SOCIAL FORMATION AND CULTURAL

PATTERN ASSIGNMENT
DIKSHA SHARMA
BA HISTORY HONS. (1ST YEAR )
ROLL NO:-188

Ques:- Discuss the biological and cultural evolution of Hominidae ?

human species represents the most advanced stage of the long process of evolution which
began with the formation of the earth nearly 4600 million .Human evolution is the lengthy
process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. Evolution doesn’t
happen all at once, especially in complex organisms such as human beings. Human
evolution, like evolution in other species, did not proceed in a straight line. Instead, a
diversity of species diverged from common ancestors, like branches on a bush. Our
species, Homo sapiens, is the only survivor. Biological evolution is the change in inherited
traits over successive generations in populations of organisms. Adaptation is a key
evolutionary process in which variation in the fitness of traits and species are adjusted by
natural selection to become better suited for survival in specific ecological habitats. The
environment acts to promote evolution through changes in development. Therefore,
determining how developmental changes are mediated is critical for understanding the
mechanisms of evolution .“Cultural evolution” is the idea that human cultural change––that
is, changes in socially transmitted beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, languages,
and so on. The process of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species
(populations of different organisms) to arise, adapt to the environment, and become
extinct.

Darwinism- Charles Darwin (Survival of the fittest) .In the latter half of the nineteenth
century, Charles Darwin, propounded his famous theory of Natural Selection, in his famous
book ‘ ORIGIN OF SPECIES’ (1959).which suggested that  organisms best adjusted to
their environment are the most successful in surviving and reproducing . he propounded
that species have evolved due to minor variations in individual members of species. These
variations may be inherited by the offspring, as a result of a long cumulative process (over
several hundred thousand or millions of years) the variation will end up in the emergence of
new species. Variation and Heredity : Individuals of the same species are not at all alike and
differ from each other in various characteristics due to natural variations. Favourable
adaptations are inherited and are passed onto the off springs of the next generations.. Carl
Linnaeus – ( Classification of Plants and Animals) Darwin’s work was preceded by
significant developments in natural sciences during the eighteenth and early nineteenth
century. An important contribution to the classification of plants and animals was made by
the Carl Linnaeus. Linnaeus classified plants/ animals on the basis of similar characteristics ,
thereby introducing some order in the available data. Systematic classification made it
easier to perceive differences and similarities between various species. George De Buffon - (
Natural History) George de Buffon argued in his several volume work ‘Natural History’ ,
that the natural world had changed over a period of time. The contemporary natural world
was different from what it was like in earlier ages. Chevalier de Lamarck- (Natural History
of Invertebrate Animals) Two developments, which assisted in providing a firm basis for
the concept of evolution. The emergence of geology as a scientific discipline, and the study
of fossils. These developments in science prepared the ground for the work of Chevalier de
Lamarck. In his writings, which included the seven- volume work ‘Natural history of
Invertebrate Animals’ , animal species underwent change. They were not static, unchanging
entities. The species were not fixed but could change from one generation to the next.
Fossils evidences confirmed that species had undergone changes, some life forms died,
some evolved and got diversified. He suggested that changes occurred when a particular
part of an animal was either put to more frequent use or was not regularly used. This might
cause that part to become larger, and conversely disuse would result in smaller organs.
Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Dawkins : According to Jay Gould, Darwinian theory
indicates very slow and gradual changes. Gould’s view is that while there were long periods
when almost no change took place, there were short phases when there was a burst of
evolutionary activity. It means that some critical mutations might lead to a quickening of
evolution for brief periods. His argument is mainly derived from his interpretation of fossil
evidence. Richard Dawkins, an eminent zoologist has comprehensively refuted Gould’s
argument by emphasizing that such sudden bursts of change would initially make
adaptation very unlikely for the group with different characteristics. Gaps in fossil evidence
can be explained by theway that a small group could have got separated from the main
population and might have started evolving in isolation, and later went back to the original
place.
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF HOMINIDAE

Hominidae group split into two further divisions forming two different lineages that is,
ancestors of modern chimpanzees and modern humans. The ancestors of modern humans
have been further divided into two categories (a) Australopithecus /Australopithecines
(Southern Ape) and (b) Homo. The process of evolution of hominid species is now
considered as more complex than hitherto believed. A number of bipedal ape-like hominids
evolved between 7 and 4 mya . One of the earliest among these, according to the available
fossil evidence, was Ardipithecus ramidus .The fossils of this species have been found from
the Awash region in Ethiopia (East Africa) and are dated 4.5 mya. Australopithecus
afarensis (Southern Ape of Afar') is considered as the oldest of this order. Fossils of this
species have been found from Hadar in the Afar region of Ethiopia (East Africa) and Laetoli
in Northern Tanzania (South Africa). These fossils dated between 3.75 mya and 3 mya. The
brain size of afarensis approximated that of a chimpanzee, that is, 410cc (cubic centimetre).
Its lower limbs, though showing bipedalism, were smaller than their upper limbs. It also
had ape-like face, forward thrusting jaws, brow ridges, and although it might have foraged
for plant foods including Hard and fibrous fruits, it spent larger time on the trees. The fossil
evidence also suggests that females,like humans, had narrower birth canal (a direct result of
bipedalism) indicating early birth of the newborn. It became extinct around 3 mya. It is
generally believed that around 3 mya the descendants of afarensis split into two lines,
one of which led to the evolution of Homo. One line of descent led to the evolution of
Australopithecus africanus (Southern Ape of Africa), the fossils of which were found
Raymond Dart in 1924 mostly from South Africa A. africanus, supposed to have lived
between 3-1 mya, was a small gracile (slender) creature that walked upright. It had strong
neck muscles. and its brain size (450cc) was not much different from the apes but had a
delicate skull and ₁ different brain structure than that of the apes, Its gracile bones (like
humans which ensures easy movability) and existence of what has been identified as 'area
10 in the brain, which plays a major role in decision-making, advance planning and
initiative, brings them closer to the line of Homo, than other later Australopithecines
species. Another line of descent from A. afarensis led to the evolution of robust
Australopithecines species in the form of Australopithecus robustus and Australopithecus
boisei. A. robustus Robust Southern Ape) also known as paranthropus (beside man) was
larger and strongly built species than Africanus. It is supposed to have lived between 2.5-
1.5mya and fossil findings suggest that it inhabited both Eastern and Southern Africa. It was
much taller (averaging about 5.3 feet) and heavier (average weight being 50kg) with
bigger brain of 500 cc and a flatter skull. It had large teeth specialised for chewing coarse
and fibrous plant foods as well as hard seeds. The skull comparison has led some scholars
to suggest that it was ancestral to modern Gorilla A Boisei (Southern Ape), named after
founder of its fossils. Boise, also known as zinzanthropus (East Africa Man), was massive
version of robustus. Its height ranged between 5.3-5.8 feet and the weight between 60-
80kg It lived between 2.5-1 mya and inhabited Tanzania (South Africa) where its fossils have
been found in Olduvai Gorge a well as East Africa with its fossils having been found in Omo
valley near West Turkan in Kenya, it has slightly bigger brain than robustus measuring
550cc. It walked upright yet it was buiIt had a on the lines of a gorilla, and like them,
males were much taller than females. This is called dimorphism that was also found
among early Homo species. It had a large skull with small canine teeth but immense
molars and premolars, Crude flatter face and small brow ridges stone tools found along
with the bones of this species led few scholars to suggest that it may save been the earliest
toolmaker But others have rejected this notion on the ground that with have a small brain
size A. Boisei was not capable of designing crude tools that require certain amount of
imagination and planning.
Homo Species -All hominids other than Australopithecines have been classified under the
single order Homo The early species of genus homo is said to have evolved either from the
more gracile forms of Australopithecines such as africanus or those Australopithecine
species displaying human characteristics such as A. garhi . Whatever the case may be, the
homo species are distinguished by their larger brain size, ability to acquire language, an
opposite thumb facilitating precision grip, small and crowded teeth, their ability to
manufacture (not simply use) stone tools and better social interaction. The homo group has
been divided into four major subgroups, that is, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo
sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man).
Homo Habilis -All early homo species evolving from about 2.5 mya have been conveniently
placed in the category of H. habilis or "Handy Man. The earliest fossil of habilis was found in
1960 by Louis and Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania (East Africa) Although most of
the fossils of habilis species have been found in East Africa but few fossils of the same
species have also been recovered from South Africa and Southeast Asia .As pointed out
earlier, H. habilis had many similarities with the Australopithecines species as, besides other
similarities, both weighed about 40 kg (average weight) and had a similar average height of
about 4.3 feet. Researches have suggested that both were bipedal and primarily fruit eaters
too. But the major difference lied in the cranial capacity and its structures as well as the
facial features H. habilis had a larger brain with an average cranial capacity of 650 cc in
comparison to the Australopithecines species that had average cranial capacity of 150-
500cc. The habilis head was also higher and rounder had a smaller jaw and a less
protruding face. Although it had a powerful grasping hand like chimpanzees, existence of
an ape-like thumb permitted both powerful gripping as well as manipulation of fine
objects, which helped them manufacture tools even though found technologically crude.
Another major evolutionary advantage that the habilis had over Australopithecines was the
existence of speech producing and control area termed as 'Broca's area' in the brain which
allowed this species to produce variety of sounds. Though H. habilis is believed to be
capable of taking out limited sounds only yet this biological feature subsequently enabled
the growth of articulate speech among the latest Homo species, Sexual dimorphism,
however, was only slightly reduced among the habilis species.
Homo Ergaster and Homo Erectus - Based on the recent discoveries and a more scientific
analysis, scholars argue that possibly there were five to six hominid species along with H.
habilis in existence before the beginning of the Pleistocene period . Connection of these
with habilis is unquestionable, but the evidence from Koobi Fora in Kenya (East Africa) of the
coexistence of H. habilis (latest fossil having been dated to 1.44 mya) and H. erectus have
raised doubts about the belief that the latter directly evolved from the former. A species
named H. ergaster (working man') emerged in East Africa and is said to have flourished
between1.8 mya and 1.4 mya. The fossil of this species in the form of a complete skeleton of
a boy was discovered in 1984 by Richard Leakey and others from Nariokotome near Lake
Turkana (therefore named "Turkana boy' or 'Nariokotome boy') in Kenya dated about 1.6
mya. A careful analysis of the fossil has suggested that it was a powerfully built human with
massive brow ridges, large face with a low skull, which accommodated a larger brain than
habilis, averaging about 800cc. More importantly, it had larger legs and shorter arms
suggesting an exclusively terrestrial living, and their narrower hips enabled them to run
faster over long distance, which was crucial for hunting and scavenging. Sexual dimorphism
diminished (estimated to be 20 per cent) among the ergaster and a narrower birth canal
among the females meant that newborn was born early and was heavily dependent on
the mother for its initial physiological growth. While few scholars tend to put H. ergaster
and H. erectus in the same category, others consider ergaster an altogether different
species. But recent researches do find a link between the two species and suggest that
ergaster was the direct ancestor of erectus. Homo erectus (Upright man') emerged with the
beginning of Pleistocene period, though the earliest erectus fossil has been dated 17 mya.
H. erectus emerged in Africa and then radiated to Asia and Europe. The fossil was named
Pithecanthropus erectus (upright ape man' or Javaman) and is dated about 700,000 years
ago. Another significant erectus fossil discovery in Asia was in Zhoukoudian (formerly
Chokoutien) caves near Beijing (formerly Peking). Their radiation suggests that H erectus
species were adapted to different environmental conditions from tropical savanna in East
Africa to forested parts of Indonesia, temperate climate in North Africa and Europe and the
extreme cold conditions of China and Northern Europe. Such a wide distribution brought
about physical variation among different erectus species. The erectus ability to adapt in
these diverse climatic conditions arose from some significant physiological changes (since H.
habilis) and acquisition of crucial cultural traits Homo erectus possessed a bigger brain
(average cranial capacity being 1.000 cc) and a bigger body than habilis. While the average
height of erectus species was between 5-6feet, its weight ranged between 40-75kg and
resembled a strongly built version of H.habilis. Its skull was long and low with a bony
bump behind, a sloping forehead, thick brow ridges, big protecting Jaws smaller teeth
than habilis and strong neck muscle at the back of the neck, which joined the rear bump of
the head stopping the head from sagging forward particularly while running But perhaps
even more significant than these physiological features was the well-developed Broca area
and more advanced vocal tract facilitating articulate speech which had significant social and
economic consequences for further human evolution.
Homo Sapiens -Homo sapiens (wise man') definitely branched out of H. erectus line of
descent but there is unanimity among scholars regarding the time period of this transition .
The earliest fossils of archaic H. sapiens, found from Atapuerca in Spain have been dated
300,000 years ago and are considered as intermediate between H. erectus and
Neanderthals to distinguish them from modern humans or H sapiens sapiens. In view of the
limited fossil evidence, our knowledge about H. sapiens is largely dependent on the fossil
records related to Neanderthal species and cultural developments associated with them.
The Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) emerged during 135,000-125,000 year ago
Fossils of this species have been found mainly in Europe and Eurasia, the earliest being
deposits at Neander valley (hence the name Neanderthals, "thal' or 'tal' means valley in
German near Dusseldorf in West Germany). Neanderthal fossils have also been found from
other parts Europe, such as France, Yugoslavia, Italy, Belgium, Britain, Spain and
Czechoslovakin, and Russia as well as in Southwest Asia, Africa and Central Asia. Since these
fossils belong to different time periods the existence of Neanderthal during 135,000-35,000
years ago and since the later fossils suggest anatomical variations in the same species.
Neanderthals were robustly built humans with an average height of 5.5 feet and weight of
about 70 kg. They had a large, thick along skull with a bigger brain than that of modern
humans averaging about 1,500cc. They had sloping forehead with brow ridge, distinct
cheekbones, a large nose, either flat or bulbous and chinless projecting jaws. As the
Neanderthals inhabited the earth during last phase of the Ice Age, their reliance on meat
increased in order to survive the harsh winter climates. Their short and stocky body is also
considered as having adapted to winter climates. The Neanderthals became extinct about
30,000 years ago. The evidences from the Western Europe have indicated that Neanderthals
disappeared soon after the arrival of the first species of H sapiens sapiens whereas those
from West Asia suggest that they disappeared after a long period of cohabitation with latter.
Homo Sapiens Sapiens - As indicated before, the emergence of H. sapiens sapiens (fully
modern humans') has been a highly debatable issue among the paleoanthropologists (those
engaged in the study of human origin). H.sapiens sapiens emerged from the early and late
H. sapiens showing anatomically archaic and modern physiological features respectively.
Archaic H sapiens emerged about 200,000 years ago, whereas anatomically modern species
of the same genus started evolving about 100,000 years ago.Here, it must be pointed out
that the designation of archaic or modern assigned to these fossils is largely based on the
structure of the skull and does not simply major cultural differences. Prior to the emergence
of H. spiens sapiens, these several species , H. sapiens displayed a high level of cultural
adaptability. The earliest evidence of H. sapiens sapiens comes from the findings at a rock
shelter named Cro-Magnon near Les Eyzies village in Southwestern France. The Cro-Magnon
man (as the earliest species of H . sapiens sapiens was called) evolved around 40,000 years
ago and is said to be the white ancestors of today's Europeans. The Cro-Magnon specie,
with a height ranging between 5.6 and 5.8 feet, was taller, had thinner bones and less
rugged features than the Neanderthals who may have co-existed with the former at least
up to 5,000 or 10,000 years. Compared to the Neanderthals, the Cro-Magnon head was
relatively tall but small with a more rounded brain case containing a slightly smaller brain
of 1,400 cc average capacity. Besides these, other significant physiological changes were
an upright forehead, not forward-jutting but a straight face, only slight brow ridges,
smaller nose and jaws, a more crowded teeth and a well developed chin. In cultural terms
too, the H. sapiens sapiens displayed remarkable variety and improvement over that of the
Neanderthals. A versatile tool technology of this species enabled them to survive the
extreme climatic variations of the last phase of the last Ice Age that began about
116,000years ago.

CULTURAL EVOLUTION – Human cultural progression is invariably linked with their

technological progress, and during the time of early humans, this has been associated with
the tool technology. Use of terms like Stone Age, Copper Age and Iron Age to describe
various human social formations are also attempts to divide human cultural
accomplishments based on particular technical stages. The term 'Paleolithic' is a
combination of Greek words 'paleos' (old) and lithos' (stone. Based on the tool technology
and the level of socio-economic development, the Paleolithic Age has been classified into (a)
Lower Paleolithic (roughly dated between 2.5 mya to 300,000 years ago) (b) Middle
Paleolithic (between 300,000 years ago and about 35,000 years ago) and (e) Upper
Paleolithic (between 35,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago). Although this classification
may not fit all the regions of early human colonisation but has been found to be appropriate
markers of the technological achievements of early human species such as H. habilis, H.
erectus, H. sapiens (Neanderthals) and H. sapiens sapiens, Hence, the present section would
be devoted largely to the description of tool technology and other cultural traits such as use
of fire , social interaction , burial system , mother child bond , cave painting of the above
human species during these three phases of the Paleolithic.

Tool Culture
Lower Paleolithic-The earliest group of human toolmaking cultures has been termed as
Lower Paleolithic cultures. Tool making began with the emergence of H. habilis about 2.5
mya, even though Australopithecus robustus and boisei may have made use of naturally
available stone or wooden tools. The bigger brain size of H. habilis has been considered by
scholars such as Richard Leakey (1994) as the key factor facilitating manufacture of tools.
Besides a larger brain, highly specialised hands and a bipedal posture also played an
important role in the toolmaking exercise. A broader diet of this species in comparison to
that of the Australopithecine species, which included meat was an additional factor. The
label of 'handy person' associated with H. habilis basically relates to their tool making
abilities. Tools made by H. habilis have been found from Gona in Ethiopia dated 2.6 mya,
Koobi Fora areas of East Turkana (Kenya) dated 1.8 mya and Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) dated
about 1.75 mya. Since large number of hominid and animal bones, along with a huge pile up
of artefacts, have been found from Olduvai most of our knowledge of the material culture of
the earliest Homo species also come from this site, the earliest Paleolithic culture has been
termed, by Mary Leakey (founder of the site) others as the Oldowan culture. The tools
found at Olduvai and other sites of East and North Africa are simple stone to made from
pebbles or lava cobbles. The studies of Mary Leakey (1979) and Nicholas Toth (1904)
suggest that these tools were extremely crude and their classification into distinct tool types
difficult because their manufacture was not based on any standardised pattern unlike the
late tools of the Lower Paleolithic period. The H. habilis tool technology has been
categorised a 'core' technology where the core (pebble) was itself turned into a tool by the
above-despite flaking method. However, Nicholas Toth's (1994) research has shown that
even though simple and fashioned out of practical requirements, these tools required
careful selection of the raw material (for proper flaking), a high degree of motor skills and
coordination of different part of the body (eyes, limbs and fingers) in order to exercise
precise control over the force and direction of the blows to the stone as well as certain
measure of conceptualisation (mental image) before it could be given a definite shape.
The Oldowan culture is dated between 2.0 mya und 1.0 mya, and for a long times, it was
believed that this culture represented a static technology without any distinguishable
change during its existence. These tools were used by the habilis species to procure and
process plant and animal foods. Recent studies of the Oldowan tools have suggested
butchering and cutting meat, sawing and scraping wood, cutting soft plants, breaking nuts,
digiting roots and extracting bone marrow from the carcasses of animals as the possible
usages of such tools as choppers scrapers, burins and hammer stones. it has been argued
that though a meat eater H. habilis could not have been an expert hunter and possibly could
have been able to kill such small animals as antelopes. Thus, from the nature of discovered
tools. H. habilis appear as an opportunistic scavenger (scavenging meat from carnivore kills)
and a plant forager. The absence of any predetermined design on the large number of
habilis tools found from several sites in East and North Africa also indicates that this
species had not yet developed an artic late speech which was crucial for passing on
information to the present and the next generation.The larger brain size of the habilis also
helped in the further evolution of their social intelligence. According to a rough estimate,
H. habilis flourished in larger groups of about 80 -85 to 65-70 . Living in larger groups,
besides providing security, also facilitated efficient forging and sharing of plant and other
food resources individually or in pair this had far reaching consequences for human in terms
of prolonged mortality and increased reproduction. The emergence of H. erectus around
1.64 mya brought about some significant changes in the Lower Paleolithic tool technology.
the erectus species did not remain confined to Africa but radiated to Europe as well as Asia
and followed different adaptive strategies to survive in diverse climatic conditions of these
regions of the Old World . Although erectus tool technology did not fundamentally differ
from that of the habilis, it displayed more complexity and diversity, making the former an
expert hunter and gatherer. These tools were standardised and were made with a
predetermined design, indicating an articulate speech, pooling of experience, transfer of
knowledge and a higher level of intelligence on part of the erectus species. With the
emergence of this species, hunting became well established , along with foraging, became
the basis of their economy. the tool technology practiced by the erectus species is also
classified under the core technology but was more complex and advanced than that of the
early Lower Paleolithic period. The most distinctive tool of this period was the hand axe.
Discovery of large numbers of handxes as along with other artefacts at St. Acheul in
Northern France has led scholars to term the tool culture as Acheulean culture. Acheulean
hand axes have been found in different shape and sizes ranging from crude teardrop
shaped forms to a refined bifacial form. It was wade from a larger core (stone) where the
core itself was carefully trimmed with hammer blows to get a desired shape. scholars are in
broad agreement that hand axe was a multipurpose tool used for cutting meat and skinning
prey, digging up roots and working on wood. Few scholars such as Eileen O'Brien (1981)
have argued that if thrown like a discuss, the pointed side of the hand axe could work like a
weapon to hit an object or animal with great force. Thus, it could be used for both hunting
prey and defending oneself. Robert J. Wenke and Deborah I. Olszewski (1985) are of
opinion that the Acheulean hand axe may not seem like a marvellous bit of technology
advancement but had several features that seem to reflect human intellectual evolution
required more processing, that is, a more actual step of manufacturing and was also more
standardised in proportion than earlier tools. Besides hand axe, the erectus species also
fashioned choppers, cleavers, bolar stones are some small flake tools such as side scrapers,
knives and bores for skinning. In Southeast Asia, hand axe has not been found in significant
number Here, choppers dominated the tool types that reflect greater human concentration
on plant foods in the warmer and more vegetated zones than on meat. In the Asian zone,
tools like drills, gravers, point and choppers were as efficient a hand axe in the West in
exploiting plant and small animal resources Similarly, at Clacton Southeast England, tree leaf
shaped stone tools were manufactured for working on wood This 200,000 years old
culture known as Clactonian culture, has also provided evidence of a wooden spear tip
which was used either a stabbing spear or digging stick Another noteworthy tool culture
contemporary with H. erect was the Levalloisian culture, named after Levallois Perret, a
suburbs of Parts in France when round tools in the shape of an inverted tortoise shell were
made from a core by carefully trimming it to produce points and scrapers. The Clactonian
and Levalloesian technique became more complex in the Middle Paleolithic under the
Neanderthals. The diverse tool kits of H. erectus, having a predetermined shape and
standardised pattern represented improved communication and a high degree of social
interaction. This promoted other cultural developments too. Better social cooperation
facilitated big game hunting, a defined evidence of which has come from Torralba and
Ambrona, northeast of Madrid (Spain) dated between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.
These sites have yielded elephant tusks and bones along with those of rhinoceros, wild ox,
stags and horses. It has been postulated that be using fire, these animals would have been
driven towards swamps and then killed. Such findings suggest that H. erectus was an expert
big game hunter having an efficient knowledge of the terrain along with that of the raw
materials besides possessing the mental ability to manufacture effective hunting weapons.
They also had the precise knowledge of the place where an when the animals gathered.
Another significant cultural development in the Lower Paleolithic period coinciding with
the existence of the erectus species was the opportunistic use of natural fire. Use of fire
was a important innovation as an adaptive strategy that had far-reaching consequences for
future human evolution. Fire was used for warmth in extremely cold climatic conditions,
for protection from predators as well as to hunt big and small animals (by scaring them
down the towards swamps or forcing them to come out of their hiding places) and most
importantly for cooking. Use of fire for cooking was of supreme importance in the sense
that hitherto inedible plants and vegetables could now be added to the human diet as
roasting them in fire helped to neutralise toxins present in them. Few scholars have
suggested that possibly H. erectus knew how to conserve fire by using the smouldering tree
stumps (fire being caused by lightning strikes) to kindle flames to light dry grass or bushes.
The earliest evidence of the use of fire have been found in Swartkrans in South Africa and
Chesowarja in Kenya's Rift Valley, dated 1.6 mya in the form of hearth like arrangement of
stone artefacts, fragmentary bones and baked clay.
The settlement pattern of H. erectus varied from region to region, depending upon the
climatic condition, but was always close to water sources such as a spring an artesian well,
lake, river or near beach, Water was necessary for the animals which converged to drink
water near these sources. Besides, these water bodies were also important source of raw
materials such as stones and pebbles to manufacture tools. In different regions of erectus
colonisation, human settlements or camps were set up keeping in consideration climatic
conditions and protection from predators. These included open air, rock shelters or cave
settlements. Thus, while erectus lived in open camps in the temperate climate of Africa,
they preferred rock shelters or settlements deep inside the cave in the cold climate of
Europe and China. The absence of H. erectus burials and rituals have led scholars to suggest
that though this human species was capable of articulate speech and hence displayed better
social cooperation in hunting and other community activities such as gathering and setting
up camps. In addition, their language skills may also have been quite limited unlike
modern humans, who are capable of taking out variety of sounds due to particular
positioning of larynx in the speech producing area.
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic period saw the emergence of H. sapiens, both archaic and advanced
Among the latter, the most prominent in terms of cultural acquisitions were the
Neanderthals. They had to adapt in warmer climatic conditions immediately preceding the
last Ice Age that began about 118,000 years ago. Further, seacoasts, streams and rivers had
provided additional aquatic food resources in the form of fishes and water mammals such as
whales, sharks, seals and so on. A larger brain size of the Neanderthals along with other
physical attributes facilitated this process. The Middle Paleolithic tool is identified with the
Mousterian culture attributed to the Neanderthals. The name has been derived from the
Neanderthal site of Le Moustier rock shelter situated in Southwest France where large
deposits of tools associated with this species have been found.
The Mousterian tool culture represented an important technological innovation, where
several flakes were taken out of a prepared core through the Levallois technique to
manufacture number of small tools and weapons. Thus, Mousterian tool technology has
been termed 'flake technology that was distinct from the Oldowan and Acheulean 'core'
technology, where the core itself was trimmed into the shape of a tool. Such a core is
generally referred as tortoise core as it resembles a tortoise shell. Through this technique,
several flakes, blade or triangular points could be taken out from a single core. Since this
was a complex method and required careful planning prior to taking out the flakes, this is
considered as technological advancement over the earlier tool technology. Most of the
Mousterian and other Middle Paleolithic tools were made out of flakes. The flakes were
trimmed from the edges to produce a wide range of side scrapers, points, backed knives,
tiny saws and bores.
Another remarkable feature of the Middle Paleolithic tool technology was the great
diversity of tool kits. A French archaeologist, Francois Bordes, has identified 60-63
Mousterian types dated between 90,000-40,000 years ago, while excavating the Combe
Grenal cave a Perigord (France). The tools could be used for killing, cutting up and skinning
prey and also for making wooden tools and clothing. Evidences show that Neanderthals
were skilled hunters and killed such large games as, bison, cave bears, horses, woolly
rhinoceros wild cattle and reindeer. The first evidence of river and sea fishing also comes
from the Middle Paleolithic period. Thus, it can be said that Neanderthals were
opportunistic hunters using every possible opportunity to hunt variety of animals. Even
though there is a lot of debate on when the mastery over fire was achieved, traces of iron
pyrites found in the Neanderthal encampments strongly suggest that they were making fire,
not simply using naturally ignited fire, by rubbing iron pyrites together. The social
organisation of the Neanderthals was more developed than those of H. habilis and H.
erectus. A major factor contributing to this was the better linguistic capabilities of
Neanderthals though still inferior to the modern human. Based on the size of their dwelling
units, it has been estimated that Neanderthals must have lived in small groups of 25-30,
which was also ideal from the point of view of provisioning of food. The Neanderthal
settlements included caves, rock shelters as well as open-air dwellings and exceeded in
number than those of H. erectus. In Europe, large number of both caves and rock shelters
were used during greater part of the year as protection against Arctic cold. While open
encampments were used during short summer months in the Tundra plains. A significant
cultural achievement of Neanderthals, indicating their highly evolved thinking came from
their careful disposal/burial of the dead. Burials provide the most important and
trustworthy archaeological evidence to analyse spiritual life of the prehistoric humans and
social divisions, if any. Mousterian sites have revealed earliest burial traditions (dated
between 100,000 and 40,000 years ago) of the human species. Neanderthals did not simply
abandoned the dead but buried them under the dug up earth with stone pillows and other
grave goods such as flint tools, burnt bones, flowers and roasted meat. Most of the
Neanderthal burials have been found in caves or rock shelters in Europe, Southwest Asia
and Eurasia. Such ritual burials suggest that Neanderthals had begun to think about the
phenomenon of death or 'life after death’which reflects a much higher level of thinking
and imagination. While most of these are single burials, evidence of group burial comes
from the rock shelters of La Ferrassie in Southwest France where two adult Neanderthals
have been buried close together alongside four children. In this context, scholars like Karel
Volch (1994) have opined that first evidence of family grouping can be seen from here. A
Shanidar cave burial in the Zagros Mountains of Iraq provides the evidence of social
consciousness and compassion among the Neanderthals . At some places, horns of goat and
a bear skull kept in a ring have been linked with goat and bear cult. But it is a debatable
issue among the scholars, Evidence of rudimentary art forms such as bone amulets,
scratched pebbles and tools and lumps of red iron oxide (to paint the body before burial or
on the tools) have also at times been associated with the Neanderthals. Although few
scholars point out that these evidences can hardly be termed as the work of art, it can safely
be concluded that the Neanderthals had reached a much higher level of intellectual capacity
and imagination than their predecessors.
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic period saw the emergence of H. sapiens sapiens or the modern man.
This period also coincided with the last phase of the ice age which witnessed reduced
temperature in Europe, Asia as well as in Africa . since this was the final part of the
glaciation (termed as Warm or Weichsel glaciation), there were frequent climatic variations
with colder and warmer seasons of varying intensities. The climatic changes and glaciation
conditions led to the growth of different cultural traditions of the early H.sapiens sapiens
and well-developed brain, along with some crucial physiological changes in the shape
release of upper extremities allowing rotatory movement in the shoulder joint, a bipedal
motion due to modifications in the pelvis bone to take up the body weight and shaping of
the hand allowing throwing of objects with great force and accuracy , enabling humans to
produce most delicate objects, turned the Upper Paleolithic period of accelerated
evolution for humanity. Upper Paleolithic age (earliest examples of art) Aurignacian Culture
: The Aurignacian culture was marked by a great diversification and specialsization of tools ,
including the invention of the ‘burin’. The burin acted as a kind of chisel for making other
tools or engraving tool. The Aurignacian were adopt (skilled) at making small blades with
parallel edges. They edges were extremely sharp. Sites associated with the Aurignacian
culture (34,000 to 30,000 ago) contain the first extensive evidence of upper paleolithic art.
There are practically no Aurignacian painting, but there are a number of beautifully carved
ivory beads which were used for ornamentation. The Aurignacians made small animals
figures using ivory and bone. They also made a flute like wind instrument from bone. Here
we see the beginning of music as well .Two other features of Upper paleolithic stone tools
need to mentioned : The use of materials other than stone becomes more widespread.
Wood, bone, ivory and antler (deer horns) were commonly used. Many tools now were
more composite tools. They were composed of several parts, of which some parts might be
made of stone and others of wood or bone. Leaf points would have been joined to wooden
rods to make a spear- like weapon.
Solutrean Culture: Among the tools of the Solutrean culture one of the most characteristics
is the tool with a sharp ‘leaf point’. In the Solutrean culture (22,000 to 18,000) cave painting
emerged as a major art form. Early paintings were rough outlines but over a period of time
the lines becomes graceful and are filled with details. The Solutreans were also expert at
carving figures on walls of caves. ‘bas-relief’( or low- relief) where the figures are slightly
raised on the surface of the wall. Magdalenian Culture: Magdalenian’s made excellent
harpoons which were used for fishing. Upper paleolithic cave paintings reached their fullest
development in the Magdalenian culture (18,000 to 11,000 years ago). By this time sapiens
had spread out to different parts of the world, and had completely replaced other species of
Homo Sapiens. V. Gardon Childe refers to the Magdalenian as the most brilliant culture
created by hunter- gatherers. the Magdalenians had perfected the technique of painting
deep inside caves. The painters concentrated mainly on drawing animal. Many of these
animals, though not all, are animals that were hunted by the magdalenians. There are also
scenes depicting humans engaged in hunting. Besides , there are some geometric patterns
and a fantastic animals (figures which combine features of different animals ). Tool
technology: Magdalenian stone tools include small geometrically shaped implements( e.g.:
triangular, semilunar blades) probably set into bone or antler handles for use, burins(a sort
of chisel), scrapers, borers, backed bladelets, and shouldered and leaf- shaped projectile
points. Bone was used extensively to make wedges, adzes, hammers, spearheads with link
shafts, barbed points and harpoons, eyed needles, jewellery, and hooked rods probably
used as spear throwers. Bone tools were often engraved with animal images.
Subsistence pattern of human in Upper paleolithic : Upper paleolithic humans hunted a
variety of animals including big mammals like the woolly rhinoceros and mammoth. They
trapped huge artic mammals. Bison, reindeer, horse, sea and river fish continued to be part
of their diet. A wide variety of plants was eaten, some of which were tough but could be
processed with the tools that humans now possessed. The upper paleolithic art With upper
paleolithic at humans took a giant cultural leap. Art marks an entirely new phase in human
history- in the development of thoughts and imagination. Upper paleolithic art began
evolving in eastern Europe (Hungary, Yugoslavia,) and south-west Asia. Specimens of upper
paleolithic art have been found in west Asia, Siberia, Africa and most of the Europe.
Paleolithic Art -Besides technological advancement, the other significant human cultural
accomplishment in the Paleolithic Age was the development of art. The discovery of various
art forms attributed to H. sapiens sapiens reflect intellectual evolution of the human mind,
particularly with regard to the power of imagination and their ability to associate
themselves with their nature. Based on these studies, the Paleolithic art has been classified
into three categories: (a) engravings of animals and people on portable stone, bone, antler
and ivory objects (termed as 'mobiliary art'), (b) stone, clay or ivory sculptures of humans
(especially women) and anthropomorphic (part human part animal) figures and (c) murals
(wall paintings), engravings,bas-relief (a method of carving in which the design is slightly
raised from the surface) and ceiling and floor paintings in ochre, manganese charcoal in
rock shelters or caves. The upper paleolithic art With upper paleolithic at humans took a
giant cultural leap. Art marks an entirely new phase in human history- in the development of
thoughts and imagination. Upper paleolithic art began evolving in eastern Europe (Hungary,
Yugoslavia,) and south-west Asia. Specimens of upper paleolithic art have been found in
west Asia, Siberia, Africa and most of the Europe. Upper paleolithic art was first discovered
in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In 1879 Don Marcelino de Sautuola found
paintings on the roof of a cave in Altamira, Spain. The paintings were so brilliantly executed
that de soutuola’s view that they dated back to the paleolithic was not taken seriously for a
long time. The main reason was the stylistically the paintings appeared to be very modern.
The realistic manner in which the paintings depicted animals in motion was considered to be
beyond the capacity of paleolithic humans.
From the above description of the evolution of humans, it is clear that there was a close
interrelationship between biological endowments and cultural achievements of the
evolving species. Elaborating it further, bipedalism or erect posture for example, was a
response. thinning of forests in the savanna region and the consequent need to crossover
from there to the forested lands that facilitated acquisition of culture. Bipedalism led to
freeing of hands from the locomotion and made them available for first tool using and
ultimately for tool manufacturing. At the same time, an erect posture had reduced the
tree climbing abilities of the hominids and had therefore exposed them to dangers from
the wild animals. Under these circumstances, only those hominid groups survived who
were capable of intelligent use of tools and weapons. These activities precipitated
development of brain. Brain development was also facilitated by changes in the
architecture of the skull due to shortening of teeth that led to lighter jaws, enabling the
brain case to expand for housing a larger size brain. The shortening of the teeth itself was
due to dietary changes among early human species, reducing the role of big teeth which
was a cultural attribute. At the level of human social relations too, we see an
interconnection between biological and cultural traits. The narrowing of birth canal
among female hominid species (a direct outcome of bipedalism) led to the delivery I
babies much before their brain development. The longer dependence of the baby on the
mother accounted for greater social bondage between the two. Last but not the least,
acquisition of language resulted from some crucial changes in the brain structure,
providing for sound producing abilities of hominids. This directly impacted the nature of
tools manufactured by early humans, bringing the about more uniformity and
technological advancement besides promoting better social cooperation in hunting and
foraging activities. But having mentioned these, we must, at the same time, concede that
by the time of the evolution of advanced hominids, biological features of the human
species were taken over by their cultural developments.uman