Introduction

All of the energy we produce comes from basic chemical and physical processes.

That’s mostly been accomplished throughout history by burning carbon-based material

like wood, coal and gas—or by harnessing power from the sun, wind, and water.

Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission are two different types of energy-releasing reactions
in which energy is released from high-powered atomic bonds between the particles
within the nucleus. They yield millions of times more energy than other sources through
nuclear reactions.

The main difference between these two processes is that fission is the splitting of an
atom into two or more smaller ones while fusion is the fusing of two or more smaller
atoms into a larger one.

What is fission?

Fission is a process that occurs when a neutron slams into a larger atom, forcing it to
excite and split into two smaller atoms—also known as fission products. Additional
neutrons are also released that can initiate a chain reaction. When each atom splits, a
tremendous amount of energy is released.

Ur
anium and plutonium are most commonly used for fission reactions in nuclear power
reactors because they are easy to initiate and control. The energy released by fission in
these reactors heats water into steam. The steam is used to spin a turbine to produce
carbon-free electricity.

Why certain elements undergo fission?

Nuclear fission is a process where the nucleus of an atom is split into two or more smaller
nuclei, known as fission products. Nuclear fission occurs with heavier elements, because in
atoms with small nuclei, the strong nuclear force overpowers the electromagnetic force. As
the nucleus gets bigger, the electromagnetic force becomes greater than the strong nuclear
force. In these nuclei, it’s possible for particles and energy to be ejected from the nucleus.
These nuclei are called unstable, and this instability can result in radiation and fission.
In order to initiate fission, a high-energy neutron is directed towards a nucleus, such as 235U.
The combination of these two produces 236U, which is an unstable element that undergoes
fission. The resulting fission process often releases additional neutrons, which can go on to
initiate other 235U atoms, forming a chain reaction. 

Controlled Nuclear Fission

To maintain a sustained controlled nuclear reaction, for every 2 or 3 neutrons released,
only one must be allowed to strike another uranium nucleus. If this ratio is less than one
then the reaction will die out; if it is greater than one it will grow uncontrolled (an
atomic explosion). A neutron absorbing element must be present to control the amount
of free neutrons in the reaction space. Most reactors are controlled by means of control
rods that are made of a strongly neutron-absorbent material such as boron or cadmium.

In addition to the need to capture neutrons, the neutrons often have too much kinetic
energy. These fast neutrons are slowed through the use of a moderator such as heavy
water and ordinary water. Some reactors use graphite as a moderator, but this design
has several problems. Once the fast neutrons have been slowed, they are more likely to
produce further nuclear fissions or be absorbed by the control rod.

Uses of Nuclear Fission

Space Propulsion

Nuclear fission energy appears promising for space propulsion applications and in the

generation of high mission velocities with less reaction mass. This is because of
production of large amount of energy, around 106 times more than any chemical
reactions and can be used for the current generation of rockets.

Thermoelectric Generators

Nuclear fission is generally used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators for

space mission.

Conversion of Energy

Just like conventional thermal power stations which generate electricity by using

the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants follow the
conversion of the energy released from nuclear fission in nuclear reactor. 

Generation of Steam Energy

The heat produced during the nuclear fission removes from core by using coolant and
used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine. These steam turbines are
connected to a generator to produce electricity.

Diagnostics and Radiation

Nuclear technology is widely used in diagnostics and radiation treatment like radiation

therapy for cancer.

Production of other Radioisotopes

Nuclear fission is used to produce some less common radioisotopes like cesium-137 (Cs-
137) by using uranium-235 which is used in photographic sources.

Use in Submarines
Nuclear fission energy is also use as a power source for propelling submarines and some
type of surface vessels. 

Uses in Research

Another application of nuclear fission reactors is their high neutron fluxes which can be

used for studying the structure and properties of materials.

What future holds for fission?

Small Modular Reactor Technologies

Small modular reactors can also be made in factories and transported to sites where
they would be ready to “plug and play” upon arrival, reducing both capital costs and
construction times. The smaller size also makes these reactors ideal for small electric
grids and for locations that cannot support large reactors, offering utilities the flexibility
to scale production as demand changes.

Light Water Reactor Technologies

The existing U.S. nuclear fleet has a remarkable safety and performance record.
Extending the operating lifetimes of current plants beyond 60 years and, where
possible, making further improvements in their productivity will generate early benefits
from research, development, and demonstration investments in nuclear power.

Advanced Reactor Technologies

As a result of ARC research, nuclear energy will continue to provide clean, affordable,
and secure energy while supporting the administration’s greenhouse gas reduction goals
by introducing advanced designs into new energy and industrial markets. DOE will
pursue RD&D on both advanced thermal and fast neutron spectrum systems.

Versatile Test Reactor

In February 2019, the U.S. Department of Energy announced its plans to build a
Versatile Test Reactor, or VTR. This new research reactor will be capable of performing
irradiation testing at much higher neutron energy fluxes than what is currently available
today.

Space Power Systems

For over 50 years the Department of Energy and its predecessor agencies have been
deeply involved in space research and exploration. Currently, the Office of Space and
Defense Power Systems supplies Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS) to the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and national security applications for
missions that are beyond the capabilities of fuel cells, solar power and battery power
supplies.

What is Fusion?

Fusion occurs when two atoms slam together to form a heavier atom, like when two
hydrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom. This is the same process that powers the
sun and creates huge amounts of energy—several times greater than fission. It also
doesn’t produce highly radioactive fission products. Fusion reactions are being studied
by scientists, but are difficult to sustain for long periods of time because of the
tremendous amount of pressure and temperature needed to join the nuclei together.

Why certain elements are used in fusion?

Fusion reactions can occur for light nuclei weighting less than iron, most elements will
not fuse unless they are in the interior of a star. To create burning plasmas in
experimental fusion power reactors such as tokamaks and stellarators, scientists
seek a fuel that is relatively easy to produce, store, and bring to fusion. The current best
bet for fusion reactors is deuterium-tritium(heavy isotopes of hydrogen) fuel. This
fuel reaches fusion conditions at lower temperatures compared to other elements and
releases more energy than other fusion reactions.

Controlled Nuclear Fusion

The favoured method for achieving controlled fusion involves joining the nuclei of
deuterium and tritium atoms (heavy isotopes of hydrogen) together at very
high temperatures – about 100 million degrees Celsius. No method of
sustaining such temperatures under stable conditions has yet been demonstrate.

Uses of Nuclear Fusion

Abundant energy: Fusing atoms together in a controlled way releases nearly four
million times more energy than a chemical reaction such as the burning of coal, oil or
gas and four times as much as nuclear fission reactions (at equal mass). Fusion has the
potential to provide the kind of baseload energy needed to provide electricity to our
cities and our industries.

Sustainability: Fusion fuels are widely available and nearly inexhaustible. Deuterium
can be distilled from all forms of water, while tritium will be produced during the fusion
reaction as fusion neutrons interact with lithium. (Terrestrial reserves of lithium would
permit the operation of fusion power plants for more than 1,000 years, while sea-based
reserves of lithium would fulfil needs for millions of years.)

No CO₂: Fusion doesn't emit harmful toxins like carbon dioxide or other greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere. Its major by-product is helium: an inert, non-toxic gas.

No long-lived radioactive waste: Nuclear fusion reactors produce no high activity,

long-lived nuclear waste. The activation of components in a fusion reactor is low enough
for the materials to be recycled or reused within 100 years.

Limited risk of proliferation: Fusion doesn't employ fissile materials like uranium
and plutonium. (Radioactive tritium is neither a fissile nor a fissionable material.) There
are no enriched materials in a fusion reactor like ITER that could be exploited to make
nuclear weapons.

No risk of meltdown: A Fukushima-type nuclear accident is not possible in a

tokamak fusion device. It is difficult enough to reach and maintain the precise
conditions necessary for fusion—if any disturbance occurs, the plasma cools within
seconds and the reaction stops. The quantity of fuel present in the vessel at any one time
is enough for a few seconds only and there is no risk of a chain reaction.

Cost:  The power output of the kind of fusion reactor that is envisaged for the second
half of this century will be similar to that of a fission reactor, (i.e., between 1 and 1.7
gigawatts). The average cost per kilowatt of electricity is also expected to be similar ...
slightly more expensive at the beginning, when the technology is new, and less
expensive as economies of scale bring the costs down.

What future holds for fusion?

 Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy
for future generations, but it also presents so far unresolved engineering
challenges.
 The fundamental challenge is to achieve a rate of heat emitted by a fusion
plasma that exceeds the rate of energy injected into the plasma.
 The main hope is centred on tokamak reactors and stellarators which confine
a deuterium-tritium plasma magnetically.