditionally, zzClear objectives: Entrepreneurs must
marketing mix is referred to 4 P’s, namely, have clear objectives as to the exact
product, price, promotion, and physical nature of business or the nature of
distribution. Of late, 3 more P’s namely, good to be produce.
packaging, people, and process are also zzHuman Relations: Entrepreneurs
added to ‘marketing mix’. must maintain good relation with
customers, employees through
(iii) Accounting: emotional stability, personal relations,
The main objective of any business tactfulness and consideration.
enterprise is to earn profits and create zzC o m m u n i c a t i o n Ab i l i t y :
wealth. This is ascertained through Entrepreneurs should have good
accounting. Accounting is the art of communication skills.
recording, classifying and summarizing zzTechnical Knowledge: Entrepreneurs
in a significant manner and, in terms of should have sufficient technical
money, transactions and events which are, knowledge.
in part at least, of a financial character and zzInnovative Ability: Entrepreneurs
interpreting the results thereof.” should possess creative ability to
The Profit and Loss Account is search for new opportunities.
prepared for ascertaining whether the zzDesire to accomplish: Entrepreneurs
business earned profit or incurred loss should possess a strong desire to
during a particular period of time also accomplish objectives/ tasks.
called ‘accounting year’. The Balance Sheet zzEnergetic Activity: Entrepreneurs
is prepared to know the financial position should exhibit a high level of energy
of business during the accounting period. as well as self –confidence and spend
Hence, the Balance Sheet is also called a large proportion of their time in
‘Position Statement.’ finding out novel ways of getting done
the set task.
7.3.3 Characteristic of zzRisk Taking: Entrepreneurs takes
Entrepreneurs moderate risks to achieve their goals
zzPerception of Good ideas:
In order to be a successful entrepreneur
Entrepreneurs should have the
one should possess the following
ability to collect and analyze facts for
qualities:
accomplishing the tasks
zzMental Ability: Entrepreneurs must zzFuture oriented: Entrepreneurs
have creative thinking and must be should be able to plan and think
able to analyze problems and situations for the future. He should be able to
and be able to anticipate changes. anticipate possibilities that lie beyond
zzBusiness Secrecy: Entrepreneurs the present.
should guard business secrets from zzDesire for Responsibility :
competitors. Entrepreneurs should always be

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 prepared to take responsibility and 1. Sudden changes in Government
possess remarkable skills in organizing policy
work and human resources. 2. Sudden political upsurge
zzFlexibility: Achievement oriented 3. Out- break of war or regional
entrepreneurs should be adaptable conflicts (e.g. Sons of the soil call)
and flexible to adjust with the changed 4. Political instability or hostile
circumstances Government attitude towards industry.
5. Excessive redtapisum and corruption
7.3.4. Environmental
and corruption among government
factors affecting
agencies.
entrepreneurship
6. Ideological and social conflicts
The environment particularly the external 7. Unreliable supply of power, materials,
environment is dynamic for successful finance, labour and other inputs
entrepreneurship. It keeps on changing 8. Rise in the cost of inputs
and affects different organizations to a
9. Unfavorable market fluctuations.
varying extent. The impact of environment
on the organization depends largely on the 10. Non – cooperative attitude of banks
degree to which the organization depends and financial institution
(immediate) on the environment and
organization response to environmental 7.3.5  Types of enterprises
changes. All the factors outside and
inside (individuals, groups, machinery, Types of Enterprises
equipment, procedures, rules, policies
1. Manufacturing Enterprises
etc) an organization interact and affect the
performance of the organization. Some of Manufacturing based enterprises
the environmental factors which hinder produce goods, implement machines and
entrepreneurial growth are given below. items for different purposes.

Enterprises

Manufacturing Enterprises Service Enterprises

(Ceiling on investment in (Ceiling on investment in

plant and Machinery) Equipment)

Rs.25 Lakhs Micro Rs.10 Lakhs

Rs.5 Crores Small Rs.2 Crores

Rs.10 Crores Medium Rs. 5 Crores

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 (i) Micro Enterprise: zzMicro enterprise in which investment
in plant and machinery is upto 10
zzMicro enterprise generally refers to a
Lakhs
small business employing 10 number
of peoples or less zzSmall enterprise in which investment
zzIt is an enterprise in which investments in plant and machinery is from 10
in plant and machinery is between 5 lakhs to 2 crores
lakh to 25 lakh zzMedium enterprise in which
zzThese enterprises works and operates investment in plant and machinery is
not by choice but by art of necessity. from 2 crores to 5 crore

(ii) Small Enterprise: Women Entrepreneur

z zSmall enterprise generally refers to Women entrepreneur may be
a business employing 50 persons or defined as the women or a group of
less women who initiate, organize and
zzIt is an enterprise in which investments operate a business enterprise. Women
in plant and machinery is between 25 are expected to innovate, imitate (or)
lakh to 5 crores adopt an economic activity to be called
zzThese enterprise works and operates “woman entrepreneurs”.
to earn a small amount of profit The Government of India has
defined a women entrepreneur as
Medium Enterprise: “an enterprise owned and controlled
by a women having a minimum
zzMedium enterprise refers to a
financial interest at 51% of the
business employing maximum to 250
capital and giving at least 51% of
employees.
the employment generated in the
zzIt is an enterprise in which investment enterprise to women.”
in plant and machinery is between 5
crores to 10 crores
zzThese enterprises works and operates
to earn a fair amount of profits to
increase their standard of living zzAugust 21st is the world
entrepreneurs’ day. The purpose
of the day is to create awareness
(2) Service Enterprise
for entrepreneurship innovation
The service based enterprises and leadership throughout
provide services to the customer. the world.
These services may be related to field zzWomen’s Entrepreneurship day-
such as education, health, banking, November 19
communication etc.,

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 1. Preliminary Stage
7.4 Steps for Starting a
Small Industry The preliminary stage consists of 9
steps. They are

1st step: Decision to be self-employed

All new entrepreneurs should have
technical and commercial knowledge
of their product along with required
education, technical qualification,
training etc. He should have capacity
to raise the required resources and
managerial skills. The decision to become
entrepreneur is influenced by internal and
external factors. Internal factors include
An enterprise involves a large educational background, occupational
number of formalities which are experience, desire to work independently
grouped under preliminary stage and in manufacturing line, desire to branch
implementation stage. In preliminary out to manufacturing and family
stage, the various activities to be background. The external factors include
undertaken by the entrepreneur are assistance from government assistance
decision to be self employed, scanning from financial institutions, availability
the business environment, selection of of technology and raw material, demand
idea, deciding organizational structure, for the product utilization of excess funds
preparation of project report, project and other factors.
appraisal, selection of location and site 2nd Step: Scanning Business Environment
provisional registration and enquiry for
machinery and technology. The new entrepreneur should
plan administrative frame work, policy
The implementation stage guidelines, rules and regulations
includes activities such as statutory pertaining to their enterprise.
license arrangement of finance,
application for financial assistance and 3rd Step: Selection of Idea
obtaining the building construction and The third step in setting up the
civil works, placement of order plant enterprise is selection of idea. The
and machinery and other fixed assets entrepreneurs has to consider whether
and procurement of power and water idea is:
connection recruitment of personnel and
zzInnovative and competitive in the area
their training raw material procurement
installations and commissioning of plant zzIn tune with the availability of raw
and machinery, marketing, permanent materials
registration and profit generation and zzConforms to available infrastructural
repayment of loan. facilities.
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 Relevant experience, reasonable of three successive generations own the
knowledge in the field, knowledge about business jointly. The head of the family
demand /supply gap, government policies known as Karta manages the business. The
and availability of profit margin will help other members are called coparceners. All
in selection of ideas. The analysis of these of them have equal ownership rights over
factors helps the entrepreneur to select the properties of the business
the right idea for its implementation.
Company: A company is either
4 Step:
th
Deciding Organization a private limited company or a public
Structure limited company. A private limited
The entrepreneurs should decide company is formed with a minimum of
type of organizational structure for the two persons and a maximum of 50 persons.
proposed business. The various business A public limited company is formed with
organizations are proprietary, partnership a minimum of 7 persons and maximum
firm, co-operative society, joint family number of persons is unlimited.
business and company. Depending on the suitability of
Proprietary Unit: Sole business organization, the entrepreneur
proprietorship is a form of business concern has to select and decide to setup
in which single individual introduces his organizational structure for his proposed
own capital, enjoys the profits and bears business. The selection of the type of
the risk and losses. No specific document organization depends on the size of the
is required to be created except obtaining business, capital investment, nature of
trade license from municipal authorities. business degree of control tax incidence
and government stipulations.
Partnership Firm: Partnership
is an association of two or more persons 5th step: Preparation of Project Report
who pool their financial and managerial
resources and agree to carry on a business Next the entrepreneur has to
and share its profit or losses. No partnership prepare a project report which provides
firm can have more than 20 persons. A detailed information about the proposed
writen agreement creating the partnership business. The project report covers
firm is known as partnership deed. introduction of the proposed project,
brief history, the constituents of the
Co-operative Society: Cooperative unit, nature of the unit, key personnel,
society is a voluntary association of product information, marketing
persons who work together to promote details, competition, manufacturing
their economic interests. It works on the processes, machinery, details of raw
principle of self-help and mutual help. The materials, land, building requirements,
primary objective is to provide support to general management, technical staff,
the members. cost of the project, cost of production,
Joint family Business: The Joint profitability, project implementation
family business is a form of business schedule, repayment schedule and
organization run by the family members securities needed.
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 6th Step: Project appraisal stage the conversion of provisional registration
To provide financial assistance into permanent registration.
banks and financial institutions examine The documents required for
the viability of a project and to ensure that provisional registration are application
the project will generate adequate return form, duly filled in and signed by the
on the investment of resources. The proprietor or partner or directors,
project must repay the principal amount prescribed court fee stamp, three pass port
and interest on terms of the loans within size photos of proprietors, copy of project
the reasonable period. Project appraisal profile, photo copy of ration card, affidavit
undertaken by financial institutions on the stamp paper, copy of partnership
will be based on the technical, financial, deed/memorandum of association and
economic, managerial operation and articles of association.
organizational appraisals.
9th 
Step: 
E nquiry for Machinery and
7 Step: Selection of Location and Site
th
Technology
The selection of a suitable industrial The entrepreneur has to make
site is an important decision for any the assessment of size of the plant and
industrial unit. The selection of location and machinery. The name of suppliers of the
site depends upon the nearness to market plant and machinery and quotations should
and raw materials, availability of power and be obtained. After careful comparison
water, transportation, industrial estates, of specifications, quality, delivery time
required skilled personnel, prevailing and price, a decision should be taken to
climatic conditions, Government incentives purchase the required machinery
and subsidies, distribution channels etc.

8th Step: Provisional Registration 2. Implementation Stage

Provisional registration application For setting up an enterprise, the new
should be submitted with the district entrepreneur has to go for implementation
industries centre. The issue of provisional of the proposed project once the provisional
registration is normally automatic and is registration is obtained. The implementation
given within seven days on the receipt of stage includes 12 steps to be undertaken
the application. The initial validity of the by the entrepreneur. They are statutory
provisional registration is six months. It license/clearances, arrangement of
may be renewed for a further period of finance, application of financial assistance,
six months on submission of satisfactory obtaining loan, building construction, civil
proof that the party has taken effective works, placement of order for machinery,
steps to establish the unit but could not power, water connection, recruitment
complete the same. When all steps to of personnel, raw material procumbent,
establish the unit have been taken. i.e., installation machines, marketing,
the factory building is ready, power permanent registration, profit generation
connection is given, the machinery is and repayment of loan. The details of the
installed, and application may be made for above steps are discussed below.
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 1st Step: Statutory Licenses / Clearance along with project report to the agency
Undertakings which are exempted or financial institution for obtaining the
from licensing are expected to register required loan. Along with the application
themselves with Directorate General of he has to submit, project report, partnership
technical development in the Ministry of deed/Memorandum of Association and
Industries. The small scale and ancillary Articles of Association, Quotations in
units are required to be registered with respect of plant and machinery, copy of
Directorate of Industries in the State lease agreement of land and proposed
for obtaining the license. The new building plans, architect estimates of
entrepreneur has to get different types factory building etc.
of clearances from different authorities 4th Step: B
 uilding Construction and
such as district health offices, director of Civil works
public health chief inspector of factories, The construction of work-shed
state electricity boards, municipality, should be done with the consultation with
state pollution control board, local sales an architect by a good civil contractor.
tax authorities, superintendent of central Before commencing construction
excise etc. activities, the entrepreneur should obtain
2nd Step: Arrangement of Finance necessary license from the corporation
or municipal authorities or other local
The new entrepreneur after
authorities and should also ensure that
obtaining license and clearances from
the plan of the building conforms to
competent authorities has to make
the norms stipulated by the inspector of
arrangement of finance. They require loans
factories. In some cases a pre-build factory
and working capital to set up is business.
shed is obtained from state government
and industrial estate.

Small Industries 5th Step: Placement of order for Plant

Development Bank of India (SIDBI), and Machinery and other fixed
State Financial Corporation assets and Procurement
(SFC), National Small Industries The orders for Plant and Machinery
Corporation (NSIC), Small Industrial and other fixed assets are placed with
Development  Corporation (SIDCO), selected suppliers. The timing of placing
Regional Rural Banks, Cooperative the order should be synchronized with the
banks, Commercial Banks provide completion of the building construction.
financial assistance to set up the new
6th Step: Installation and Commissioning
ventures.
of Plant and Machinery
The entrepreneur should formulate
3 rd Step: Application for financial a suitable layout which would facilitate
Assistance production operations in the best possible
The entrepreneur has to submit manner. They have to pay attention to
an application for financial assistance the provision of adequate workspace and
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 ventilation for each worker to perform his to the State Directorate of Industries in
operations effectively. The entrepreneur the prescribed form enumerating their
should formulate a blue print converting requirements. They in turn recommend
the actual layout of factory and segregate such cases to the concerned Joint Chief
the areas allocated based on the installation Controller of Imports and Exports.
and commissioning needs of plant and
equipment.
Small industries
7th Step: Power and water connection
Development Organization (SIDO)
The formalities for water and (or) (SIDO) maintains close than
electrical connection are obtained. A liaison with raw material suppliers
consumer can avail LT (Low Tension) such as primary producers,
supply if the connected load is less than 75 canalizing agencies like State Trading
HP. If connected load is between 75HP and Corporation, Minerals and Metals
130HP the consumer has an option of either Trading Corporation etc.
availing LT supply or HT (High Tension)
supply. If the connected load exceeds 130HP
10th Step: Marketing
the unit is classified as HT consumer.
Marketing is the complex process of
8th Step: Procurement of Personnel and
creating customers for products and services.
their Training
It involves knowing and reaching out to
The personnel should be selected customers, listening very carefully to their
on the basis of their ability, knowledge needs and preferences and acting to serve
of the job and other skills required in them better every time. Effective marketing
execution of the job. The entrepreneur planning and promotion begin with gathering
should adhere to ESI Act. Minimum Wage factual information about the market place.
Act, Payment of Bonus Act, Workmen’s A very important part of marketing plan
Compensation Act, Employees provident should be overall promotional objectives to
Fund Act etc. Entrepreneur can avail the communicate message, create an awareness
facilities of the various training institutes of product or services, motivate customers
to provide necessary training needed to to buy and increase sales. The entrepreneur
their employees. should develop marketing strategies which
9th Step: Raw Material Procurement help to face the competition effectively in the
market based on knowledge of regulations
Entrepreneur should have to of the governments, store purchase
ensure timely flow of raw materials before programmes, international exhibition, fairs
launching their new product into the and trade centers.
market. They should have more sources
of supply of the required raw materials 11th Step: Permanent Registration
instead of depending on a single source of Permanent Registration is obtained
supply. Imports of raw materials are being from District Industry Centres (DIC’s) when
controlled as per the latest import trade the entrepreneur has taken all the steps to
control policy. SSI units should apply establish the unit i.e., readiness of factory
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 building, availability of power supply, Entrepreneurs should also be
installation of the machinery etc. Within prepared to have contingency plans
seven days of the receipt of application, the regarding the repayment of loan amount.
district industries officer or other designated Normally banks and financial institutions
officer informs the party of the date and insist on its payment along with interest
time for inspection of unit. The inspection charges by the borrower as per the
includes an assessment of installed capacity repayment schedule formulated in respect
of the unit. On being satisfied that the unit is of the project. The period normally
capable of production activity a permanent permitted for repaying the installments
registration certificate will be issued by the of the principle amount varies from 12
Directorate of Industries. For permanent months to 24 months from the date of
registration the entrepreneur has to submit the first release of the loan. If proper
the various documents to the directorate of precautions are taken in these two stages,
industries which includes municipal license, the entrepreneur will be highly successful
application in prescribed form, rent receipt in his endeavour to sustain in the market
or no objection certificate from land lord, and attains the desired goal.
copy of sale bill of each item purchased,
affidavit attested notary (public) etc.
12th Step: Profit Generation and 7.5 Cottage industry
Repayment: Entrepreneurs should be ever preparation of
vigilant about the cost of production and traditional foods
profit generation. If profits are not generated,
Cottage Industries have helped
they should find out the reasons and try to
to preserve the cultural heritage of the
minimize costs and adjust production volume.
country. Certain products made in the
Then should also adopt cost control measures
cottage industry are based on skillful
and minimize waste. Then should maintain
production. The skill for making such
profits chart per month and workout profits
products is passed on through generations
by calculating total sales revenue per month
in the family. The products have a distinct
minus total cost per month. At the end of year
identity of its own and bear the impression
they should also see what the profit rations are
of the Indian culture.
by calculating their return on investment and
profitability ration on sales. In rural regions of India many
families engage in small production
activities from their homes. There scale
ACTIVITY I of operations is very miniscule and the
To establish an Enterprise- workers are generally the family members
to meet- Steps to be taken to meet themselves. There are rarely any machines
an entrepreneur who has recently involved and the production is carried out
established the enterprise and entirely by hand. The produce generally
discuss the steps in establishing the consists of handicraft, wollens, carpets,
enterprise. handlooms articles, earthenware, jewelry
and food products etc. The products are
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 generally unique. Any Industry where
the creation of product and services are ACTIVITY II
home based rather than factory based Collect recipe for any two traditional
and specific skills is required is called as dishes. Prepare and calculate the
cottage Industry. Tamil Nadu is rich for its cost of the product you prepared.
cuisine with most of the districts having Compare the selling price of same
their own Signature dish and hence products with you cost. Analyse and
giving out unique dishes from each and present the percentage of profit by
every corner. selling it in a suitable market.

Characteristics of Cottage Industry

zzUn organized sector
zzUse of traditional skill
zzSmall scale production
zzEmployment generation
zzPreservation of culture
zzUse of agricultural resources

S U M M A RY

Entrepreneurship contributes for the social and economic development of the

country. Entrepreneurship makes the people self-dependent. An entrepreneur is a person
who establishes the enterprise in planned manner to earn profit. The small enterprises are
operated using local resources. The operation of small enterprises does not require much of

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 machines, resources, money and training. The amount of profit and rate of profit is less in
small enterprise. Enterprises are classified on many criteria such as technology, techniques,
business, work area, motivation, ownership etc. Careful planning, forecasting, sustained
motivation and perseverance are key factors that will ensure successful entrepreneurship
and will also enable the entrepreneur to be highly successful in his endeavour to sustain
in the market and attain the desired goal

G L O S S A RY

z Aptitude: (மனப்பான்மை) It is the zz Firm: Business (or) enterprise, such

ability of entrepreneurs to learn new as a corporation limited liability
competencies related to enterprise company or partnership, that sells
management. goods or services to make a profit.
z Beneficiary: (பயனாளி) A person or zz Profit: It is expressed in terms of net
group of persons taking benefits from gain from entrepreneurial activities
the enterprise. through legal means.
z Enterprise: (நிறுவனம்) A well- zz Working capital: It is the money
designed and established organization required to be invested in day-to-day
to achieve specific goals serving the operations of the enterprise.
customers, clients and beneficiaries zz Techniques: The scientific systematic
zz Feasibility: It is a systematic and tried out methods used in
investigation of relevance, merit and establishment, operation and
quality of any significant enterprise idea. evaluation of enterprise.

E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer 3. The word “Entrepreneur” is derived

1. The primary function of entrepreneur from _________________ word
(a) French
(a) Recruit workers
(b) English
(b) Innovate
(c) American
(c) Find location of business
(d) Latin
(d) Purchase materials
4. The characteristics of Entrepreneur are
2. Entrepreneurship involves
(a) Innovation
(a) Development of idea
(b) Control
(b) Combining factors of production
(c) Market Survey
(c) Finding alternatives
(d) All of the above
(d) Decision making

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 II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks) III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks)
1. Who first introduced the term 1. How will you classify entrepreneur?
entrepreneur? 2. What according to you are the
2. What is the management skills essential qualities of entrepreneur?
needed for an entrepreneur? 3. What are the problems faced by
3. Define Entrepreneurship? entrepre neur?
4. What are the institutional agencies 4. What are the factors influencing
providing financial assistance to entrepreneur?
entrepreneur?
5. “Ambitions or compulsions may not IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
make person an entrepreneur”. Do 1. Enumerate the steps involved in
you agree? starting a small industry
6. Differentiate manufacturing and 2. “Entrepreneurs are made, not born”.
service enterprise? Discuss
7. Discuss the functions of 3. State briefly the role of an entrepreneur
entrepreneur? towards economic growth of the
country.

REFERENCES

1. Paul.J, Kumar.A.N, Mampilly.P.T. 4. Sharma.K.C. Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship development, Development, Regal publications,
Himalaya publishing House, Mumbai New Delhi (2012)
(1999) 5. Moorthy.K S. Small Scale Industries,
2. Kumar. P, Aggarwal.S.P. Business Orient Publishing house, New Delhi
Entrepreneurship and Management, (2002)
Wisdom publication, New Delhi 6. Khanka S.S. Entrepreneurial
(2013) Development, S.S Chand & Co. Ltd.,
3. Manjunatha, Goudar New Delhi (2002)
A.K.Management and 7. Sharma.V, Veluri S, Surender.Y.
Entrepreneurship University science Entrepreneurship development and
press, New Delhi. (2011) Business Ethics., professional Book
publishers., Hyderabad(2017)

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 ICT Corner
Entrepreneurship

Innovation is the root of all success story. This activity enables the students
to read more about the innovative and success stories of other people. Thus
by make them more knowledgable and self confident. Another aspect is GST

Steps:
zzType the URL link given below in the browser or scan the QR code.
A page opens with the app ‘vazhar ..in”
zzThen the page open into many titles.
zzWhen we touch the titles it opens with the image of the person or the
object with the success story.
zzYou select your story and read. Lastly some tips on business and GST also
is given.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

URL:
h t t p s : / / p l a y. g o o g l e . c o m / s t o r e / a p p s /
details?id=appymaker.jkavin&hl=en

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 UNIT

8 Community
Development

COMMUNITY
DEVELOPMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This chapter will enlighten students about

zz Understanding the need for Rain water harvesting and learn the different methods
of rain water harvesting
zz Understanding the need for safe drinking water
zz Learning the different methods of water purification
zz Creating, awareness on waste management
zz Importance of Organic food and Organic farming
zz Gaining knowledge on the use of medicinal plants to cure common ailments
zz To bringing awareness about the rights of a girl child
zz Understanding the various income generating schemes by government

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 5. Setting up of cooperative societies
8.1 Introduction
for carrying developmental works.
Community development is The Community Development
a professional discipline that brings programme is focused on selected areas
sustainable development, provides such as Rain water harvesting, water safety,
economic opportunity, rights,equality and waste management, organic food and
social justice, promotes education and organic farming, use of medicinal plants
empowerment of people with their skills to cure common ailments, protecting the
within their communities, creates identity rights of a girl child and various Income
or interest in urban and rural settings”. generating schemes.
The United Nations defines
community development as “a process
where community members come
8.2 Rain Water Harvesting
together to take collective action and
generate solutions to common problems. Water is a precious natural resource
Community development practitioners that needs to be managed and used
work along side people in communities wisely. This is because the total amount
to help build relationships with people to of rainfall in India remains the same,
identify common concerns. while the increase in population and the
growing economic prosperity has created
a huge demand for water. One of the main
aims of rainwater harvesting is to restore
the original hydrologic cycle. Hence rain
water harvesting plays a significant role in
community development.
Rainwater has nearly neutral pH,
and is free from disinfection by products,
The Community Development salts, minerals and other natural, manmade
Programmes are based on the following contaminants. The time, duration and the
principles: amount of rainfall varies from place to
place. With rising population the demand
1. Planning programmes and for water is increasing day by day. Modern
developmental activities by involving lifestyle demands more amount of water.
the people to fulfill the various needs This leads to shortage of water in many
of the community. parts of the country. Hence water must be
2. Bringing psychological betterment conserved for future use. One method of
of the individual. conserving water is to collect rainwater
3. Creating the local leadership and and store it for later use. This is called rain
developing socialism. water harvesting.
4. Creating awareness about national Rainwater harvesting is the
policies and political setup in democracy. gathering, or accumulating and storing
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 institutions or from specially prepared
areas of ground makes an important
contribution to drinking water. Roof
rainwater is usually of good quality
and does not require treatment before
consumption.

8.2.1  B
 enefits of Rainwater
Harvesting
zzRainwater supplements our
domestic,industrial and other water
needs
of rainwater. It has been used to provide zzGround water is constantly getting
drinking water, water for livestock, depleted or polluted in large areas
water for irrigation. Rain water collected zzWater is free; only cost is for collection
from the roofs of houses, tents and local and use

Hydrologic cycle
The sequence of conditions through which water passes from vapor in the atmosphere
through precipitation upon land or water surfaces and ultimately back into the
atmosphere as a result of evaporation and transpiration is called hydrological cycle.

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 I N T E R E S T I N G FA C T
Roof top rainwater is the most
common practice in Shillong,
Meghalaya. Eventhough Cherapunjee
and Mawsynram situated at a distance
of 55 km. from Shillong, receive heavy
rainfall The state capital Shillong, faces
acute shortage of water.Hence every
household in the Shillong city has a
roof top water harvesting structure.
zzRain water is sodium free and is
therefore important for persons on
low sodium diets 8.3  Water Safety
zzRain water is superior for landscape
irrigation 8.3.1  I
 mportance of Safe
Drinking Water
zzRain water harvesting reduces
consumer’s utility bills Safe drinking water is most
Recent trends in rain water important for consumption. It is
harvesting necessary to protect drinking water from
1. Surface runoff harvesting: contamination for public health, economic
and environmental reasons.
2. Roof top rainwater harvesting
Safe drinking water is the basic
3. Catchments
necessity of a community. The availability
4. Filter and quality of water determines the quality
The following techniques are of life. Even though there always has been
applied to collect rain water in different plenty of fresh water on earth, water has
places. not always been available when and where
1. Roof top rainwater harvesting: It it is needed, nor is it always of suitable
is a traditional technique in which quality for all uses. Thus water is a finite
rainwater is collected from rooftop resource that has limits and boundaries to
and allowed to go into storage tank its availability and suitability for use.
through pipes. Water from the roof
may contain soil and should be
filtered before use. From the pipes
rainwater seeps into the soil to
recharge or refill the groundwater.
2. Rainwater from the roadsides
goes directly into the ground into
pits,trenches,dugwells, recharge
wells etc. This can be used later.
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 Water must be in sufficient supply
Why water has to be
for an area to develop, and an area cannot
purified?
continue to develop if water demand
If water is contaminated many diseases outstrips available supply.
such as Hepatitis, Cholera, Diarrhoea,
The following table shows the list
Typhoid fever, Dysentery, Amoebic
of water borne diseases.
dysentery results. Hence water has to
be purified for consumption.

Waterborne Diseases

Diseases Causes and symptoms

CHOLERA Cholera is an infection of the small intestine caused by the
bacteria Vibrio cholerae.
Symptoms: Watery diarrhoea and vomiting
Causes: Transmission occurs primarily by drinking water or
eating food that has been contaminated by the feces of an
infected person.
DIARRHOEA Diarrhoea is a condition of passing loose and watery stools
frequently.
Causes: Virus which infects the gut.
DYSENTRY Dysentry is a disorder of intestine that results in severe
diarrhoea containing blood and mucus in the feces with fever
and abdominal pain.
Symptoms: Elevated body temperature, fever, nausea and
vomiting.
Causes: Poor hygiene and spreads by food and water
contaminated by bacteria.
SEVERE ACUTE Symptoms: Fever, lethargy, gastrointestinal symptoms, cough
RESPIRATORY and sore throat.
SYNDROME(SARS) Causes: contaminated water
TYPHOID FEVER Symptoms: Fever, profuse sweating, diarrhoea. spleen and liver
enlarge if untreated.
Causes: contaminated water

Water purification methods help water may reduce the concentration of

to ensure availability of safe drinking particular matter including suspended
water. Water purification is the process particles, parasites, bacteria, algae,
of removing undesirable chemicals, viruses, fungi, as well as reducing the
biological contaminants, suspended concentration of a range of dissolved and
solids and gases from water. Purifying particular matter.
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 river,tank and lake waters carry a
large amount of suspended matter,
causing the water to be turbid and
coloured. Storage in reservoirs
makes these impurities settle to the
bottom. The settlement and removal
of impurities is effective by adding
chemical agents to the water such
as alum. The chemical hydrolysis
in water forms flaky, flocculent
precipitates in which the suspended
8.3.2  W
 ater Purification particles including a large number of
Methods bacteria are trapped and carried to
the bottom by sedimentation.
2. FILTRATION: Sedimentation
Water Purificaon Methods may not remove all suspended
impurities in water. Therefore water
Purificaon Water
is further purified by filtration. For
the filtration of water for human
Large scale Domesc
Methods Methods consumption two types of filters
are used. They are Slow Sand Filters
Sedimentaon Boiling and Rapid Sand Filters used in
industries.
Filtraon Filtering
3. DISINFECTION: The filtered water
Disinfecon is disinfected. The most common
disinfectant used is chlorine.
Chlorine is a strong oxidant that
rapidly kills many harmful micro-
organisms.Other possible pathogens
22nd March is celebrated as include viruses, bacteria, including
world water day. The theme for 2018 Salmonella, Cholera,Campylobacter
world water day is Nature for water. and Shigella. Chlorine is added
The theme focuses on the importance to water in the form of solution
of water. of chlorine gas drawn from steel
cylinders of liquid chlorine or in the
Industrial Methods form of bleaching powder.
(Large Scale Methods)
1. SEDIMENTATION: Water taken
Chlorine levels up to 4
from deep borewells and similar
milligrams per litre (4 parts per million)
underground sources may be almost
are considered safe in drinking water
free from suspended impurities. But
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 Domestic Methods methods of disposal and management.
Waste management normally deals with
1. Boiling
all types of waste whether it was created
Boiling water is the cheapest and in forms that are industrial, biological,
safest method of water purification. household, and special cases where it
In this method, clean water should be may pose a threat to human health. It is
brought to boil and left at rolling-boil for produced due to human activity such as
1-3 minutes. For people living in high when factories extract and process raw
altitude areas, boil water for longer than materials. Waste management is intended
water boiled at lower altitudes. This is to reduce adverse effects of waste on
because water boils at lower temperatures health, the environment or aesthetics.
in higher altitudes. Boiled water should
be covered and left to cool before
drinking. Boiling kills bacteria,parasites
and viruses.
Use of filters: In household
water is purified by muslin cloth and
by reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is
a water treatment process that remove
contaminants from water by using
pressure to force water molecules
through a semipermeable membrane. The
water is filtered leaving clean drinking
water.

8.4  Waste Disposal 8.4.1  Disposal methods

Proper waste disposal is essential

for community development if waste is Land fills:
not disposed properly it will affect the Throwing daily waste/ garbage in
community leading to various problems. the landfills is the most popularly used
Waste management or waste disposal method of waste disposal used today. This
are all the activities and actions required process of waste disposal involves burying
to manage waste from its inception to its the waste in the land.
final disposal. This includes amongst other
This method causes numerous
things collection, transport, treatment and
contamination problems. Landfills give
disposal of waste together with monitoring
rise to air and water pollution which
and regulation.
severely affects the environment and can
Waste can take any form that is prove fatal to the lives of humans and
solid, liquid, or gas and each have different animals.
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 Recovery and Recycling
Recycling is the process of
converting waste products into new
products to prevent energy usage and
consumption of fresh raw materials.
Material for recycling may be collected
separately from general waste using bins
and collection vehicles, a procedure called
kerbside collection. In some communities,
the owner of the waste is required to
separate the materials into different bins
Incineration/ Combustion
(e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior
Incineration or combustion is to its collection. In other communities,
a type of disposal method in which all recyclable materials are placed in a
municipal solid wastes are burned at high single bin for collection, and the sorting
temperatures so as to convert them into is handled later at a central facility. The
residue and gaseous products. The biggest latter method is known as “single-stream
advantage of this type of method is that recycling.
it can reduce the volume of solid waste to
The most common products
20 to 30 percent of the original volume,
recycled include aluminium such as
decreases the space they take up and
beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel
reduce the stress on landfills.
from food and aerosol cans, old steel
This process is also known as furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres,
thermal treatment where solid waste polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles
materials are converted by incinerators and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers,
into heat, gas, stem and ash. magazines and light paper, and corrugated
fiberboard boxes.
Composting
Composting is a easy and natural
bio-degradation process that takes
organic wastes i.e. remains of plants
and garden and kitchen waste and turns
into nutrient rich food for your plants.
Composting, normally used for organic
farming, occurs by allowing organic
materials to sit in one place for months
until microbes decompose it. Composting
is one of the best method of waste disposal
as it can turn unsafe organic products into
safe compost. On the other side, it is slow
process and takes lot of space.
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 Recycling is the third component of
Organic food is food produce which
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle waste hierarchy.
has been grown on farms using
The advantages of behind recycling are
environment-friendly practices and is
to reduce energy usage, reduce volume of
free of artificial fertilizers, chemical
landfills, reduce air and water pollution,
insecticides and pesticides. Organic
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
food does not include any form of
preserve natural resources for future use.
genetically modified crop.
Recycling is very important as
waste has a huge negative impact on the The advantages of an organic diet
natural environment. in enhancing health of individual and
zzHarmful chemicals and greenhouse subsequently overall development of
gas are released from rubbish in community is given below.
landfill sites. Recycling helps to reduce zzThe environment benefits because
the pollution caused by waste. natural habitats are less threatened.
zzHabitat destruction and global zzThe soil is in better condition because
warming are some the affects caused of the manure used.
by deforestation. Recycling reduces zzBiodiversity increases with use of
the need for raw materials so that the fewer chemicals which harm bees and
rainforests can be preserved. other insects.
zzHuge amounts of energy are used when zzCrop diversity can be ensured.
making products from raw materials.
zz Organic food is more nutritious as
Recycling requires much less energy
several recent studies have suggested
and therefore helps to preserve natural
that such food contains higher
resources.
amounts of essential nutrients and
minerals, including vitamin C, iron,
8.5 Organic Food and and zinc.
Organic Farming
zzOrganic food has no chemical additives
Consumers are aware of the whereas conventional farming
relationship between nutrition and health. methods expose foods to chemicals
Concerns over food safety and quality in the form of pesticides, fertilisers,
have fuelled the growing popularity of and preservatives. These conventional
organic foods, and many people believe methods greatly improve productivity
that eating organic is best for their health but they are very harmful to human
and well being. beings and can cause irreversible
damage.
zzOrganic food lacks artificial hormones
and antibiotics. To maximise
productivity, some modern farms
inject their livestock with hormones
and antibiotics which enter the
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 An organic diet decreases the chances for depression and concentration
problems in children (and adults) thereby enchancing their mental health.
This means the child will perform better in school, will not feel tired and will work
harder than others.In addition, eating organic foods can help with attention deficit
disorder (ADD), a common condition among children.

human body when products like 8.6  Medicinal Plants

meat, milk, and eggs, are consumed.
Plants have traditionally been used as
These chemicals, which are proven to
a source of medicine in India for the control
cause hormonal imbalances and drug
of various ailments afflicting human and
resistant bacteria in human beings.
domestic animals thereby improving the
zzOrganic food has increased antioxidants health status and economic development of
which help in preventing cancer and the community. Medicinal plants are used
boosts mental health of children. for therapeutic properties.

MEDICINAL VALUE OF PLANTS

1. ALOE VERA (Chirukattali):

Used for skin diseases, anthelmintic.

Leaf extracts inhibits the growth of
mycobacterium tuberculosis.The
pulp of leaves is given in fever and
liver enlargement.

2. CORIANDER LEAVES

Acts as a tonic for stomach and

heart. Used for treating urinary tract
infection.

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 3. CURRY LEAVES

It has antioxidants which helps in

losing weight, sharpens memory,
relieve morning sickness, nausea,
good for hair growth and eyesight.

4. MINT LEAVES

Contains antioxidant and anti-

inflammatory agent. Used as mouth
freshener.

5. ASAFOETIDA

Used as a spice.It is used to relieve

spasms, indigestion, flatulence,
colic, cholera and whooping cough.

6. FENUGREEK LEAVES

Controls cough and flatulence.

Helps to cure ulcers and regulates
Diabetes.

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 7. TULSI

Promotes hunger,well known

immunity booster.

8. NILA VEMBU

Bitter, given in fever, malarial fever,

diarrhoea and weakness. Useful for
reducing blood sugar.

9. GARLIC

It reduces blood pressure and

cholesterol thereby reducing risk of
heart diseases,releives stress fatigue
and has anti-inflammatory property.

10. GINGER

It contains gingerol a substance with

powerful medicinal properties, it
treats nausea and morning sickness,
reduces muscle pain and soreness.

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 8.7 Rights of a Girl Child from it. Therefore ensuring the rights
and privilege of a girl child pave way for
To achieve true women
development of a community.
empowerment, girl children rights are
important. This is because girls of today Literally meaning ‘Educate the Girl
are the women of tomorrow. It is the role of Child, Save the Girl Child’ the Beti Padhao,
social welfare organizations to support for Beti Bachao Scheme is an ambitious scheme
the eradication of female infanticide and of the Government of India which is intended
women empowerment. Some yardsticks of to generate massive awareness, improvement
women empowerment are: of quality of welfare services for females and
helping them (girls and women) access these
Helping women to develop a
services better. It was Introduced in October
positive self-image and increase their
2014, It is a joint initiative of three important
confidence level
Central Government ministries – the Ministry
Enabling them to develop the of Women and Child Development, Ministry
ability to think critically. of Health and Family Welfare and Ministry
Ensuring that they have equal of Human Resource Development.It is
participation in decision making, whether therefore  imperative that both government
it’s in the family or at the community level and non-government organizations work in
cohesion to spread the message of saving and
Providing economic independence educating the girl child.
to women

Why Girl Children Should be

Given Rights
The role of education is extremely
important here and goes a long way in
empowering women. Girl children need
to be sent to school, provided quality and
holistic education. Numerous benefits come
with educating girls the right way. Educated
girls are able to take the right decisions in
life. For example, when an educated girl
8.8 Income Generating
falls sick, she will have better understanding
Schemes
and awareness to avail proper healthcare
services. At the same time, a society in Income-Generating Programmes
which girls are educated will see less child are those types of vocational continuing
marriages, decreased levels of poverty and education programmes which help
heightened participation of women in participants acquire or upgrade vocational
socio-economic processes. Educating a girl skills and which enable them to conduct
has far-reaching impacts. When a woman income generating activities.
is educated, an entire generation benefits

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 The main purpose of Income- zzBy developing self-confidence
Generating Programmes is and ability to undertake income
zzVocational skills, knowledge, attitudes generating activities through
and values are developed to promote a appropriate and adequate training
better quality of life of all people. and motivation;

zzTo upgrade work ethics so that zzBy providing opportunities for

people become useful and productive continuous upgrading of vocational
members of society. knowledge and skills for gainful
employment;
zzTo alleviate poverty and to contribute to
the development of human resources. zzBy developing team spirit for working
together for sustainable social and
zzTo identify their economic needs and
economic growth.
explore ways and means of fulfilling
those needs
Followings are some schemes of Poverty alleviation schemes
generating income

PROGRAMMES CHARACTERISTICS

1. P
 M’s Employment Generation zzInitiated on 15th August 2008 by Prime
Programme Minister.
Started in 1980.
Main aim is to create sustainable
opportunities for self-employment in the
2. I ntegrated Rural Development
rural sector.
Programme (IRDP):
Finance was provided to poor families for
creating self employment.
zzFunded by the centre and the state.
Central government started this program
in 2004 in 150 most backward districts to
3. F
 ood for Work Programme:
provide wage employment. Food grains are
supplied to states free of cost.

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 Started on 1 April 1999.The main objective
of this program is for the development of
4. J awahar Gram Samridhi Yojana
rural areas and to give out sustained wage
(JGSY):
employment.This is only for those below
poverty line.

Started in 2006. Later modified as

the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in
5. N
 ational Rural Employment
October 2, 2009.
Guarantee Act (NREGA):
Aims to guarantee the “right to work”. 100
days of guaranteed wage employment in a
financial year.

zzIt came in existence by merging Jawahar

Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) and
6. S ampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS). It
(SGRY): was launched in September 2001 to provide
additional wage employment in the rural
areas.

7. S
 warnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Started in 1st April 1999 by providing self
Yojana (SGSY)/ National Rural employment of the rural poor. IRDP and
Livelihood Mission TRYSEM merged in this scheme.
The Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
Department, Government of Tamil Nadu
introduced the scheme.
Aims: To mitigate the unemployment
problems of socially and economically
weaker section of the society, particularly
8. U
 nemployed Youth Employment among the educated and unemployed to
Generation Programme (UYEGP)” become self employed in their native places
itself and to prevent the mass migration
from rural areas to urban areas due to
unemployment by setting up Manufacturing
/ Service / Business enterprises by availing
loan up to the maximum of Rs.10 Lakhs, Rs.
3 Lakhs and Rs. 1 Lakh.
To increase the entrepreneurs in the
9. TAHDCO community through setting up of petrol/
diesel outlet.

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 S U M M A RY its final disposal and prevent the spread
of communicable diseases.
zz The key areas for developing the
community include to provide safe zz Organic food is food produce which
drinking water, Rain water harvesting, has been grown on farms using
proper waste disposal and sanitation, environment-friendly practices and is
ensuring availability of crops through free of artificial fertilizers, chemical
organic farming, use of medicinal insecticides and pesticides. Organic
plants to cure common ailments, food does not include any form of
protecting the rights of a girl child and genetically modified crop.
alleviation of poverty through income zz Medicinal plants are used for
generating schemes. therapeutic properties like aloevera,
zz Community development as “a coriander leaves, curry leaves, mint
process where community members leaves,ginger, garlic etc.
come together to take collective action zz Ensuring the rights and privilege of a
and generate solutions to common girl child pave way for development of
problems. a community. Some important rights
zz Water must be conserved for future are freedom to Education, Freedom to
use. One method of conserving live life freely.
water is to collect rainwater and zz Income-Generating Programmes are
store it for later use. This is called those types of vocational continuing
rain water harvesting.Recent trends education programmes which help
in rain water harvesting are Surface participants acquire or upgrade
runoff harvesting,Roof top rainwater vocational skills and which enable them
harvesting,Catchments and Filter. to conduct income generating activities.
zz Safe drinking water is most important
for consumption. It is necessary G L O S S A RY
to protect drinking water from
z Weeds (களைகள்)–wild plant growing
contamination for public health,
in unwanted place
economic and environmental reasons.
Water purification methods help to z Hormones (ஹார்மோன்)–chemical
ensure availability of safe drinking substance produced by body
water. Water purification is the z Antibiotic(ந�ோய் கிருமி கட்டுபடுத்தி)-
process of removing undesirable medicine that inhibits or destroys the
chemicals, biological contaminants, growth of microorganisms.
suspended solids and gases from z Anthelmintic (குடல்புழு அகற்றும்
water. Water is purified through large மருந்து)–medicine used to destroy
scale and domestic methods. parasitic worms
zz Waste management or waste disposal z Empower (அதிகாரம்)– authority or
are all the activities and actions required power to do something
to manage waste from its inception to

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 z Suspended impurities(கசடுகள்)– z Antioxidants(ஆக்ஜினேற்றி) –
constituent which impairs the purity substance that inhibits oxidation to
of something in suspension delay deterioration
z Depression(மனஅழுத்தம்) - sadness z Flatulence(வாயு) – Accumulation of
gas in the alimentary canal

E VA L U AT I O N

I.  Choose the correct answer 5. Match the following

1. Community development seeks to a) primeminister Employment
empower __________ generation scheme 2006
a) Individual alone b) Swarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar
b) Individual and Groups Yojana (SGSY): 2001
c) Groups only c) National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act 1999 (NREGA):
d) Women
d) FOOD FOR WORK 2008
2. ASSERTION: Organic foods when
served fresh provides maximum 6. Cheapest and safest method of water
nutrients purification __________
REASON: Foods needs to be served a) Boiling
always fresh to obtain maximum b) Filtration
nutrients
c) sendimentation
a) Assertion is correct
d) Osmosis
b) Reason is correct
7. Match the medicinal use of
c) Reason for assertion is correct
a) Garlic relieves digestion
d) Assertion for reason is correct
problems
3. Organic farming needs b) coriander improves bowel
a) Farming with chemicals syndrome
b) Farming without chemicals c) Mint Hair growth
c) Farming with the use of pesticides d) Curry Reduces
leaves cholesterol
d) Farming with the use of aritifical
fertilizer
4. pH of rain water is __________
a) Acidic 8. Recycling
components
b) Basic
are
c) Neutral
d) None of the above
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 9. __________ is celebrated as world provision to store rain water during
water day rainy season. Suggest ways to store
a) 2 March the rain water effectively.

b) 22 September 4. Draw and define the hydrologic cycle.

c) 12 August 5. Write 3 positive aspects of organic food.

d) 22 March 6. Explain the Beti Bacho Beti Padhoa

scheme to an illiterate women.
II.  Write Very Short Answers(2 marks)
IV.  Write in detail (5 marks)
1. Write the medicinal properties of
Aloe vera and Ginger 1. Community development seeks to
empower individuals – Justify
2. What is the main aim of rain water
harvesting? 2. Organic food does not lead to
hormonal imbalance -explain
3. Define waste management
3. Vinodhini is a 18 year old village girl.
4. List the barriers which prevents
She is ignorant of her rights in the
buying organic food.
society. As a friend suggest her the
5. Write 2 different methods of water rights of a girl child.
purification.
4. Girls of today are women of tomorrow.
Brief this statement with women
III.  Write Short Answers (3 marks) empowerment.
1. How do landfills severely affect the 5. Explain the different methods of
environment? waste disposal.
2. What are the aims of income 6. Is reverse osmosis water safe for drinking?
generating schemes?
7. Explain the different methods of
3. A building which was constructed 20 purification of water.
years back by your neighbour had no

REFERENCES

1. “Disinfection with Chlorine | Public 3. Medicinal plants by S.K.Jain, 1968,

Water Systems | Drinking Water | National book trust,India
Healthy Water”. CDC. Retrieved 11 4. Economic Botany by B.P.Pandey,
February 2018. S.Chand& company,2000
2. Microbiology by Anna K. Joshua,
First Edition 1971,Popular book
depot

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