ROOTS: Roots develop from radicle of seed. They are non-green, underground, positively, geotrophic and negatively phototropic.

PARTS OF ROOTS: 1. Root cap 2. Zone of cell formation or division 3. Zone of cell clongation 4. Zone of cell maturation TYPES OF ROOTS: There are of two types1. TAP ROOT: They develop from radicle. The primary root grows and gives rise to the secondary and tertiary roots forming tap root system. E.g.-dicots. 2. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS: They develop from any part of the plant body other than the radicle. They are called Adventitious roots. E.g.-monocots. MODIFICATION OF TAP ROOTS: A). STORAGE OR FLESHY TAP ROOTS: They store food and assume various shapes. 1. FUSIFORM: Spindle shaped e.g.-raddish 2. CONICAL: Cone-like e.g.-Carrot. 3. NAPIFORM: Swollen in the upper part and abruptly tapers in lower part e.g.-Turnip and beet root. 4. TUBEROUS OR TUBER CULAR: The roots are thick and fleshy, but do not maintain any particular shape e.g.-4'0 clock plant.

B). Respiratory Root or Pneumatophores: Some plants like Avicennia and Sonneratia, which grow in the salty marshes, develop special kind of roots, for respiration. C). Nodulated roots: Roots of legumes like pea, gram, groundnut, soyabean, etc. have nodules which have nitrogen fixing bacteria of the genus Rhizobium. They fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates. This is symbiotic relationship. 2. MODIFICATIONS OF ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS: A). STORAGE ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS: 1. TUBEROUS: Single root arises from node of stem and becomes tuberous and fleshy for storage of food. E.g.-SWEET POTATO. 2. FASCICULATED: Roots arise in bunch from lower node of stem and becomes fleshy. E.g.- dahta. 3. PALMATE ROOTS: The bases of the swollen fleshy roots become fused. Thus swollen finger-like fleshy roots arise from a common point as if fingers arise from palm. 4. NODULOSE: Root apex becomes swollen and fleshy. E.g. mango, ginger. 5. BEADED OR MONILIFORM: Roots swell at different places forming beaded structure e.g.-bitter gourd, AND some grasses. 6. ANNULATED: Roots having series of rings like swellling. E.g.-PSYCHORTIA. B. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS THAT PROVIDE EXTRA SUPPORT: They are of following types 1. PROP ROOTS:Eg- OLD BANYAN TREE 2. STILT ROOTS: Eg.-SUGARCANE, MAIZE 3. CLIMBING ROOTS: Eg.-POTHOS, PIPER. 4. BUTTRESS ROOTS: Eg.-BOMBA, FICUS. C. ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS WITH SPECIAL FUNCTION: 1. RESPIRATORY ROOTS: Eg.-JUSSIAEA.

2. ASSIMILATORY ROOTS: Eg.-TINOSPORA. 3. SUCKING ROOTS OR HAUSTORIA: Eg.-CUSCUTA 4. HYGROSCOPIC ROOTS: Eg.-ORCHIDS 5. NEST ROOTS: Eg.-DISCHIDIA, RAFFLESIANA 6. CLINGING ROOTS: Eg.-IVY 7. CONTRACTILE ROOTS: Eg.-SAFFRON 8. ROOT THORNS: Eg.-POTHAS, ARMATUS. 9. FOLIOR ROOTS OR EPIPHYLLOUS ROOTS OR LEAF ROOTS: Eg.-LEAVES OF BRYOPHYLLUM AND BIGNONIA. 10. MYCORRHIZAL ROOTS: Eg.- ROOTS OF PINUS. PLANTS THAT ARE ALL ROOTS: Eg.- WOLFFIA, UTRICULARIA. STEM: Stem is the ascending part of the plant which is formaed by the prolongation of the plumule of embryo. It is positively phototropic and negatively geotropic and hydrotropic. It bears nodes and internodes. Leaf bearing part of stem is called shoot. It has BUDS. BUDS is condensed immature shoot. According to nature BUD can be: 1. VEGETATIVE: Form leafy shoots 2. FLORAL: Form flowers 3. MIXED: Form both vegetative and floral characters. According to position buds can be lateral or terminal. LATERAL BUDS : These are of four typesA). AXILLARY : Present in the axil of the leaf B). ACCESSORY : Additional buds occurring either on the side or above the axillary bud. These can be collateral and superposed. C). EXTRA AXILLARY : Developing on the node but outside the leaf base. D). ADVENTITIOUS : Formed from places other than nodes. These can be : (i) FOLIAR : Present on the leaves Eg.-BEGONIA (ii) RADICAL : Present on the roots Eg.-DALBERGIA. (iii) CAULINE : Presents on the stems Eg.-JACK FRUITS. BRANCHING:Branching is defined as the mode of arrangement of branches on the stem. It is of two typesA). LATERAL BRANCHING : Branches are produced laterally from the main stem. It may be racemose or cymose. 1. RACEMOSE : The main stem grows indefinitely by the terminal bud and produces branches laterally in the acropetal succession e.g.-PINUS. 2. CYMOSE TYPE : The growth of the main stem is limited and lateral branches produced by the main stem show more vigorous growth. It may be of following typesa.UNIPAROUS CYME : When only one lateral branches produced at a time, it is called Uniparous or monochasial. It has two distinct types(1) HELICOID: E.G. SAROCA (2) SCARPOID: E.G.-VINE b. BIPAROUS CYME : When two lateral branches develop at a time e.g.-MIRABILIS, VISCUM. c. MULTIPAROUS CYME : When more than two branches develop at a time e.g.-CROTON, EUPHORBIA. B. DISCHOTOMOUS BRANCHING : When the terminal bud gives out two branches of equal size in a forked manner e.g.-PAUDANUS. LIFE SPAN:

1. ANNUAL: Life cycle is completed in one season e.g.-WHEAT. 2. BICNNIALS: Plants live for two seasons e.g.-HENBANE. 3. PERENNIALS: Plant lives for few to many years e.g.-BAMBOO. AERIAL STEMS: It may be reduced, erect and weak 1. REDUCED : E.g.-REDDISH, CARROT. 2. ERRECT STEM : E.g.-BAMBOOS. 3. WEAK STEM : E.g.-CUCUMBER. a. CREEPERS: E.g.-GRASSES. b. TRAILORS: THEY MAY BE (i) PROSTRATE OR PROCUMBENT AND DIFFUSE : E.G.-EVOLVULUS TRIBULUS. (ii) DECUMBENT : E.g.-PORTULACA. (iii) DICFFUSE : E.g.-BOERHAAVIA. c. LIANAS : E.g.-HIPTAGE d. CLIMBERS : They may be(i) ROOTLET CLIMBER : E.g.-TECOMA (ii) HOOK CLIMBER : E.g.-ARTABOTRYS (iii) TENDRIL CLIMBERS : E.g.-PISUM, SIMILAX. e. TWINNERS : E.g.-CUSCUTA MODIFICATIONS OF STEMS: A. SUB AERIAL STEMS(i) RUMER : e.g.- OXALIS. (ii) SUCKER : e.g.-MENTHA (iii) OFFSET : e.g.- PISTIA (iv) STOLON : e.g.- COLOCASIA B. AERIAL STEMS: (i) PHYLLOCLADE : e.g.-OPUNTA (ii) CLADODE : e.g.-ASPARAGUS (iii) THORN : e.g.-DURANTA (iv) STEM TENDRILL : e.g.-VITIS (v) BULBILS : e.g.-AGAVE C. UDERGROUND STEMS: (i) RHIZOME : e.g.-GINGER (a) ROOTSTOCKS : e.g.-DRYOPTERIS (b) STRAGGLING : e.g.-LOTUS (ii) TUBER : e.g.-POTATO (iii) CORM : e.g.-CROCUS (iv) BUB : e.g.-ONION LEAF(PHYLOPODIUM): Leaves are lateral, flat, green and expanded part of plant which arise from the nodes on the stem or branches. Usually leaf has a bud in its axil. The chief function of the leaf is PHOTOSYNTHESIS and TRANSPIRATION. All the leaves are called phyllome: 1. COTYLEDONARY LEAVES : ARE EMBRYONIC 2. CATAPHYLLS : ARE SCALE LEAVES 3. HYPROPHYLLS OR BRACT LEAVES 4. FLORAL LEAVES : INCLUDE SEPALS, PETAL.

5. SPOROPHYLLS : PEAR SPORES. 6. FOLIAGE LEAVES : GREEN LEAVES OF THE PLANT. PARTS OF A LEAF: (i) LEAF BASE (HYPOPODIUM) (ii) STIPULES TYPES OF STIPULES: (i) CADUCOUS : e.g.-MICHELIA CHAMPACA (ii) DECIDUOUS : e.g.- CASSIA TORA (iii) PERSISTENT :e.g.-ROSE TYPES OF LEAVES: A. SIMPLE LEAF: Leaf which may be entire or incised and the incisions do not touch the mid rib. E.g.-MANGO, BANYAN B. COMPOUND LEAF: Leaf blade is incised up to mid rib or petiole dividing it into two or more leaflets. They are1. PALSMATELY COMPOUND LEAF: (i) UNIFOLIATE : e.g.-CITRUS (ii) BIFOLIATE : e.g.-PRINCEPIA (iii) TRIFOLIATE : e.g.-OXALIS (iv) QUADRIFOLIATE : e.g.-MARSILEA (v) MULTIFOLIATE : e.g.-CLEOME BOMBAX 2. PINNATELY COMPOUND LEAVES: (i) UNIPINNATE : e.g.-ROSE (ii) BIPINNATE : e.g.-MIMOSA (iii) TRIPINNATE : e.g.-MARINGA (iv) DECOMPOUND : e.g.-CARROT VENATION IN LEAVES: Arrangement of veins in the lamina is called venation. It is of three types1. RETICULATE VENATION : The branches of veins from a network e.g.-DICOTS a. RETICULATE UNICOSTATE : e.g.-MANGO b. RETICULATE MULTICOSTATE : e.g.-CASTER (i) PARALLEL VENATION : e.g.-MONOCOTS a. PINNATE : e.g.-BANANA b. PALMATE : e.g.-PALM c. FURCATE : e.g.-ARCEASTER MODIFICATION OF STIPULES: (i) TENDRILEAR : e.g.-SMILAX (ii) FOLIACEOUS : e.g.-PISUM (iii) SPINOUS : e.g.-ACACIA PHYLLOATAXY : It is the mode of arrangement of leaves on the stem or its branches.It is : (i) ALTERNATE - e.g.-MUSTARD (ii) OPPOSITE a. DECUSSATE - e.g.-CALOTROPIS b. SUPERIMPOSED - e.g.-GUAVA (iii) WHORLED -e.g.-NERIUM