262 Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings

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Building Design using
Cold Formed Steel Sections
Durability of
Light Steel Framing in
This material is copyright - all rights reserved. Reproduced for IHS Technical Indexes Ltd under licence from The Steel Construction Institute on 15/8/2005
Residential Building
S O POPO-OLA BSc, MEng, PhD, DIC

A R BIDDLE BSc, CEng, MICE
R M LAWSON BSc (Eng), PhD, CEng, MICE, MIStructE
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P262: Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings (2000 Edition)

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Why use light steel framing?
Light steel framing uses galvanized cold formed steel sections as its main
structural components. These sections have been widely used in the
building industry and are part of a proven technology. Light steel framing
provides increased value to clients and contractors by prefabrication, which
achieves high quality, accuracy and reliability.
The durability of galvanized steel sections is assured provided that they are
located within the building envelope, as is the case of warm frame

construction. The design life is then at least as good as with more traditional
materials. In addition, light steel frames are free from long-term creep
movement, and they are not subject to rot or insect attack.
Light steel framing combines the benefits of lightness, flexibility in internal

planning, long span capabilities, robustness, and durability, together with
speed of construction on site. The steel sections are dimensionally accurate
and have reliable structural properties. Steel is a recycled and recyclable
product, and can be adapted to a wide range of applications.
The publications in this series present the important design aspects of the use
of light steel framing in residential and low-rise buildings, and provide case
studies on a wide range of recent applications of this technology in new-
build and in renovation.

FOREWORD
This publication presents performance data taken from several projects carried out by Corus
(formerly British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC and SCI in order to give specifiers confidence that the
standard galvanized (zinc) coatings applied to light steel sections are able to achieve a design life
well in excess of 100 years within the warm frame building envelope.
The work of collecting and presenting the data was carried out by Dr S O Popo-Ola,
Mr A R Biddle and Dr R M Lawson of The Steel Construction Institute and Mr R F Gray as
Consultant to SCI. The work was funded by Corus Colors (formerly British Steel Strip Products).
The Steel Construction Institute gratefully acknowledges the assistance given by members of the
Light Steel Framing Group and the Modular Framing Group, and in particular the following
representatives of the listed organisations who supplied information and commented on the
publication in its draft stages:
Mr J A Robinson Corus Colors

Mr D T Phillips Corus Colors
Mr V John Corus (Welsh Technology Centre)
Mr A Stephenson Corus (Welsh Technology Centre)

Mr W J Smith Galvanizers Association
Dr A L Rogan Oxford Brookes University
Dr R G Ogden Oxford Brookes University
Dr R Pedreschi University of Edinburgh
Mr N Whitehouse Terrapin International
This publication provides information that supplements the detailed design information in the
following SCI publication series on cold formed sections:
C Design of structures using cold formed steel sections (SCI P089, revised)
C Building design using cold formed steel sections: Worked examples to BS 5950: Part 5: 1987
(SCI P125)
C Building design using cold formed steel sections: Acoustic insulation (SCI P128)
C Building design using cold formed steel sections: Fire protection (SCI P129)
C Building design using cold formed steel sections: An architect's guide (SCI P130)
C Building design using cold formed steel sections: Construction detailing and practice
(SCI P165)
C Over-roofing of existing buildings using light steel (SCI P246)
C Over-cladding of existing buildings using light steel (SCI P247)
C Value and benefit assessment of light steel framing in housing (SCI P260)
C Modular construction using light steel framing: An architect’s guide (SCI P272)
Other data on durability of galvanized steel are being collected under a ECSC project entitled
Elevated and Low Temperature Performance of Coated Strip Steel Products, which is being carried
out by Corus (Welsh Technology Centre), Rautaruukki Oy (Finland) and ITC (Portugal).
Surveys are continuing on other applications of light steel, including suspended ground floors and
modular construction.
Suppliers of light steel framing for housing are listed on pages 48-50.
iii
CONTENTS
Page No.
SUMMARY vii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Light steel framing in housing 1
1.2 Types of galvanized coating 5
1.3 Performance of galvanized steel products 5
1.4 Other durability benefits of steel 6
2 GALVANIZING AS CORROSION PROTECTION FOR STEEL 7

2.1 The hot dip galvanizing process 7

2.2 Performance of galvanized coatings 8
2.3 Forming sections after galvanizing 12
2.4 Factors affecting durability in the building envelope 12

2.5 Design life of galvanized steel 15
2.6 Structural significance of the components 16
3 CASE STUDIES 18
3.1 Building Research Establishment survey on older steel framed
and steel clad housing 18
3.2 Case 1: Environmental and performance monitoring
of modern steel framed housing 18
3.3 Case 2: Environmental and performance monitoring
of the PMF steel framed building at Ullenwood 20

3.4 Case 3: Monitoring behind over-cladding panels in Edinburgh 22
3.5 Case 4: Monitoring the Oxford Brookes Demonstration Building 24
3.6 Case 5: Japanese housing study 26
3.7 Case 6: Monitoring studies of zinc loss and external
environments in Europe 26
3.8 Conclusions from case studies ! design life of galvanized
light steel frame sections 27
4 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LONG DESIGN LIFE 31

4.1 General detailing 31
4.2 Measures to control water penetration 31
4.3 Control of condensation 31
4.4 Thermal insulation 32
4.5 Flooring 32
4.6 Good construction practice 32
4.7 Measures to control damage on site 33
5 CONCLUSIONS 35
v
APPENDIX B
REFERENCES
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX A
RELEVANT STANDARDS
Contact information
vi
Guidance notes on sheet steel coatings
Guidance notes for specifiers painting galvanized steelwork
48
43
41
39
36
SUMMARY
This publication presents a summary and analysis of research findings on the

durability of galvanized cold formed steel sections used in housing to deduce
their design life. These sections are produced from pre-galvanized strip steel.
It reviews reports and publications from research projects carried out by Corus
(formerly British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC and the SCI on zinc coated cold
formed steel products. New data have also been gathered from measurements
on houses and similar buildings that have used galvanized steel components.
The performance of galvanized (zinc coated) steel components within warm-

frame applications is very good. This research shows that the predicted design
life of the standard G275 coating, based on the measured loss of zinc from the
strip steel, is over 200 years, provided that the building envelope is properly
maintained. The evidence for this conclusion is based on measurement of zinc
loss on light steel frames in various applications and locations. A formula for
the loss of zinc over time in areas subject to low condensation risk is presented.
The following table summarises the expected design life of galvanized steel
sections in common applications in buildings. Steel does not shrink, warp, or
creep under load, and therefore does not contribute to cracking or deterioration
of the non-structural elements and finishes.
Design life of galvanized steel sections in common applications in

buildings
Product application Environmental condition Design life / protective

measures
Walls and floors in warm No risk of water ingress or > 200 years
frame applications condensation G275* galvanizing
Roof structures Low risk of condensation 100 years
(insulated) G275 galvanizing
Roof structures Some risk of condensation 60 years
(uninsulated) G275 galvanizing
Purlins and side rails in metal Low risk of condensation; 60 years
cladding some dust and pollution G275 galvanizing
Infill external walls in multi- Warm frame and no risk of 100 years
storey buildings water ingress G275 galvanizing
Subframes to over-cladding Low risk of water ingress; 60 years
panels some risk of condensation G275 galvanizing
2
* G275 refers to the weight of standard zinc coating (275 g/m ).
Recommendations are given on the detailing of light steel framing in warm

frame applications in order to minimise the presence of moisture during the life
of the building frame.
vii
Durabilité des charpentes légères en acier utilisées dans les immeubles
résidentiel
Resumé
La publication présente une synthèse des recherches réalisées sur la durabilité
des profils, en acier galvanisé formés à froid, utilisés dans le secteur du bâtiment
résidentiel. Elle passe en revue les rapports et publications relatifs à des
recherches réalisées par Corus (anciennement British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC
et le SCI concernant les produits en acier profilés à froid. De nouvelles données
ont été également obtenues à partir de mesures réalisées dans des maisons et
bâtiments résidentiels utilisant des composants légers en acier.
Les résultats obtenus avec des profils galvanisés, utilisés en tant qu’éléments de
charpentes chaudes sont excellents. L’étude montre que l’espérance de vie,
calculée sur base de la perte d’épaisseur du revêtement en zinc, est supérieure

à 200 ans, si la maintenance de l’enveloppe de l’immeuble est réalisée
correctement. Une formule donnant la perte de zinc en fonction du temps,
dans les endroits où les risques de condensation sont faibles, est donnée dans
la publication.
Le tableau ci-dessous résume l’espérance de vie des profils galvanisés pour les
applications habituelles dans les bâtiments. Comme l’acier ne flue pas et ne
présente pas de retrait sous charges, il ne contribue pas à la fissuration ou à la
détérioration des éléments non structuraux ou de finition.
Durée de vie des éléments en acier galvanisé pour les applications habituelles
dans les bâtiments
Application Conditions environnementales Durée de vie / mesures

de protection
Parois et planchers dans des Pas de risque d’entrée d’eau ou > 200 ans
applications de type charpente de condensation Galvanisation G275*
chaude
Toitures Risque faible de condensation 100 ans
(isolées) Galvanisation G275
Toitures Risque de condensation 60 ans
(non isolées) Galvanisation G275
Pannes et lisses pour bardages Risque faible de condensation; 60 ans
et toitures en acier poussières et pollutions Galvanisation G275
éventuelles
Pannes extérieures dans les Charpente chaude et pas de 100 ans
immeubles multi-étagés risque d’entrée d’eau Galvanisation G275
Cadres secondaires pour Risque faible d’entrée d’eau; 60 ans
panneaux de sur-revêtement risque de condensation Galvanisation G275
2
* G275 se réfère au poids d’une galvanisation standard (275 g/m ).
Des recommandations sont données concernant les détails conseillés, dans les
charpentes chaudes, afin d’éviter les risques d’humidité durant la durée de vie
de la charpente.
viii
Dauerhaftigkeit von leichten Stahltragwerken im Wohnungsbau
Zusammenfassnung
Diese Publikation präsentiert eine Zusammenfassung von
Forschungsergebnissen bezüglich der Dauerhaftigkeit von galvanisch verzinkten
Kaltprofilen aus Stahl im Wohnungsbau. Sie gibt einen Überblick über Berichte
und Veröffentlichungen früherer Projekte über Kaltprofile aus Stahl, die von
Corus (früher British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC und SCI durchgeführt wurden.
Auch neue Daten von Messungen an Häusern und ähnlichen Gebäuden aus
leichten Stahlbauteilen wurden zusammengetragen.
Das Verhalten von galvanisch verzinkten Stahlbauteilen bei Verwendung

innerhalb warmer Tragwerke ist sehr gut. Die Studie zeigt, daß die
vorhergesagte Lebensdauer unter Zugrundelegung des gemessenen Zinkverlusts
über 200 Jahre beträgt, vorausgesetzt, daß die Gebäudehülle richtig unterhalten
wird. Der Beweis für diese Schlußfolgerung basiert auf der Messung des
Zinkverlusts leichter Stahltragwerke in verschiedenen Anwendungsfällen und
an verschiedenen Orten. Eine Formel für den Zinkverlust in Abhängigkeit der
Zeit in Gegenden mit geringem Risiko von Kondensation wird vorgestellt.
Die folgende Tabelle faßt die erwartete Lebensdauer galvanisch verzinkter

Stahlquerschnitte in üblichen Anwendungsfällen bei Gebäuden zusammen.
Daß Stahl nicht schwindet, sich nicht verzieht oder unter Last kriecht, entstehen
keine Risse oder Schäden an nichttragenden Elementen und Ausbauteilen.
Lebensdauer galvanisch verzinkter Stahlquerschnitte in üblichen

Anwendungsfällen bei Gebäuden
Produktanwendung Umgebungsbedingung Lebensdauer /

Schutzmaßnahmen
Wände und Decken in Kein Risiko für Wassereintritt oder > 200 Jahre
warmen Tragwerken Kondensation G275* Verzinkung
Dächer geringes Kondensationsrisiko 100 Jahre
(gedämmt) G275 Verzinkung
Dächer etwas Kondensationsrisiko 60 Jahre
(ungedämmt) G275 Verzinkung
Pfetten und Wandprofile in geringes Kondensationsrisiko; 60 Jahre
Metallfassaden etwas Staub u. Verschmutzung G275 Verzinkung
Ausfachung in Außenwänden Warmes Tragwerk und kein 100 Jahre
von Geschoßbauten Risiko für Wassereintritt G275 Verzinkung
Unterkonstruktion für geringes Risiko für Wassereintratt 60 Jahre
Fassaden etwas Kondensationsrisiko G275 Verzinkung
2
* G275 bezieht sich auf das Gewicht der Zinkschicht (275 g/m ).
Empfehlungen für Ausführungsdetails von Kaltprofilen in warmen Tragwerken

werden gegeben, um das Risiko von Feuchtigkeitsbildung während der
Lebensdauer des Tragwerks zu vermeiden.
ix
Durabilità di sistemi strutturali leggeri in acciaio per edifici residenziali
Sommario
Questa pubblicazione presenta una sintesi dei risultati di ricerche condotte sulla
durabilità di profili zincati in acciaio presso ! piegati a freddo. In dettaglio, sono
presentati i documenti e le pubblicazioni di precedenti progetti sviluppati da Corus
(originariamente British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC e da SCI su prodotti sagomati a freddo
in acciaio. Sono stati riportati anche nuove informazioni relative a misurazioni
effettuate in edifici ad uso residenziale o similare in cui vengono impiegate componenti
strutturali leggere in acciaio.
Il comportamento di componenti realizzate in acciaio zincato (ossia rivestito di zinco)

per le applicazioni relative alle pareti ventilate è ottimo. Lo studio condotto mostra che
la predetta vita di progetto, basata sulla misura della perdita dello strato di zinco
ricoprente l’acciaio, è superiore ai 200 anni nell’ipotesi che venga mantenuto
l’inviluppo protettivo dell’edificio. L’evidenza di questa conclusione è basata sulla
misura della perdita di zinco in telai leggeri in acciaio in varie applicazioni e in

differenti posizioni. Viene anche presentata una formula per la predizione della perdita
dello zinco nel tempo in zone a basso rischio di condensa.
La tabella proposta presenta in sintesi la vita di progetto attesa di sezioni zincate in

acciaio in applicazioni per edifici. L’acciaio non si ritira, non si altera internamente o
non mostra viscosità in presenza di carichi, e perciò non contribuisce al
danneggiamento o al deterioramento degli elementi e delle finiture non strutturali.
Vita progettuale di profili in acciaio zincato impiegati in applicazioni comuni di edifici
Applicazione del prodotto Condizioni ambientali Vita di progetto /

misure di protezione
Pareti e piani per applicazioni Assenza di rischio di entrata > 200 anni
in pareti ventilate d’acqua o di condensa zincato G275*
Coperture Basso rischio di condensa 100 anni
(isolate) zincato G275

Coperture Probabile rischio di condensa 60 anni
(non isolate) zincato G275
Arcarecci e elementi Basso rischio di condensa, un 100 anni
perimetrali dei sistemi di certo livello di polvere e zincato G275
tamponamento inquinamento
Pareti esterne piene in edifici Pareti ventilate e nessun 60 anni
intelaiati multipiano rischio di infiltrazioni d’acqua zincato G275
Sistemi intelaiati di sostegno ai Basso rischio d’infiltrazioni 60 anni
tamponamenti d’acqua; qualche rischio di zincato G275
condensa
* G275 è riferito al peso del rivestimento usuale di zinco (275g/m ).
2
Con riferimento alle sezioni sagomate a freddo in applicazioni per pareti ventilate sono
inoltre fornite raccomandazioni sulle principali regole che consentono di evitare i rischi
associati alla presenza di umidità durante la vita del sistema intelaiato.
x
Durabilidad de estructuras ligeras de acero en edificios de habitación
Resumen
Esta publicación presenta un resumen de los resultados de las investigaciones llevadas
a cabo sobre la durabilidad de perfiles estructurales conformados en frío y galvanizados
utilizados en viviendas. Se pasa revista a informes y publicaciones de proyectos previos
llevados a cabo por Corus (antiguamente British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC y SCI sobre
productos de acero conformados en frío. También se han recolectado nuevos datos a
partir de medidas llevadas a cabo en viviendas y otros edificios semejantes que han
usado piezas ligeras del acero.
El funcionamiento de componentes de acero galvanizado (con revestimiento de zinc)

en estructuras en ambiente cálido es muy bueno. El estudio demuestra que la vida de
proyecto predicha basada en la perdida medida del revestimiento de zinc, supera los
200 años siempre que le envoltura del edificio sea adecuadamente mantenida. La
evidencia de esta aseveración radica en la medida de las pérdidas de zinc en
estructuras ligeras de acero en diferentes emplazamientos y tipos estructurales. Se

presenta una fórmula que da la pérdida de zinc en función del tiempo en zonas con
bajo riesgo de condensación.
La tabla siguiente resume la vida de proyecto esperada en perfiles de acero galvanizado

para aplicaciones corrientes en edificación. El acero no sufre retracciones, alabeos o
fluencias en carga por lo que no contribuye a la fisuración o deterioro de los acabados
y elementos no estructurales.
Vida de proyecto de perfiles galvanizados de acero para aplicaciones corrientes en

edificación
Tipo de uso Condiciones medioambientales Vida de proyecto/

medidas de protección
Muros y suelos en Sin riesgo de condensaciones o > 200 años
estructuras en ambiente humedad directa galvanización G275*
templado
Techos Riesgo de condensación bajo 100 años
(aislados) galvanización G275
Techos Algún riesgo de condensación 60 años
(sin aislar) galvanización G275
Correas y angulares en Riesgo de condensación bajo; 60 años
revestimientos metálicos algo de polvo y contaminación galvanización G275
Muros de relleno externos Estructura en ambiente 100 años
en edificios de varias templado sin riesgo de humedad galvanización G275
puertas directa
Subestructuras para Bajo riesgo de entrada de agua; 60 años
paneles de sobre- algún riesgo de condensación galvanización G275
revestimiento
2
* El apelativo G275 se refiere al peso del revestimiento típico de zinc (275 g/m ).
Se dan recomendaciones sobre los detalles de perfiles de acero conformados en frío en

aplicaciones a estructuras en ambiente templado para evitar el riesgo de la presencia
de humedad respecto a la vida de la estructura del edificio.
xi
Livslängd hos bostäder i lättbyggnad med stål
Sammanfattning
Publikationen sammanfattar forskningsresultat med avseende på livslängden hos
varmförzinkade tunnplåtsreglar i bostadshus. Publikationen inkluderar resultat
från tidigare forskningsprojekt om tunnplåtsprodukter som utförts av Corus
(tidigare British Steel), DETR, BRE, ECSC och SCI. Vidare redovisas nya
mätresultat från bostadshus och liknande byggnader med tunnplåtsstomme.
Livslängden hos varmförzinkade stålkomponenter i en isolerad byggnadsdel där

risk för kondensation inte föreligger är mycket lång. Studien visar att uppskattad
livslängd, baserad på uppmätt zinkförlust på tunnplåtsreglar, är mer än 200 år,
förutsatt att klimatskalet (isolerade byggnadsdelar) är väl underhållet. Beviset
för denna slutsats är baserad på mätningar av zinkförlust på tunnplåtstommar
i olika användningsområden och lägen. I publikationen presenteras en formel

för bestämning zinkförlusten över tiden, i områden med låg risk för
kondensation.
Tabellen nedan sammanfattar förväntad livslängd hos varmförzinkade stålreglar

i konventionell användning i byggnader. Eftersom stålstommen inte krymper,
vrider sig eller kryper vid belastning ger den inte bidrag till sprickbildning eller
försämring av de icke bärande byggnadsdelarna och ytskikten, och bidrar
därmed inte till att förkortad livslängd.
Livslängd för varmförzinkade stålreglar i olika applikationer i byggnader
Användningsområde Förutsättningar Livslängd/

rostskyddande lager
Isolerade väggar och golv Ingen risk för inträngande > 200 år
vatten eller kondensation G275*
Tak Låg risk för kondensation 100 år

(isolerade) G275
Tak Viss risk för kondensation 60 år
(oisolerade) G275
Tunnplåtsprofiler i system Låg risk för kondensation; 60 år
för plåtfasader någon nedsmutsning kan G275
förekomma
Utfackningsvägg i Isolerad regelstomme och 100 år
flervåningshus ingen risk för inträngande G275
vatten föreligger
Stomme för upphängning Låg risk för inträngande 60 år
av nya fasader vid vatten; någon risk för G275
renovering kondensation
2
* G275 betecknar vikten av standard zinkbeläggning (275 g/m ).
Rekommendationer ges vad gäller detaljutformning av tunnplåtsreglar i

isolerade byggnadsdelar i syfte att undvika risk för fukt över byggnadsstommens
livstid.
xii
1 INTRODUCTION
Galvanized steel has been used successfully for over 50 years in light steel
framing and other components in housing and low-rise residential buildings in
Australia, Japan, France, the USA and Canada. In the USA, the market for light
steel framed construction is now over 100,000 houses a year, which is evidence
of great user confidence and an excellent track record. In Australia, the market
share for light steel framing in the housing sector is already over 15%.
In the UK, the current market for light steel framing is lower, but is increasing
rapidly, and the same general principles of construction are used as in other
countries where the market share is high. Modern light steel framing systems
use sections that are cold formed from rolls of pre-galvanized (zinc coated) strip
steel. The zinc coating is able to protect the steel much more reliably than
paint coatings because it passivates the steel, and is resistant to damage and the
effects of local moisture arising from condensation in transient conditions.
Historically, many steel housing systems were marketed in the UK between

[1]
1920 and 1970 , however the house building systems of the pre- and post-war
period used painted hot rolled steel components, and were not insulated to
modern standards. The performance of the earlier steel houses, which are now
30 to 70 years old, has generally been good despite some poor construction
details employed when questions of building physics were less well understood.
Galvanized steel provides a much higher level of protection and, in modern

building construction, the risk of moisture within the insulated building
envelope is largely eliminated.
This publication reviews aspects relating to the durability of light steel framing
in modern construction, and presents the results of surveys and case studies of
the performance of galvanized steel in housing and related applications.
Recommendations on the expected design life are given, with particular
emphasis on the use of light steel framing in interior environments. Under
normal circumstances, the light steel components within a warm frame are
subject to only minor temperature and humidity fluctuations compared with the
external conditions.
The durability of light steel and its coatings in a range of climatic and exposure
conditions is the subject of continuing research both in the UK and
internationally. Further data are being collected through exposure trials and
monitoring of buildings in the UK, Finland, Portugal, Japan, Australia and the
USA, and the present findings support the conclusions of this report.
1.1 Light steel framing in housing

The use of light steel framing in housing and residential buildings is a
recognised growth area. Cold formed sections are the primary components of
light steel framing, the sections being produced from pre-galvanized steel strip
by processes known as cold rolling. Smaller components and other sections of
varying shape can be produced by press braking.
1
The advantages of light steel framing include speed of on-site construction,
achieved by pre-fabrication of the wall panels and their easy assembly on site.
This creates a dry working environment for following trades, allowing the
brickwork cladding and roof tiling to follow off the critical path. Optimised
light steel framing systems have been developed that meet all the structural and
building physics performance requirements of the Building Regulations.
Light steel frames are constructed using cold formed steel components, typically
of C or Z section. The sections are joined using bolting, self-drilling self-tapping
screws, rivetting, clinching, welding (in the factory), or new methods such as
press joining. Any factory-produced welds are painted over with zinc-rich paint
to maintain the required level of protection.
There are three basic residential steel framing assembly methods:

C stick built construction (site assembled)

C panelised systems (factory made and site assembled)
C pre-engineered modular or volumetric systems (factory made and

assembled).
Most light steel framing systems in residential construction use wall panel
construction, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. Typically, standard cold formed
sections are used for all assembly methods. The C shape section is commonly
used for the studs in walls and frames, while either C or Z sections are used for
joists in internal floors. Decking panels have been used in composite ground
floor construction.
Figure 1.1 Light steel framing in housing
The sections are usually rolled from pre-galvanized sheet steel that is typically
0.9 to 3.2 mm thick with a minimum G275 zinc coating (see Section 2.1). This
thickness of zinc coating has adequate durability for internal warm frame
2
applications but additional corrosion protection measures may be required for
more aggressive external environments.
Most light steel framing systems have been assessed by the British Board of
Agrément (BBA), based on a rigorous testing regime. In these BBA approvals,
the frames are required to remain dry and reasonably airtight in the so-called
warm frame construction envelope in all reasonable circumstances during the
life of the building.
A general guide to the use of cold formed steel is given in the SCI publication
[2]
Building design using cold formed steel: An architect’s guide , and design
advice is given in Building design using cold formed steel sections: Construction
[3]
detailing and practice .
1.1.1 Warm frame construction

In warm frame construction, the cavity faces of an external wall frame will be
sheathed and insulated, or insulated with a suitable board material (see
Figure 1.2). This ensures that the light steel components are kept above a
certain temperature, thus minimising the risk of interstitial condensation and
avoiding pattern staining on the internal wall face. A breather membrane is
recommended in exposed locations where driving rain may penetrate the outer
[3]
skin and would otherwise wet the insulation layer .
Figure 1.2 Warm frame construction showing external insulation
In other cases, insulation may be placed between the wall studs, provided that
there is sufficient insulation outside the studs to avoid cold bridging and
therefore to avoid condensation on the studs. However, insulation to external
walls positioned solely within the depth of the studs will not prevent interstitial
condensation from forming on the stud members themselves.
3
1.1.2 Roofs in steel framed houses
Purpose-made light steel trusses have been marketed for many years. Typically,
they comprise cold formed sections as flanges, with bent bars or tubes forming
the bracing elements welded to the flanges. They can be designed for spans of
5 to 20 m (up to 30 m in special applications) and can be used for flat or slightly
pitched roofs, or as long spanning floor joists.
The pitched or Fink roof truss is widely used in timber construction, and can be
replicated in cold formed C or Z sections; however the more efficient use of
steel is in the creation of open-roof systems for habitable use.
There are two generic forms of roof design:

C a cold roof, in which the roof acts only as a weathertight barrier
C a warm roof, in which the roof is insulated, so that the space under the roof
is relatively warm.
1.1.3 Floors
Steel floor joists of C or Z section may be used in place of timber joists in
housing and other masonry buildings. The joists may be built into walls or
supported on traditional joist hangers. Thicker cold formed sections may also
be used to replace light hot rolled steel sections as secondary members in
frames.
Internal floors are in the warm internal environment, however there may be
applications where this is not the case, for example:
C suspended ground floors
C flat roof structures or over-roofing of existing buildings
C joists built into solid masonry walls.
In these applications, where steel can be exposed to moisture over an extended

period, care should be taken to ensure adequate ventilation. Thicker
galvanizing or some additional form of protection may be required.
1.1.4 Ground floors

Suspended composite ground floors have been used successfully in
demonstration buildings that utilise galvanized steel decking together with an
in situ concrete slab. The degree of exposure is mild, provided that good
ventilation is provided in the void beneath the floor and contact with soil is
avoided.
Under-floor insulation is more economic than insulation placed above, and

makes the floor part of the warm frame. It also acts as an added protection
barrier to prevent moist air reaching the galvanized surface.
4
1.2 Types of galvanized coating
The standard form of corrosion protection for cold formed steel sections is the
continuous dip zinc coating applied as a pre-coat to the roll of strip steel from
which the sections are formed. Galvanized steel strip is now supplied to the
[4] [5]
specification in BS EN 10147 , which has replaced BS 2989 .
The zinc adheres to the steel substrate and deforms around the bends during
forming, even in complex section shapes, without cracking or becoming
detached. Because of this, galvanizing has become the standard method for
corrosion protection of cold formed steel in a wide range of applications not
subject to direct weathering or exposed conditions. A brief review of the action
of the zinc coating is presented in Section 2.
Galvanized strip steel is produced with a standard G275 coating, corresponding

to 275 grams of zinc per square metre summed over both faces of the steel strip.
This corresponds to approximately 0.02 mm overall thickness of zinc per face.
Other coating thicknesses are available for special applications.
Hot dip galvanizing after forming is applied to complex steel fabrications and
the coating will now comply with BS EN ISO 1461:1999, which has replaced
[6]
BS 729 . More guidance on this technology is available from the Galvanizers
Association (see page 50).
[7]
A new standard, BS EN ISO 14713 , provides information on zinc and
aluminium coatings and their expected design lives in different environments.
Zinc-aluminium coatings are also available, and are used in some countries
such as Australia, particularly for roofing and cladding applications.
1.3 Performance of galvanized steel products

Galvanized steel has been used for over 50 years in a wide range of building
components in the UK, even if its use in primary structural members is relatively
new. The applications that are inside the building envelope have given
satisfactory performance, showing that durability is not a concern. Good
examples are:
C window lintels supporting brickwork
C joist hangers for timber floors
C connecting plates for timber trusses.
In industrial buildings, the satisfactory performance of galvanized steel purlins

and side rails, which are often in a variable internal climate, leads to the
conclusion that the standard galvanizing thickness is adequate for most
applications within buildings.
In more aggressive locations, such as externally, or with poor quality brickwork,

rainwater can gradually remove the beneficial effect of the galvanizing layer
(see Section 2.4). Therefore, it is concluded that galvanized steel is not
recommended for long life applications in areas subject to:
5
C continuous wetting and drying
C running rainwater over the surface
C leakage from service pipes etc.
C corrosive or acidic materials or polluted atmospheres.
Components and members using galvanized steel should be located within the
building envelope in such a way that potentially aggressive locations are
avoided or minimised. Good practice is addressed in a recent SCI publication
Building design using cold formed steel sections: Construction detailing and
[3]
practice .
Section 3 presents a review of case studies into the performance of galvanized

steel in residential buildings, and Section 4 identifies the conditions where
control of condensation or other moisture contact is necessary in order to

ensure long-term durability of the zinc coating.
1.4 Other durability benefits of steel

In addition to the durability of the galvanized coating, it may be observed that
the good performance of buildings using these light steel components is
enhanced because:
C steel does not shrink, warp or change its shape
C steel does not creep under load
C steel has properties that remain constant over its life
C galvanized steel is unaffected by a flood or water overflow (provided that
this is not a frequent occurrence)
C galvanized steel does not rot or deteriorate

C any local damage can be identified and rectified
C steel is resistant to local damage, particularly on site
C steel is non-combustible and fire resistant
C insect infestation is not a problem
C steel is of reliable and high uniform quality
C steel is not affected adversely by normal temperature ranges
C there are no nails to pop out, as in timber construction.
These properties are all aspects of durability and maintenance-free construction.

Particularly important to the owner and builder is the reduced number of call-
backs in light steel framing that would otherwise be necessary to rectify
cracking caused by shrinkage and other movement of more traditional
materials.
6
2 GALVANIZING AS CORROSION
PROTECTION FOR STEEL
Steel is one of the most important structural materials available to specifiers,

and various protection measures have been developed for its use in different
exposure conditions. In external environments, the surface of bare carbon steel
is unstable, reacting with air and airborne pollutants to form the complex series
of oxides generically known as rust. In dry, warm environments this process
does not occur and no protection is required. For example, most hot rolled
steelwork within multi-storey buildings is unprotected because of the low risk
of corrosion, as evidenced by over 70 years of excellent performance since the
1920s.
In exposed environments, some form of protection against corrosion is required.

The main forms of protection are:
C encapsulation ! where a coherent barrier is used to exclude corrosive

agencies from the surface
C sacrificial ! where another metal, which corrodes preferentially to steel, is
used in proximity to the surface.
The use of metallic zinc (in galvanizing, sprayed metal coatings, plating,
sherardising, zinc-rich paints, and cathodic protection) as corrosion protection
may call on one or both of these mechanisms. Hot dip galvanizing provides
both forms of protection.
2.1 The hot dip galvanizing process

Hot dip galvanizing involves dipping steel in almost pure molten zinc. The zinc
and steel react to form a series of zinc-iron alloy layers bonded metallurgically
to the steel. When the steel is lifted from the bath, molten zinc on the surface
of the bonded alloy coating solidifies and becomes part of the coating itself.
Because of the rather casual use of the term galvanizing within the building
industry, it is not always appreciated that immersion of steel in molten zinc can
create various products. Differing steels, different zinc alloys and variations in
the process may be used to alter the character of the final coating.
Standard hot dip batch galvanizing (dipping each fabricated item separately into
the bath) generally produces a series of zinc-iron alloy layers topped with a
layer of pure zinc.
In contrast, continuous galvanizing onto steel coil tends to produce only a very
thin zinc-iron alloy layer with a (relatively) thick pure zinc top layer, because
of the speed at which the steel coil passes through the bath. The total film
thickness is, therefore, much less than with the batch process. Continuous zinc
coating of the steel coil is controlled carefully to produce a range of coating
weights for different specifications of corrosion protection.
7
In the UK, the working standard has been 275 g/m² (i.e. a surface thickness of
[5]
about 20 microns). This grade was formerly used in BS 2989 and has now
[8] [4]
been incorporated within BS EN 10142 and BS EN 10147 . The coatings are
[6]
thinner than those formerly specified in BS 729 because research shows that
the corrosion resistance is satisfactory for most internal building applications.
The technology of coating has improved, and there are many sources of
continuous zinc-coated steel strip. Corus’s product name Galvatite will be
known to many specifiers.
In the field of continuous metal coatings, various zinc-aluminium alloys are

available as an alternative to pure zinc coatings. One very well-known product
is the original Bethlehem Steel formulation 55% aluminium–45% zinc, which
is available as coated steel coil from several licensees.
Post-galvanizing treatments may be offered to protect the zinc coating during

storage. These treatments include chromate passivation to suppress the
development of white zinc corrosion products that can form in continuously
wet conditions, such as when water is trapped between the sheets. A thin film
of mineral oil is applied to the surface for the same purpose. Oil must be
removed if the product is to receive further treatment such as painting or
welding.
2.2 Performance of galvanized coatings

Zinc coatings provide a barrier that prevents oxygen, moisture and other
atmospheric pollutants from reaching the steel. Furthermore, zinc is a reactive
metal and, on exposure to the atmosphere, a complex mixture of zinc
compounds forms readily on a galvanized surface. Because many of the
products formed (e.g. zinc hydroxide or white rust) are at least partially soluble
in water, the zinc is consumed over a period of time in any damp location. The
loss of zinc is accelerated in situations where the galvanized surface is exposed
to the atmosphere and to water running over the surface.
In more benign exposures, an initial layer of zinc hydroxide often changes to

a hard, stable layer of zinc carbonate by the absorption of carbon dioxide, and
this provides a further barrier layer to any further loss of zinc from beneath. The
consumption of zinc, and hence the life of zinc-coated steels, can be calculated
with reasonable accuracy for specific environments from research data. This
loss of zinc with time is part of its protective mechanism, and should not be
considered as a failure of the protective system.
Galvanizing has the advantage that, when the encapsulation is breached, for
example at cut edges or drilled holes, or when the zinc has been eroded away
locally, significant corrosion of the steel substrate will not necessarily occur.
This is because zinc in close proximity to the exposed steel will still corrode
preferentially, acting as a consumable anode in an electrochemical cell (i.e. it
protects the steel cathodically). The use of a sacrificial metallic layer is known
as galvanic action. Only when the distance between the zinc and steel is too
great will the steel begin to corrode. The galvanic series of metals is shown in
Table 2.1.
8
Table 2.1 Galvanic series of metals
Anodic: Magnesium (Electronegative)
Zinc
Aluminium
Cadmium
Iron or steel
Stainless steels
Lead
Tin
Cathodic: Copper (Electropositive)
The more anodic (electronegative) metal will corrode preferentially to the more
cathodic metal (in the presence of water and oxygen). Therefore common
coating metals such as zinc and aluminium will protect the steel substrate
against corrosion. Conversely, stainless steel or more electropositive metals
may lead to preferential corrosion of mild steel, if directly connected and
subject to prolonged moisture.
2.2.1 Loss of thickness of zinc with time

Although the hot dip galvanizing process has not been reformulated, the
expected product lifetime in external atmospheres has almost doubled over the
last twenty years in the UK. This is a consequence of improved air quality, as
in most European countries. This has enabled hot dip galvanized coatings to
protect steel for longer periods, and newly manufactured components are given
a much longer life expectancy than would have been predicted 20 years ago,
while old coatings are expected to exceed the original predicted life
expectancy.
All hot dip galvanized products benefit from the European environmental
regulations intended to decrease the level of airborne sulphur dioxide (SO2), the
main cause of acid rain. Because the effective life of galvanized coatings is
inversely proportional to the levels of airborne SO2, their life expectancy has
increased as the pollution has decreased. Given that hot dip galvanizing is
unaffected by ultra-violet (UV) light, it is also able to outperform other coating
[9]
systems in countries where UV levels are high .
In a mathematical model designed to investigate the relationship between SO2

levels and the reduction in thickness of zinc, lowering the SO2 concentration
3
in the air by 1 mg/m led to a reduction in loss of coating thickness of
2 [9]
exposed zinc of about 0.2 g zinc/m , or 0.03 mm, per year . In observations
in Stockholm since 1978, the improvement in the performance of zinc has
corresponded to the strong downward change of the concentration of SO2 in the
air (see Figure 2.1).
Maps published by the Agricultural Development Advisory Service show the

corrosivity of the atmosphere across the UK and indicate that the expected
lifetime of a fully exposed 85 micron galvanized coating has increased from 24
to 34 years in non-coastal environments.
9
(lBey\sm\g)
ro
0 0)0
(1i6
0 0 0 00
to
Cm\
CA)
3IliX
i)
CO
'-
to
noirzub3Fl
3t61
0 ro
0)
0 0 0 0 4
CA)
t-
CA
ro
oeer
oer
ever
c8er
acer
veer
seer
er
88sf
eer
reer
8ver
rer
CA)
Figure 2.1 Graph showing SO2 levels and rate of reduction of zinc coating
thickness in Stockholm since 1978
The approximate performance of zinc coatings in different environments is

[9]
shown in Table 2.2, which is taken from a discussion document for a
proposed new European Standard for hot dip galvanizing. The lifetime of zinc
coatings has improved, and recent work suggests that these figures are very
[10]
conservative .
Table 2.2 Performance of zinc coatings in different environments

Environment Corrosivity Average reduction
of in coating thickness
environment (microns/year)
C1 Interior: dry Very low 0.1
C2 Interior: occasional condensation
Low 0.1 - 0.7
Exterior: inland and rural
C3 Interior: high humidity, some air pollution
Exterior: industrial and urban inland or mild Medium 0.7 - 2.0
coastal
C4 Interior: swimming pools, chemical plants etc.
Exterior: industrial inland or urban coastal High 2.0 - 4.0
(chloride-rich environment)
C5 Exterior: industrial with high humidity or high
Very high 4.0 - 8.0
salinity coastal
The relationship between levels of airborne SO2 and the life expectancy of
exposed galvanized coatings is best understood in terms of the reaction by
which zinc protects steel.
The zinc galvanized coating attains its anti-corrosion characteristic because a

protective layer forms at its surface. This protective layer, or patina (see
Figure 2.2), consists of a mixture of zinc compounds including zinc carbonate,
10
zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide. Environmental factors dictate which of these
compounds are formed.
Figure 2.2 Typical micrograph of hot dip galvanized coating
In dry air, a film of zinc oxide is initially formed by the influence of oxygen in
the atmosphere, but this is soon converted to zinc hydroxide, zinc carbonate
and other zinc compounds by water, carbon dioxide and chemical impurities
present in the atmosphere. The patina of zinc carbonate, when fully formed
across the entire surface, has excellent anti-corrosion qualities that are long-
lasting because rainwater cannot easily dissolve the zinc compound. However,
if SO2 is present in the atmosphere when the patina is forming, zinc sulphate
will form along with the zinc carbonate. The zinc sulphate is more soluble and
thus significantly more susceptible to the effects of rainwater. The rainwater
gradually reduces the coating and its anti-corrosion abilities.
Falling levels of SO2 have reduced the rate of build-up of zinc sulphates in the
protective patina. The consequent improved resistance to corrosion leads to a
marked increase in the lifetime of galvanized coatings. Further reductions in
SO2 levels are anticipated over the next decade, with a commensurate increase
[9]
in life expectancy for galvanized coatings .
2.2.2 White rust on galvanized steel sections

White rust is a corrosion product of zinc formed from hydrated zinc carbonate/
zinc hyroxide under specific conditions of exposure. White rust cannot be seen
until the steel is dry, when it appears as a white film.
Circumstances where white rust may occur are:

C Ingress of water between the adjacent surfaces in a stack of galvanized steel
sheets or components during transport or storage.
C Condensation within a stack of sheets or components caused by rapid
changes in temperature.
11
C Condensation from the drying out of new buildings or from the laying and
drying out of a wet concrete screed.
C The combined effect of weather and site dust on the components of a
building frame prior to application of the weather skin.
C The combined effects of weather and site dust on roof decking prior to the
application of insulation and weatherproofing.
Although the white rust may be found over a large area, it does not necessarily
mean that the steel has suffered corrosion. White rust does not usually indicate
a serious degradation of the zinc coating or that the product life has reduced.
It is acceptable to ignore thin films of white rust present in normal environments
unless the steel surface needs to be painted. Removal of white rust will
accelerate the loss of zinc. However, white rust should not be ignored in severe
environments, where other corrosion is evident or where there are heavy
deposits of white rust, which indicates the continual presence of moisture.

Measures to control the degree of moisture exposure and white rust are given
in Table 4.2 of Section 4.7.
To inhibit the formation of white rust, a chromated layer is used as the standard
coated product in the UK (see Section 3.2.2).
2.3 Forming sections after galvanizing

Thin steel sections are generally formed by cold rolling during which the steel
section is formed continuously by bending the galvanized steel strip through a
series of rolls. Complex sections can be created by forming multiple bends and
stiffeners. The zinc coating is able to deform and adhere to the steel surface
during the forming process, although the thickness of zinc may reduce slightly
as the steel stretches. Therefore, the galvanic action of the zinc coating is
unaffected.
The sections are cut to length, and holes are punched for bolts and for services.
The action of punching and shearing causes some of the zinc coating to spread
over the cut surfaces. However, the main source of corrosion protection to cut
edges arises from the galvanic action of the zinc adjacent to the cut edge, and
there is no evidence that higher levels of corrosion occur at cut edges in
practice. Furthermore, the edges or ends of the members are not usually highly
stressed and are unlikely to be the critical parts of the component or member.
Screws or bolts do not affect the performance of the steel, provided that they are
also protected by galvanizing or are made from a suitable metal.
2.4 Factors affecting durability in the building

envelope
When considering the durability of galvanized steel sections, it is necessary to
consider two main criteria: the duration of wetness, and the general
atmospheric or exposure condition. The shorter the time of wetness and the
drier the atmosphere, the better. The rate of zinc loss in an internal
environment is less than 10% of that in an external environment because of the
drier indoor conditions. However, if the building envelope is of poor quality,
12
the time of wetness can be greater, due to condensation and possible external
water ingress. Transient moist conditions due to condensation are much less
critical than the case of water washing over the zinc surface because zinc
hydroxide, which is produced by contact with moisture, is soluble and can be
washed away.
Good building practice, thermal insulation and proper ventilation ensure that
the design of modern houses conforms to a warm dry environment, even though
humidity is created by the occupants or activities inside.
There is long experience of using galvanized steel in housing but even within
the building envelope, exposure conditions can vary considerably. Often in
older buildings, the practices and materials used were such that the galvanized
steel is more at risk than in modern buildings. The following applications
demonstrate the importance of understanding the risk of moisture or chemical

attack, particularly for steel components located in the building envelope.
2.4.1 Galvanized steel wall ties

Wall ties are used to tie two leaves of masonry walls together in a cavity wall
construction. Wall ties, such as butterfly ties, were made of galvanized steel
until recently, when stainless steel wire became commonly accepted. The
subject of wall ties is mentioned here because it is a well documented example
of the use of galvanized steel in an aggressive external wall environment where
careful investigation has led to a thorough understanding of the causes of
corrosion and of practical solutions.
It has been found that excessive corrosion of galvanized steel ties can be caused
by the high sulphate content of some brick/mortar types, which, when coupled
with moisture penetration into the outer leaf, causes an acidic attack. The
consequent corrosion products can produce enough expansion to crack the

masonry or the mortar joints with the heavier forms of butterfly tie.
As a result of surveys carried out by the Building Research Establishment in the

late 1970s and the subsequent interpretation of data, new design curves were
developed and it was shown that the thickness of zinc coating on wall ties
needed to be increased to give the required notional 60 years’ life.
Alternatively, a secondary bitumen paint coating could be applied to the
[11]
standard lower thickness coating. BS 1243 was consequently revised in
1981.
[12]
The database from that research is given in BRE Digest 401 (also in IP 16/88
and IP 12/90). The subject of wall ties is raised here because the research
provides evidence of poor durability in the outer leaf of walls, where the quality
of the brickwork and mortar is poor. Anecdotal evidence from many hundreds
of thousands of buildings shows that galvanized wall ties have performed well
in cases where the brickwork is of good quality. Many of these buildings with
cavity walls are now over 60 years old. The conditions in the inner leaf of the
wall are more relevant, and here the BRE data show much less corrosion risk.
13
2.4.2 Galvanized steel lintels
Most lintels used in modern housing are made of galvanized steel, and this high
market share has been achieved because of their ease of handling, long span
capability, wide range of use in various applications, and their good long-term
durability. Lintels are protected from direct moisture by the damp proof course
placed above the lintel. Even so, the environmental conditions in a cavity wall
are much more severe than in internal applications.
Lintels are fabricated and are often complex components with many cut edges
and welds. After fabrication, every surface, cut, edge and weld is treated to
ensure that it is fully protected. This post-galvanizing process creates a build-up
of zinc protection at the most vulnerable points (edges etc.), which are
susceptible to damage on site and would otherwise be the least protected. The
specification for post-galvanizing is given in BS EN ISO 1461. Furthermore,
BS 5977-2: Tables 1 and 2 give specific requirements for the protection of steel
[13]
lintels .
The service life of the lintels will be more than 60 years when they are used
with a flexible damp proof course and when the environmental conditions are
as normally experienced in housing and residential buildings.
2.4.3 Galvanized steel joist hangers

Joist hangers are used to support timber floor joists, and are made using
galvanized steel in accordance with BS 6178, which specifies a post-galvanized
[6]
coating to comply with BS 729 . Joist hangers have been used for many years
in many types of building with no recorded poor performance, despite being
bedded into the inner leaf of a cavity wall.
2.4.4 Connector plates to timber trusses

Connector plates to timber trusses have used galvanized steel for over 40 years.
So-called gang nail trusses have performed well when sitting on the internal leaf
of cavity walls, even when exposed to the variable atmospheric conditions in
uninsulated lofts. The chemicals used in treating timber trusses do not have an
adverse effect on the life of the steel.
2.4.5 Purlins and side rails

Galvanized steel sections are used as purlins and side rails to support metallic
cladding in industrial buildings. Here, the performance in often dirty, humid
environments has been good since these components came into service over
30 years ago. For example, in Corus’s steelworks in Port Talbot, galvanized
steel purlins were installed in 1967 and have performed satisfactorily without
maintenance.
2.4.6 Light steel framing

As described in Section 1.1, modern light steel framing differs considerably from
the previous uses of galvanized steel because the frame components are entirely
internal to the building envelope. The warm frame is free from condensation,
except possibly in extreme or transient conditions. The case studies in Section 3
review the data on the performance of light steel framing in service.
14
2.5 Design life of galvanized steel
The design life of a galvanized steel component comprises the life of the
protection system plus that of the underlying steel. The design life of the
protection system could be defined as the time period to the first major
maintenance of the coating, when recoating or some other treatment is required
to restore the total effectiveness of the protection. If there is no maintenance at
this time, the coating would continue to deteriorate and the underlying steel
start to corrode, eventually leading to serviceability problems (such as increased
deflections). The design life does not represent structural failure of the
component, and there will be a considerable margin between the design life
and potential failure.
Two categories of use may be defined that influence the requirements for design
life:
C Category A: concealment or encapsulation of components so that they
cannot be inspected regularly.
C Category B: exposure of components so that they can be inspected readily,

such as by removal of inspection panels or trapdoors etc.
Examples of Category A are wall frames, window lintels, wall ties and possibly
ground floors. Examples of Category B are roof trusses, purlins, internal floors
and external elements such as lighting poles.
The required design life depends on the conditions of use, as there should be
a greater reserve of life for components that cannot be inspected and therefore
cannot be assured for recoating, repair or replacement. Typically for residential
buildings, the required design life is 60 years, representing a sensible time to
major maintenance of the primary components.
In the context of galvanized steel, the definition of the actual design life
depends on the degree of loss of zinc from the surface. The rate of zinc loss is
unlikely to be uniform, and experience shows that some surface rusting may
appear when an average of 50% of the original weight of zinc coating has been
lost, i.e. the zinc loss is generally uneven. However, large scale surface rusting
does not occur until most (say 80%) of the zinc has been lost; the subsequent
life of the substrate will depend on the exposure environment.
To cater for this variability, a general basis of evaluation must be conservative,

and the design life may be defined as a function of the conditions of use:
Category A: when 50% of the weight of zinc has been lost (which for G275
2
coating is 137 g/m ).
Category B: when 80% of the weight of zinc has been lost (which for G275
2
coating is 220 g/m ).
This is then consistent with other coated light steel products, such as roof
sheeting, where the design life is related to the performance of the coating
rather than the steel substrate. Therefore, in Category A, there is an implied
factor of safety of 2 in terms of complete loss of zinc and failure of the
component. In Category B, the factor of safety is 1.25.
15
Furthermore, when the design life of a component is predicted from the results
of research on a small number of test specimens, it is necessary to make some
allowance for the statistical possibility of a more severe loss of zinc in certain
other locations. This is taken into account when interpreting the test results
reported in Section 3.8.
This evaluation also assumes that the external envelope of the building is
maintained and does not deteriorate, so that the environmental conditions do
not change over the design life. The approach is conservative and gives a
considerable margin (in time) between the design life and any serviceability
problems.
2.6 Structural significance of the components

The relative importance of different types of component may be defined by their

structural significance, which is important in establishing a protection strategy.
For example, a heavily loaded column, or a tension-tie member that supports
a large canopy or floor, is of high importance because of the severe

consequences of failure. Also, in these members, approximately equal stresses
exist over their length. A bending member may not be as critical because it is
only the mid-span area that is heavily stressed, and the support zone (where the
member is most exposed to corrosion) is less highly stressed as shear forces are
relatively low in lightweight floors.
Components such as joist hangers are important because they support the floor,
although loss of one joist hanger does not represent failure of the whole floor.
Similarly, the members in light steel wall panels have a high degree of load
sharing and redundancy due to their multiple interconnections; these structures
are therefore robust to impact and damage.
A hierarchy of components may be established on the basis of:

C ease of inspection and repair (see previous section)
C structural significance.
Although it is not definitive, the list in Table 2.3 defines the general importance
of the component, which should inform the protection strategy and
maintenance regime. The most important members should be considered in
Category A (in Section 2.5) whereas less important members or components
may be considered in Category B.
16
Table 2.3 Hierarchy of importance in terms of durability
Column (heavily loaded)

v Concealed tension-tie (e.g. in truss)
Beam (supporting a floor)
Exposed tension-tie (e.g. canopy)
Bracing (at ground floor level)
Wall panel (load bearing)
Lintel above opening
Increasing importance
Joist hanger
Floor joists
Floor decking (internal)
Roof purlin
Connector plate (e.g. in truss)
Wall ties
Wall panel (non-load bearing)

Side rails (for cladding)
Roof or wall sheeting
Noggins or straps
Guttering and pipes
Street architecture
17
3 CASE STUDIES
The following case studies present information on the long-term performance

of galvanized steel sections in various examples in which measurements of zinc
loss have been made. The findings of a survey into the performance of the
earlier use of steel in housing are given in Section 3.1 for additional
background.
3.1 Building Research Establishment survey on older

steel framed and steel clad housing
As an example of the historic background, an extensive survey of older steel

framed and steel clad housing stock in the UK was undertaken by the Building
Research Establishment (BRE) and is published in a series of individual reports
[1]
together with an overview . As noted earlier, these frames used hot rolled
steel components with paint or bitumen coatings, and were often exposed to
moisture as a result of the construction details employed and the insufficient
insulation to meet modern standards.
The conclusion of this survey was that, although certain points in the steelwork
were vulnerable to moisture, most of the corrosion found was superficial. Even
though the level of protection afforded to steelwork was less than would be
considered good practice today, it was concluded that most steel houses of the
1930-1970 period would continue to perform well for the foreseeable future.
Advances in corrosion protection methods developed for steel over the past
three decades have led to much improved quality and durability when
combined with modern construction techniques.
3.2 Case 1: Environmental and performance

monitoring of modern steel framed housing
The Department of the Environment sponsored a three year corrosion and
environmental monitoring exercise in fifteen houses in Manchester, London and
[10]
South Wales . Galvanized steel test panels were exposed at opposite ends
of each (unheated) house loft and were exposed to the atmosphere. The zinc
corrosion rate was measured together with relative humidity, temperature and
the time-of-wetness of any condensation. In addition, some laboratory
experiments tested galvanized steel that was freely exposed to mortar and
gypsum plaster in accelerated corrosion test environments.
The results showed that there was no significant difference in relative humidity
or temperature values at the three geographical locations. Within a given roof
space there was generally no significant difference between opposite sides of
the loft, although occasionally relative humidity was affected by localised
heating effects where, say, warm air escaped into the loft from a heated room
below. Data-logging indicated that conditions that may lead to condensation
can exist in roof spaces up to 21% of the time averaged over a year. Only one
cavity wall was monitored, but it showed that conditions that may lead to
condensation can exist for up to 16% of an average year. This result is
18
consistent with that identified separately by the BRE (Scottish Laboratory) in
cavity wall measurements.
3.2.1 Exposure conditions

The following data are taken from Durability of galvanized steel building
[10]
components in domestic housing . The average weight loss measured over
a three-year period in a loft environment is given in Table 3.1. The average rate
of zinc loss per year may be expressed as the total weight loss divided by the
time period. For these data, the average rate of zinc loss was approximately
0.3 g/m²/year. Chromated galvanized steel was found to have a slightly lower
rate of zinc loss than non-chromated galvanized steel. The data are subject to
some variability because the specimens were removed and measured but were
not replaced. There could therefore be some variation in exposure conditions
and surface characteristics among the specimens (see Section 3.8).
2
Table 3.1 Average weight loss (g/m ) for exposed specimens in
a loft environment (after one, two and three years)
Materials Number of years

1 2 3
Non-chromated galvanized steel 0.44 0.75 0.71
Chromated galvanized steel 0.28 0.69 0.47
Electro-galvanized steel 0.75 1.26 1.24
Mild steel (unprotected) 2.60 5.70 7
No significant difference was found between the corrosion rate of galvanized

steel panels exposed at the north or south sides of each loft, and no significant
difference was found in the corrosion rate of the panels in the three
geographical areas.
For comparison, the equivalent uncoated mild steel specimens stored in the
2
same locations lost weight at a rate of approximately 2.5 g/m /year (or 0.03 mm
thickness of steel per year).
3.2.2 Laboratory tests

In the laboratory tests, the performance of galvanized steel in contact with
gypsum plaster was evaluated, and it was found that, in conditions of prolonged
high humidity, some loss of zinc occurred, which caused staining of the plaster.
No staining occurred when the wet plaster was allowed to dry in a ventilated
room. Plasterboard does not affect the zinc layer because it has relatively low
moisture content and a paper surface that prevents any build up of moisture at
the point of contact with the steel section.
3.2.3 Interpretation of zinc loss

2
From the results of these studies, the zinc weight loss (g/m ) for galvanized steel
exposed over a three-year period was found by linear regression analysis to
follow a relationship of the form:
b
weight loss = a (time) (1)
where time is measured in years.
19
A difference in performance was observed between chromated and non-
chromated zinc specimens (a chromate layer is the standard product in the UK).
The value of b was found to be 0.64, indicating that the rate of zinc loss decreases
with time. This occurs because the protective oxide film that forms on the zinc
surface in dry conditions reduces the exposure of the zinc. The line of best fit
along the 95% probability line gives the value of a = 1.0, or approximately 2 × the
mean of the data (see Figure 3.1). The expression becomes:
0.64
weight loss = 1.0 (time) (2)
Based on these data, for the 98% probability level, the constant a is 1.5.
Weight loss 4.00

(g/m²)
3.50
98%
3.00 probability
line
2.50
95%
2.00 probability
line
1.50
1.00
Mean
line
0.50
0.00
0.00 6.00 12.00 18.00 24.00 30.00 36.00
Time (months)
Figure 3.1 Zinc weight loss with time for freely exposed hot dip galvanized
steel specimens
3.3 Case 2: Environmental and performance

monitoring of the PMF steel framed building at
Ullenwood
The residential building illustrated in Figure 3.2 was monitored to gain more
data on in-service performance. This building is situated at the National Star
Centre for disabled persons at Ullenwood near Cheltenham, and was one of the
first light steel framing systems constructed by PMF in 1982. Areas investigated
were the environmental conditions in the wall cavity, the loft and below the
[14]
suspended ground floor . The loft was monitored in the south corner, north
20
corner, near the water tank and at the centre near the flue. The exercise
included the measurement of rate of weight loss on galvanized steel and mild
steel test coupons positioned at various locations, which were removed
[14]
annually and weighed over the five-year project period .
Figure 3.2 Steel framed building for disabled persons at Ullenwood
Daily conditions were found to fluctuate over a wide range, to the point that
there was some risk of condensation despite ventilation of the cavity space, roof
and substructure. The study did not examine the time over which condensation
occurred but concentrated on overall measurements of the performance of the
galvanized steel wall-frames.
In the wall space and loft, the galvanized steel suffered very little weight loss,
as shown in Table 3.2. The annual weight loss on the galvanized steel
2
specimens was extremely low (0.2 g/m ) compared with the mild steel
2
specimens (1.26 and 1.62 g/m in wall space and loft respectively) despite the
wide fluctuations in temperature and relative humidity in these locations.
Table 3.2 Results of measurements on galvanized steel coupons installed

in the wall space and loft of the Ullenwood building
Location Time Measured zinc loss Annual zinc loss
2 2
(months) (g/m ) (g/m /year)
6 0.09 0.18
12 0.27 0.26
Wall space 18 0.3 0.2
24 0.41 0.2
60 1.2 0.24
6 0.09 0.18
12 0.19 0.19
18 0.32 0.21
Loft space
24 0.29 0.15
48 0.55 0.14
60 0.59 0.12
Rate of zinc loss is averaged over the exposure time.
21
Over the five-year study period, the annual rate of zinc loss was approximately
uniform. In February 1996 (after 14 years), the building was inspected and
internal plasterboard panels were removed. Only slight tarnishing (i.e. loss of
normal bright appearance as in Figure 3.3) was observed. In situ measurements
were taken of the standard galvanizing on the wall studs, and could not detect
any significant loss of the zinc coating. The rate of zinc loss is therefore
negligible and is considered to correspond to a long-term rate of zinc loss of no
2
more than 0.2 g/m /year.
The measurements taken of the specimens under the ground floor were affected
by their proximity to an air brick in the external cladding. The rate of zinc loss
2
after five years was 1.22 g/m /year. The conditions under the ground floor are
not as severe as external conditions, but clearly the galvanized steel is exposed
to moisture over a longer period than in warm frame applications. The
exposure can be reduced by insulation or a membrane below the floor.

Figure 3.3 Wall panel removed, showing no trace of corrosion on the

members after 15 years (the connections are coated in zinc-rich
paint)
3.4 Case 3: Monitoring behind over-cladding panels

in Edinburgh
This study concerns the environmental monitoring of a prototype steel over-
cladding panel constructed in August 1994 on the 8th floor of the James Clerk
Maxwell building on the Edinburgh University campus, where the wind and
rainfall regime is severe (see Figure 3.4). Over 200 galvanized steel coupons
were positioned behind the over-cladding panels, as shown in Figure 3.5. The
location of the coupons was chosen to be easily accessible. The coupons are
removed every 6 to 12 months in order to determine the loss in weight of the
samples and to observe signs of possible corrosion.
22
Figure 3.4 Over-cladding panel at Edinburgh University

Figure 3.5 Galvanized steel coupons installed behind the over-cladding

panel
In this over-cladding application, the environmental conditions are potentially

more severe, as although the cavity space is ventilated, the galvanized steel is
subject to periodic wetness due to condensation and possibly to direct rain
23
ingress. The bent shaped coupons were also designed to trap any moisture and
were more susceptible to corrosion than the subframe or cladding members.
The results of the samples removed to date are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Results of measurements on galvanized steel coupons installed

behind the over-cladding panel at Edinburgh University
Chromated zinc Non-chromated zinc

Exposure time
(months) Total loss Rate of loss Total loss Rate of loss
2 2 2 2
(g/m ) (g/m /year) (g/m ) (g/m /year)
6 0.98 1.96 1.78 3.56
15 0.97 0.78 2.1 1.68
24 0.76 0.38 3.3 1.65
57 1.83 0.38 4.05 0.85
G275 coating thickness. Data averaged over three specimens for each exposure time.
The total weight loss is measured from samples that are removed and weighed
at the stated exposure time. The rate of zinc loss is the equivalent annual rate
of loss averaged over the exposure time.
For chromated zinc samples, the average rate of zinc loss after 57 months was
2
0.38 g/m /year, although the rate of loss in the early months was much higher.
For non-chromated zinc samples, the average rate of zinc loss was
2
0.85 g/m /year after 57 months and, in this case, the rate of zinc loss tends to
be linear with time. As noted earlier, chromated zinc is the standard finishing
later used for production of cold formed steel sections.
Despite the more severe conditions present in the cavity behind the over-
cladding panels, the rate of zinc loss is not significantly higher than in the loft
measurements of Case Study 1. The design life prediction is presented in

Section 3.8.
3.5 Case 4: Monitoring the Oxford Brookes

Demonstration Building
In 1996, a student residence was constructed at Oxford Brookes University as
part of a European demonstration project. It used Corus’s Surebuild light steel
framing system. The building comprised a four-bedroom house and an adjacent
six-room apartment building (see Figure 3.6). The house and apartments are
occupied by postgraduate students.
The innovative feature of the building was the use of two alternative habitable
roof systems, and a composite suspended ground floor system using a perimeter
G-shaped galvanized steel edge beam with PMF CF70 decking and an in situ
concrete slab spanning between these edge beams. The light steel framing and
2
roof are also highly insulated to a U value of 0.2 W/m EC. The open habitable
roof system is illustrated in Figure 3.7.
24
Figure 3.6 Oxford Brookes Demonstration Building

Figure 3.7 Open-roof system (kept open for demonstration purposes)
The building is being monitored over its life to assess its energy performance
and the local temperature and humidity conditions that may exist in the
building fabric. Importantly, crawl access is provided beneath the suspended
ground floor to permit assessment of the performance of the galvanized steel
substructure and composite floor. The first three years’ data indicate that no
wetness has occurred in the light steel frame, even adjacent to bathrooms,
kitchens and in the roof space.
A series of zinc coupons has been suspended in the wall cavity and in the
ventilated void below the suspended ground floor. These coupons have been
removed at yearly intervals to assess the weight loss. The results after
30 months indicate that the rate of zinc loss averaged over the period is small
25
(see Table 3.4). Data will be collected over the life of the building to form a
reliable database to supplement previous studies.
Table 3.4 Measured weight loss of the galvanized steel coupons installed in
the Demonstration Building at Oxford Brookes University
Location of coupons Zinc loss after Rate of zinc

30 months loss
2 2
(g/m ) (g/m /year)
Cold loft space adjacent to heated room 0.53 0.21
Suspended in cavity wall

! high level 0.30 0.12
! low level 0.48 0.19
Below suspended ground floor 1.25 0.50
All data for chromated zinc specimens.

The research project has not been running for sufficient time to conclude
whether the rate of zinc loss decreases with time but, at present, the equivalent
annual loss, based on a linear rate, shows that the results are consistent with the
data collected in Case Study 1 for a warm internal environment. The rate of
zinc loss below the ground floor is much less than in Case Study 2.
3.6 Case 5: Japanese housing study

[15]
The Nippon Steel Corporation has studied the durability of steel framed
housing, including the connections between the components and other
materials. Atmospheric pollution and humidity levels are high in certain parts
of Japan. It might be expected that the rates of corrosion would exceed those
in non-coastal areas of Europe.
Inside the test buildings, rates of zinc loss on the galvanized steel specimens
2
were 0.3-0.5 g/m /year. This represents a rate of about one-twentieth of the rate
of zinc loss of externally exposed specimens, where measurements of
2
5-15 g/m /year were recorded for the same building locations. The Japanese
study concluded that galvanized steel has excellent durability in an internal
environment, despite the often higher humidity and SO2 levels that are present
in the external environment.
Accelerated weathering tests were carried out on steel-steel and steel-timber

connections. These tests showed no deterioration in the corrosion resistance
of the fixings relative to that of the connecting strip steel.
3.7 Case 6: Monitoring studies of zinc loss and

external environments in Europe
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe commissioned a study
for the International Co-operative Programme on Effects on Materials, including
Historic and Cultural Monuments. In this study, the loss of zinc coating on
26
specimens that were fully exposed to weather was measured together with the
amount of atmospheric pollution at each exposure site.
The report of the study showed that in most of the European sites tested (see
Table 3.5), zinc coatings suffered a corrosion rate in terms of thickness of
between 1.0 and 1.5 µm per year. Some more polluted sites had a corrosion
rate of 2.0 µm per year. At the higher rate, i.e. very severe exposure conditions,
a standard G600 coating would be required in order to achieve a long design
life in external environments.
Table 3.5 Average performance of zinc coatings (Europe 1989-1993)

[9]
on materials exposed to external environments
Loss in zinc coating thickness
Country
2
(g/m /year) (µm/year)
Germany 8.6 1.2
England 8.3 1.2
Finland 7 1.0
The Netherlands 9.9 1.3
Norway 10.6 1.4
Russia 7.5 1.1
Spain 6 0.8
Czechoslovakia/Slovakia 8.7 1.2
Sweden 5.2 0.7
Average across Europe 7.9 1.1
Samples of steel and zinc were also exposed for two periods of 12 months at 32
test sites throughout Europe. The tests showed a linear relationship between the
[9]
life of the zinc coating and the level of airborne SO2 measured at each site .
3.8 Conclusions from case studies – design life of

galvanized light steel frame sections
3.8.1 Warm frame applications
The monitoring studies have shown that the environmental conditions present
in warm frame construction are such that moisture levels are very low and that
the galvanized steel components are not subject to a risk of significant corrosion
within the expected life of well maintained modern buildings.
The rates of zinc loss on chromated galvanized steel coupons are very low and,
taking into account statistical accuracy, it has been observed that the rate of
zinc loss reduces with time in dry environments. This is because of the zinc
oxide layer that forms on the surface and protects the zinc beneath. However,
it was observed that a linear rate of zinc loss with time is more appropriate for
non-chromated zinc and for conditions with a potentially greater time of
wetness. Chromated zinc is the coating normally used for the production of
cold formed steel sections.
27
The following approach may be used to evaluate the design life of components
that are concealed and cannot be inspected or repaired easily (Category A in
Section 2.5):
C Assume a linear rate of zinc loss with time (which is a more conservative
extrapolation of the data given by Equation 2).
C Assume that a loss of 50% of the total zinc coating may lead to some
rusting of the surface (see design life definition in Section 2.5).
C Because the measurements are taken only from the average of
three specimens, assume that the 95% probability level is double the
average rate of loss. (This is justified by reference to Figure 3.1.)
In principle, the use of the 95% probability level means that the design life
corresponds to the characteristic value, i.e. only 5% of the structure may suffer
a more severe rate of zinc loss.
Therefore, the design life (in years) may be estimated from:

Weight of zinc coating

Design life = 0.25 × (3)
Average rate of zinc loss/year
2
The weight of zinc coating is expressed as the total weight (i.e. 275 g/m for
G275 specification); the rate of zinc loss is the weight loss summed over both
faces. From the data in Case Studies 1, 2 and 4, the average rate of zinc loss of
2
the frame components does not exceed 0.3 g/m /year. For G275 galvanizing,
it follows that the design life is at least 230 years.
In comparison, Equation 2 would lead to a design life (calculated for 50% loss
of zinc) given by:
0.64
137 = 1.0 (time)
or time = 2150 years.
This is almost 10 times longer than the linear estimate in Equation 3, because
in Equation 2 the long-term rate of zinc loss is assumed to reduce in warm
frame applications.
3.8.2 Roof space of houses

The roof space of houses may represent a more severe environment than a
warm frame application, however from the data in Case Studies 1 and 2, the
rate of zinc loss was not significantly higher. In the Oxford Brookes building,
the roof space was insulated and the rate of zinc loss was very low. The data
in Case Study 1 also include uninsulated lofts and the average rate of zinc loss
2
was approximately 0.3 g/m /year.
Equation 3 predicts a design life of over 200 years but, given the potentially
more variable conditions in lofts, it is considered that the design life of
galvanized steel in these applications should be taken as:
C 100 years for insulated lofts
C 60 years for uninsulated lofts.
28
These predictions assume that the integrity of the roof is not impaired and that
leaks are prevented.
3.8.3 Suspended ground floors

Suspended ground floors can incorporate light steel sections or decking. They
are not exposed directly to moisture but may be subject to periodic
condensation from humid air flow; however the risk of condensation is much
reduced if the floor is insulated from below.
Case Studies 1, 2 and 4 provided data on the performance of uninsulated

composite ground floors using light gauge decking. In Case Study 1, the rate of
2
zinc loss was 1.22 g/m /year after five years, and in Case Study 4, the rate was
2
0.5 g/m /year. Equation 3 predicts a design life of 50-100 years in these
conditions. However, the exposure severity can be reduced by using an
external insulation layer beneath the floor, leading potentially to a design life
of over 100 years. This type of floor is being further developed.
Any extrapolation from these data assumes that leaks from outside or inside the
building envelope are prevented, that steel is not in direct contact with soil and
is properly protected from other potential sources of moisture. Further data are
being collected on all types of suspended ground floors.
3.8.4 Over-cladding applications

The light steel subframes to over-cladding systems are subject to variable
conditions, depending on the exposure and type of cladding that is used. The
2
Edinburgh University tests showed a rate of zinc loss of 0.38 g/m /year, which
is relatively low for these exposure conditions. For these data, Equation 3
would lead to a design life of 180 years.
It is difficult to estimate the exposure conditions for all types of over-cladding

system. With good detailing to avoid ingress of wind-driven rain, and to allow
for some air movement in the cavity, a design life of at least 60 years may be
expected for the subframe members, i.e. the rate of zinc loss would be less than
2
1.1 g/m /year. The more exposed members at the joints in the cladding should
be additionally protected where they are subject to prolonged moisture.
3.8.5 Purlins and other roof members

Members or components that are fully exposed and can be inspected and
repaired may be assessed differently. In this case, an 80% loss of zinc is taken
to represent the design life (see Category B in Section 2.5). Therefore
Equation 3 is modified to give:
Weight of zinc coating

Design life = 0.4 × (4)
Average rate of zinc loss/year
For a building that is not heated continuously and is subject to some

condensation, the rate of zinc loss is likely to be in the range of 1.0 to
2
1.5 g/m /year. This leads to a design life of over 60 years.
29
For a building that houses industrial processes, the rate of zinc loss may be
higher. Similarly, for swimming pools and other high humidity applications, a
greater thickness of zinc coating (typically G600), or a combination with a
painted coating, is required.
Other design guidance on the use of galvanized steel in exposed or external

[7]
environments is given in BS EN 14713 .
30
4 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
LONG DESIGN LIFE
The following recommendations are given to ensure a long design life in the use
of light steel framing in housing. General detailing requirements are presented
in the SCI publication Building design using cold formed steel sections:
[3]
Construction detailing and practice , to which the reader should refer.
4.1 General detailing

C Provide a warm frame construction by placing the majority of the insulation
on the external face of the frame or roof.

C It is generally not necessary to provide an additional vapour barrier on the
warm side of the stud wall, as the inner layer of the plasterboard is
generally suitable for this purpose.

C Provide drain holes in the bottom track to prevent any collection of water.
C Particular attention must be paid to:
! detailing at window and door openings
! detailing at floor and ceiling levels
! avoiding penetrations or gaps in the insulation.
C The Building Regulations require forced ventilation to control humidity in
kitchens and bathrooms, which reduces the risk of condensation in these
areas.
4.2 Measures to control water penetration

C The external brickwork should be of good quality, to minimise water
penetration into the cavity.
C Provide a nominal 50 mm cavity, to minimise potential bridging of the
cavity by mortar droppings and to allow for ventilation. Taking into
account construction tolerances, this cavity may reduce to a minimum of
40 mm in practice.
C Provide a water resistant barrier on the exterior of the wall studs. Closed
cell insulation boards provide this function. It is not necessary to seal the
joints in the insulation in most exposure conditions.
C Ensure that the roofing material prevents water leakage and that the roof is
properly maintained.
4.3 Control of condensation

In light steel frame construction, a warm frame is achieved by positioning the
insulation on the external face of the studs. Additional insulation may be
located between the studs, but care must be taken to ensure that the calculated
position of the dew point lies outside the zone of the studs. It is possible to
31
calculate when the amount of additional insulation will cause ghosting of the
plasterboard and the additional insulation should be kept below this level.
Calculations are carried out in accordance with Appendix D of BS 5250. A

simple rule is that at least two-thirds of the insulation should be placed
externally to the frame (i.e. to preserve the warm frame).
In cases of potentially high humidity, a vapour control layer may be used

between the plasterboard and the light steel framing. Use of a foil-backed
plasterboard or a separate polythene layer provides the same action.
4.4 Thermal insulation

A high level of thermal insulation can be provided by placing additional layers

of insulation on the external face of the light steel frame. The minimum level
of thermal insulation required by the Building Regulations can be achieved by
a single 35 mm layer of closed cell insulation (to give a U value of less than
2
0.35 W/m EC). The Oxford Brookes Demonstration Building used two layers
of closed cell insulation, and the monitoring study showed that the heat loss
2
was consistent with a U value of 0.2 W/m EC. Also, 200 mm thick insulation
layers were placed on the light steel roof components to achieve a similar U
value.
A significant source of heat loss can be by air leakage through the building
fabric. This can be kept to a minimum in light steel framing, because the closed
cell insulation is largely impermeable, unlike blockwork construction.
Nevertheless, as insulation levels increase, more care has to be taken to avoid
heat loss due to air leakage. A continuous vapour control layer reduces air
leakage.
4.5 Flooring
Joists in internal floors, or over enclosed basements, or not directly connected
to exterior brickwork, are protected from aggressive environments. For joists
that attach directly to concrete or an exterior wall, provide a damp proof course
below the joists, and some other suitable protection where the joists are in
contact with the wall (see below).
Floor joists or decking in suspended ground floors are more likely to be exposed
to humidity for longer times. However, the data on zinc loss suggest that only
the local areas directly exposed to continuous moisture, such as at the supports,
require a greater level of protection. At the supports, an additional bituminous
coating and a damp proof course should be used to provide suitable protection.
4.6 Good construction practice

The various conditions where galvanized steel sections are used in new
construction and in renovation and special measures to ensure good
performance in these applications are summarised in Table 4.1.
32
Table 4.1 Good construction practice to ensure durability in new and
existing construction
Applications Environmental conditions Special measures
External walls Warm: properly insulated and No special measures required
ventilated
Cold: uninsulated, some risk of Provide proper ventilation and reduce
condensation exposure. Over-cladding to an
existing wall improves the insulation
and life of the existing wall
Suspended Cold: moisture from the ground Provide good ventilation and avoid
ground floors and from the atmosphere contact with ground. Use damp proof
course at supports. See notes 1 and 2
for further protection
Roofs Warm: properly insulated and No special precautions needed
ventilated
Cold: uninsulated, some risk of Provide proper ventilation. Over-
condensation roofing improves the life of an existing
flat roof
Steel lintels Wet: potential water ingress Use thicker grade of zinc coating. See
from cracks in brickwork notes 1 and 2 for further protection.
Also see BS 5977-2:1983
Dry: no water ingress, properly No special measures required
drained
Over-cladding Drained and back-ventilated Generally, no special precautions for
Pressure equalisation weathertightness
Over-roofing Cold environment, some risk of Generally, good ventilation is
condensation provided. Detail carefully at eaves
level to prevent water ingress
In-fill walls for Warm: properly insulated and No special precautions needed
multi-storey ventilated
buildings
Contact with Contact with other metals See notes 3 and 4 below
other materials Contact with plaster etc
General notes:
1. Where further protection is required, the surface may be painted or powder-coated. If aesthetic effects
are unimportant, a well proven form of protection is to use a brush coat of bituminous paint.
2. Advice on painting galvanized steel is given in Appendix A.
3. Bimetallic corrosion of dissimilar metals should be avoided by using inert separators, especially
between the fixings and cladding.
4. Zinc can be affected by contact with various building materials in damp conditions, for instance fresh
concrete (highly alkaline), mortars, certain natural woods (oak and WRC are acidic), timber treatments
(CCA is well-known but also phosphate fire retardants), and some insulation materials (which may
contain inorganic salts, organic acids, or may just act as a source of moisture).
If the galvanized steel projects outside the envelope, such as in canopies,

balconies or external supports, an additional coating or thicker galvanizing layer
is required for maximum durability (see Appendices).
4.7 Measures to control damage on site

Reasonable precautions to protect steel during both transport and storage can
prevent the risk of white rust. Storage should be indoors or under cover and
preferably in a clean, dry area. Guidance on the interpretation and assessment
of white rust deposits and other forms of discolouration, based on the
[16]
information in White rust in galvanised steel , is given in Table 4.2.
33
[16]
Table 4.2 Surface discolouration of galvanized steel, and remedies
Type of rust Causes and conditions Remedial action
Light Visible effect: thin white powdery deposits None required. The protective properties
white rust of zinc are not impaired by the presence
Caused by moisture trapped between of superficial white rust. Existing white
sheets or components during transport or rust deposits will slowly convert to a
storage, or by condensation protective layer of zinc carbonate if not
removed by running water or brushing
Heavy Visible effect: thick, crusty deposit Remove small area of white rust by
white rust brushing (not a wire brush). Check
Caused by prolonged storage in damp residual zinc coating thickness with
conditions or inadequate protection magnetic gauge. If within specification, or
during transport, allowing considerable if the sheet or component is to be used in
water ingress between stacked sheets or reasonably dry conditions, no action is
components. In buildings, this can also required. However, if the component is to
occur where normal cycles of wetting and be exposed to conditions where moisture
drying occur before completion of the can be retained, the deposits must be
building envelope removed. If below specification, clean the
area and treat with an inorganic zinc-rich
paint to a minimum dry film thickness of
25 µm or a bituminous paint
Red rust Visible effect: thick red deposits In general, sheets or components showing
serious rusting should not be used. Expert
Caused by corrosion of steel substrate advice should be sought on suitable
where zinc coating has broken down coatings where rust is evident (see
completely. Should not be confused with Appendix A)
superficial rust staining caused, for
example, by small amounts of drilling
swarf on the zinc surface or by wash from
adjacent mild steel fixings
Black staining Caused usually by a very early stage of Check zinc coating thickness using
superficial zinc corrosion preceding white magnetic thickness gauge. If within
rust formation. Exceptionally, the cause specification, no action required. If below
may be exposure of iron/zinc alloy layer specification, treat as for heavy white rust
due to corrosion of the zinc top surface
General notes to avoid damage or white rust during construction:

1. Always stack the packs on metal or wooden skids to keep them from direct contact with the ground.
2. Where possible, do not leave uncovered sections or sheet stacks lying in the open. Store them under
cover and away from open doorways.
If it is necessary to store material out of doors, the following simple precautions are essential:
3. If sheets or sections cannot be kept under cover, erect a simple scaffolding around them and cover it
with a waterproof sheet, tarpaulin or polythene. Leave space between the cover and the stacks or coils
to allow air to circulate.
4. Store off the ground and on a slope so that any rain penetrating the cover will drain away.
5. Inspect the storage site regularly to ensure that, despite these precautions, the steel has not become
wet.
6. Alternatively, use a steel stillage to stack the elements vertically rather than horizontally.
Careful storage and protection of materials on site also reduces the risk of
damage and avoids any corrosion of exposed elements. A purpose-made steel
racking system can be used to store the wall frames prior to their installation.
Alternatively, the wall frames may be lifted directly from the lorry into position,
which reduces the risk of damage.
Similarly, plasterboard, insulation boards, and flooring materials should be

properly protected on site, as they may be a source of latent moisture and may
be damaged by wetting.
34
5 CONCLUSIONS
Galvanized steel components are used in a wide range of building applications.
In housing and residential buildings, galvanized sections with a G275 coating
are used to create the primary framework, which is contained within the
building envelope, in so-called warm-frame construction.
The following conclusions on the durability of cold formed galvanized steel

sections were established by three programmes of research:
C monitoring the environments within buildings
C measurements of remaining zinc thickness on galvanized steel sections in
various environments after up to 30 years of use
C measurement of zinc loss on coated coupons stored in various locations in
the building envelope.
1. Control of moisture is effectively achieved in well ventilated areas within

a warm frame. In such circumstances, the zinc coating will protect the
steel adequately and will achieve a design life of at least 200 years,
provided that the building envelope is properly maintained.
2. The measurements taken also indicate that the design life of light steel
components and purlins in roofs is over 60 years, and that galvanized steel
subframes used in over-cladding applications can achieve a design life of
60 years, when properly detailed to avoid water ingress.
3. In suspended composite ground floors, the rate of zinc loss is consistent

with a design life of 50 to 100 years, provided that the steel elements are
not in contact with soil or moisture from the ground. These conclusions
are based on limited data, and further monitoring of these semi-exposed
applications is in progress. External insulation beneath the floor decking

will improve the design life and is recommended for these applications.
4. When galvanized steel sections are used, the following precautions are
necessary to ensure adequate durability:
C Maintain the building envelope so that the conditions inside the building
do not deteriorate.
C Prevent prolonged contact with moisture due to condensation or possible
water ingress.
C Ensure that the galvanized steel is not directly in contact with aggressive or
moist materials, e.g. in external walls or at foundations.
C Ensure that water will not become entrapped in the building envelope:
water must be able to escape or must be kept out.
5. Zinc and zinc alloy hot dip galvanized coatings are an economical method
of providing the long-term corrosion protection of steel framing members.
The galvanizing process produces a tough metallic coating that can
withstand the physical demands created during distribution, site storage
and erection of the light steel framing members.
35
REFERENCES
1. HARRISON, H.W.
Steel framed and steel clad houses: Inspection and assessment
Building Research Establishment, 1987
2. TREBILCOCK, P.J.
Building design using cold formed steel sections: An architects’ guide
The Steel Construction Institute, SCI P130, 1994
3. GRUBB, P.J. and LAWSON, R.M.

Building design using cold formed steel sections: Construction
detailing and practice

4. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION

BS EN 10147:1992
Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated structural steel
strip and sheet: Technical delivery conditions

BS 2989:1992
Superseded by BS EN 10143:1993
Continuously hot dip coated steel sheet and strip: Tolerances on
dimensions and shape

BS 729:1971 (1994)
Specification for hot dip galvanized coatings on iron and steel articles
Superseded by BS EN ISO 1461:1999: Hot dip galvanized coatings
on fabricated iron and steel articles ! Specifications and test methods

BS EN ISO 14713:1999
Protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures ! Zinc and
aluminium coatings ! Guideline

BS EN 10142:1991
Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated low carbon steel
sheet and strip for cold forming: Technical delivery conditions
9. SMITH, W.
How galvanizing works: Longer lasting protection
Hot Dip Galvanizing International Magazine, Vol. 6, No. 1,
pp. 10-12, March 1996
10. JOHN, V.
Durability of galvanized steel building components in domestic
housing ! Fourth Progress Report
36
Technical Note No. WL/SMP/R/1106E/10/91/D
British Steel Welsh Technology Centre, Dec. 1991

BS 1243:1978 Amendment 3651, 1981
Specification for metal ties for cavity wall construction
12. BRE Digest 401

Replacing wall ties
Building Research Establishment, January 1995

BS 5977-2:1983
Specification for prefabricated lintels
14. BAXTER, C.A.

Environmental and performance monitoring of PMF Ltd
steel framing building at Ullenwood ! Five year test results
Technical Note No. WL/CP/TN/1106/4/90/D

British Steel Welsh Technology Centre, June 1990
15. HONDA, K. and NOMURA, H.

Corrosion environment and availability of steel-framed houses
Nippon Steel Technical Report No. 79, January 1999
16. ANDREW, T.O.

White rust in galvanized steel
British Steel Development Centre, Shotton, 1988
17. The Colorcoat Building

British Steel Strip Products (now Corus Colors), 1996

(updates supplied to registered holders)
18. BADDOO, N.R., BURGAN, R. and OGDEN, R.G.

Architects’ guide to stainless steel
37
Bibliography
1. HILLIER, M., LAWSON, R.M. and GORGOLEWSKI, M.

Over-roofing of existing buildings using light steel
2. LAWSON, R.M., PEDRESCHI, R., POPO-OLA, S. and FALKENFLETH, I.

Over-cladding of existing buildings using light steel
3. Durability of cold-formed steel framing members

American Iron and Steel Institute
Washington DC, 1996
4. The engineers and architects guide to hot-dip galvanizing

Galvanizers Association, Sutton Coldfield, 1999
38
RELEVANT STANDARDS
British Standards
BS 729:1995 Quality requirements for welding
BS 1494-1:1964 Specification for fixing accessories for building
purposes: fixings for sheet roof and wall coverings
BS 1706:1990 Method for specifying electroplated coating of zinc
and cadmium on iron and steel (amended 1996)
BS 2989:1992 Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated and
iron-zinc alloy coated steel flat products: tolerances
on dimensions and shape (withdrawn; superseded by
BS EN 10143)
CP 3012:1972 Code of practice for cleaning and preparation of metal

surfaces (withdrawn)
BS 3083:1988 Specification for hot-dip zinc coated and hot-dip
aluminium/zinc coated corrugated steel sheets for
general purposes (replaced BS EN ISO standards)

BS 3382-2:1961 Specification for electroplated coatings on threaded
components: zinc on steel components
BS 4395:1969 Specification for high strength friction grip bolts and
associated nuts and washers for structural engineering
BS 4479-1-9:1990 Design of metal articles that are to be coated
BS 4921:1988 Specification for sheradized coatings on iron or steel
BS 417 Specification for galvanized low carbon steel cisterns,
cistern lids, tanks and cylinders
BS 5411-8:1991 Methods of test for metallic and related coatings.
Measurements of coating thickness of metallic
coatings: x-ray spectrometric methods
BS 5427-1:1996 Code of practice for the use of profiled sheet for roof
and wall cladding on buildings. Design
BS 5466:1995 Methods for corrosion testing of metallic coatings
(now replaced by a series of BS EN ISO standards)
BS 5750:1987 Quality systems (withdrawn)
BS 5950-5:1998 Structural use of steelwork in building: code of
practice for design of cold formed sections
BS 6100:1992 Glossary of building and civil engineering terms
BS 6150:1991 Code of practice for painting of buildings
BS 6338:1982 Specification for chromate conversion coatings on
electroplated zinc and cadmium coatings
BS 6497:1984 Specification for powder organic coatings ... (on
galvanized steel)
BS 6781:1986 Specification for continuously organic coated steel flat
products (withdrawn)
BS 6830:1987 Specification for continuously hot-dip aluminium/
zinc alloy coated cold rolled carbon steel flat
products (withdrawn; superseded by BS EN 10215)
BS 7079:1990 Preparation of steel substrates before application of
paints and related products
BS 7361:1991 Cathodic protection
BS 7543:1992 Guide to durability of buildings and building
elements, products and components
39
BS EN 10215:1995 Continuously hot-dip zinc-aluminium (AZ) coated
steel strip and sheet. Technical delivery conditions
BS EN 10143:1993 Continuously hot-dip metal coated steel sheet and
strip. Tolerances on dimensions and shape
BS EN 22063:1994 Metallic and other inorganic coatings. Thermal
spraying. Zinc, aluminium and their alloys
PD 6484:1979 Commentary on corrosion at bimetallic contact and
its alleviation
EN 100880-1-3:1995 EC codes on stainless steel
ASTM Standards
A 90 Weight of zinc coating on iron and steel articles
A 123 Hot galvanized coating on fabricated products
A 153 Hot dip galvanized centrifugal components
A 325 High strength carbon steel bolts

A 490 High strength alloy steel bolts
A 525 Hot dip galvanized steel
A 633 Electroplated zinc articles
DIN Standards
DIN 267 Hot dip galvanized fasteners
DIN 509760 Protection by hot dip galvanizing: guiding principles
DIN 50976 Requirements and testing hot dip galvanized coatings on
finished products
DIN 50978 Testing of adhesion of hot dip galvanized coatings
DIN 50933 Measurement of coating thickness using dial indicator
DIN 50981 Measurement of coating thickness: magnetic method
DIN 51213 Testing of zinc coating on wire
DIN 59231 Galvanized corrugated sheet
DIN 50961 Electroplating zinc

DIN EN22063 Zinc spraying
Swedish Standards
SS 3192 Hot dip galvanized threaded components
SS 055900 Blast cleaning steel
SS 3583 Principles and requirements for hot dip galvanizing
ISO Standards
ISO 1459 Protection by hot dip galvanizing: guiding principles
ISO 1460 Determination of hot dip galvanizing coating mass: gravimetric
methods
ISO 1461 Requirements of hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated
components
ISO 1463 Measurement of coating thickness: microscopic method
ISO 2063 Metal spraying by zinc and aluminium
ISO 2064 Definition and convention concerning coating thickness
methods
ISO 2081 Electroplated zinc coatings
ISO 2178 Measurement of coating thickness: magnetic method
ISO 3575 Continuous hot dip galvanized sheet
ISO 14713 A guide to the corrosion performance of hot dip galvanized
steel (issued by BSI as BS EN ISO 14713)
40
APPENDIX A Guidance notes for specifiers
painting galvanized steelwork
The following guidance notes concern the painting of galvanized steel

components for visual or external applications.
A.1 Introduction
Galvanized (zinc) coatings are an excellent form of protection for steel but
specifiers often use paint to improve the appearance. Furthermore, paint
coatings should protect the galvanized steel for extended periods with little or
no maintenance. At the works, proper procedures are normally in place to

ensure good quality, but site painting practices may be of a lower standard. The
preparation or initial priming stages are particularly important, and problems
can almost always be traced back to an inadequacy in one of these steps.
Galvanized steel may have received a chemical wash designed to inhibit the
development of white zinc salts in damp conditions. This is not the same as a
conversion coating, which is the product of a carefully formulated process in
which the metal surface is chemically modified by reaction with, for example,
chromates or phosphates. Conversion coatings are an excellent first step at
works but should not be specified for site painting unless the process can be
controlled very tightly.
Works painting may have good quality control but damage may occur in
transport and erection or installation. Specifiers should provide strict limits for
the permissible degree of damage because site repairs often fail to match the
quality of the original.
A.2 Preparation of surface

Hot-dip galvanized steel surfaces may have particles of dirt, grease and fluxing
materials on them after delivering to site, and are likely to develop soluble zinc
salts on the surface after storage or weathering. All these deposits are highly
damaging to the adhesion of the subsequent paint films. Degreasing with swabs
and white spirit is a widespread site practice but, as often as not, merely
redistributes contaminants rather than removing them. A proper cleansing
regime should be specified, using neutral detergent and abrasive pads, followed
by copious washing (preferably powered).
Exposing zinc to the weather assists paint adhesion as it tends to etch the
surface, however performance can be erratic and the weathered zinc must be
cleaned rigorously.
Used correctly as indicators for showing whether the surface has been cleaned,
mordant solutions of the T-wash type can be extremely useful, but it should not
be assumed that their use guarantees long-term paint adhesion and eliminates
the need for any other form of preparation. Furthermore, weld zones may show
rusting in an otherwise well-protected structure. Site-welded areas must be
41
made good prior to further painting, preferably on the same day and using an
approved method of repair, such as application of a high quality two-pack
zinc-rich paint after the heat affected zone has been dressed. If welding is an
issue, it is useful to request that the contractor provides a finished example of
the selected method of repair for approval prior to commencement of work.
A.3 Priming
Even when properly cleaned, raw zinc surfaces are not fully compatible with
many priming paints. Although two-pack acid-etch primers give consistently
reliable results when properly applied, they do have certain operational
problems and are not recommended if operatives are unfamiliar with their use.
It is bad practice to leave the primer exposed to the weather for extended
periods and a compatible intermediate coat should be applied at an early stage.
Acrylic primers may be a better choice for site work; they generally give good
performance and are a lot easier to use than the above materials.
Many manufacturers have their own in-house primer formulated specifically for
zinc surfaces, but quality can vary, and specifiers considering their use should
demand clear proof of performance.
A.4 Subsequent painting

Whatever the finishing system, it is imperative that it is compatible with the
selected primer. The paint industry offers enormous choice to the specifiers and
discussion with the coating supplier is always valuable. There may be
particular reasons for specifying specialist products, but for many purposes the
simpler the system the better. An applied sample of the proposed paint scheme
on a galvanized panel, showing stripes of each coat, is a good reference point

in cases of dispute.
42
APPENDIX B Guidance notes on sheet steel
coatings
This Appendix provides an overview of the different types of sheet steel and
their coatings. It is not definitive and is for general information only. Refer to
[17]
the Corus publication The Colorcoat Building for more guidance on coated
sheeting.
B.1 Weathering steel (Corten steels)

Character: Corrosion resistant high tensile steels (Corten) are alloys formulated
with small quantities of copper and other elements to form a tight, adherent rust
layer that can be self-stifling with regard to further corrosion. They are
sometimes called low-alloy or weathering steels. A typical formulation might
include 0.5% copper, 04.% nickel, 0.7% chromium.
Usage: In the UK, Corten steel has mainly been used for specialist applications
such as chimneys, containers and footbridges. In continental Europe, Corten
steel has been used as sheet steel cladding. Corten is not generally used in
coastal conditions, and produces a more uniform patina in areas of low
humidity. In marine conditions, intensive rusting occurs and the rate of
substrate consumption may be high.
B.2 Stainless steel

B.2.1 Stainless steels – natural finishes
Character: There are many grades of stainless steel, all characterised by

significant chromium content. On exposure to air or water, a thin, stable,
chromium-rich oxide film forms on the surface of these metals. This film
provides a high degree of protection and, if damaged by abrasion, reforms
rapidly.
Austenitic stainless steels are based on 17-18% chromium and 8-11% nickel
additions and are the most widely used grades of stainless steel. Grades 1.4401
(316) or 1.4301 (304) are frequently used for structural and architectural
applications.
Usage: Because of perceived price differentials, stainless steels have tended to

be used more on prestigious projects or for structures in corrosive environments.
However, despite the material cost being higher than some alternative
materials, the whole life cost of a stainless steel component may not be
significantly higher.
Stainless steels have a good record of performance in many different

environments. Grade 1.4401 (316) has better pitting corrosion resistance than
grade 1.4301 (304), due to the addition of the alloying element molybdenum.
It is therefore the most appropriate grade to use for marine, industrial or
polluted urban environments.
43
B.2.2 Stainless steels – coloured finishes
Character: The inert chromium-rich oxide layer on the surface of stainless steel
can be modified by an electrochemical process to give a range of metallic
colours. Their appearance will depend on the surface condition of the original
material but colours include bronze, gold, red, purple and green.
Usage: Available in the UK for at least two decades, the use of coloured
stainless steel has only increased in the last 3-4 years.
Electrolytically coloured stainless steels have corrosion resistance that is at least

as good as the parent material. Sheets can be cut, bent and formed, and the
colours are not susceptible to UV colour fade. The coloured layer is very thin,
around 0.02-0.36 microns, so resistance to wear and abrasion is modest.
For general guidance on the use of stainless steel, refer to the SCI Publication
[18]
Architects’ Guide to Stainless Steel .
B.3 Metallic coatings

B.3.1 Zinc and zinc/iron alloy
Character: Unlike the hot dip batch process, continuous zinc coating of steel
coil can be carefully controlled to produce a range of coating weights. In the
2
UK, the working standard is 275 g/m (i.e. a surface thickness ca. 20 microns).
Usage: Galvanized steel is widely used in light framing systems and in

secondary members and decking. It is also used in applications such as purlins
and side rails (see Section 2).
Zinc offers a reactive metal surface and forms a variety of salts when exposed
to moisture. Oxides and carbonates are insoluble but chloride and sulphate
ions tend to be water soluble. Also zinc is anodic to steel and corrodes
preferentially, thereby protecting the steel by galvanic action.
In internal applications, the performance of galvanized steel is good and a long

design life can be achieved. In external applications, zinc rarely weathers
evenly, which can lead to patchy grey surfaces with high levels of dirt retention.
If overpainting is required, suitable surface preparation is critical (see

Appendix A).
B.3.2 Zinc!
!aluminium alloys
Character: The standard alloy is the original Bethlehem Steel formulation
55% aluminium – 45% zinc. An alternative low aluminium product using 5%
aluminium – 95% zinc is also used (e.g. Galfan).
Usage: Zinc!aluminium has similar durability to pure zinc coatings,

depending on the environment. Like many zinc alloys, the high aluminium
product can be offered in a more attractive initial spangle than pure zinc. In
Australia, zinc-aluminium coatings are used in roofing and cladding.
44
B.3.3 Terne ! lead-based
Character: The term terne-coating is historically associated with lead-coated
steels. The lead has of course been a lead–tin alloy for years. An 80% lead –
20% tin composition is standard.
Significant developments have occurred in recent decades. Coating finishes are

much thinner (ca. 20 microns) and stainless steels appear to have replaced
carbon steel as the basic substrate.
Usage: Terne is generally used as a roofing material to match the historic

appearance of lead sheet. Although they should become uniformly dull in time,
lead coatings weather unevenly and often remain patchy for some years. Bad
detailing can aggravate this unevenness.
B.3.4 Terne ! lead-free
Character: A lead-free alternative to standard terne using a tin-based coating

is available.
B.3.5 Vitreous enamels

Character: Glass-like finishes are applied as powders (frits) both dry and as
slurries and are fused to form coherent coatings at high temperatures. A dark
base coat is often applied as a substrate for the finish.
Usage: Exterior cladding, and pedestrian underpasses where ease of cleaning

and resistance to graffiti are important functions. Vitreous enamel coatings have
outstanding durability with excellent colour stability. They are usually
associated with high gloss but lower gloss finishes are also available. They can
be vulnerable to impact damage.
B.4 Organic coatings

B.4.1 General
Organic coatings are applied to the strip steel and are very versatile in
application. There are many formulations in use, so it is not possible to discuss
them all in detail. BS 6781:1986 (withdrawn) gives a list of the more common
coatings available. The market is dominated by manufacturers offering one or
more of the following coating types: heavy duty PVC, fluorocarbons, polyesters.
The coatings are applied to the galvanized steel strip by first applying a pre-
finishing treatment.
Different coatings may be provided as standard on the external and inner

surfaces of the sheeting. The inner surface of the sheeting may well have a
thinner finish as it is not exposed to the external conditions.
B.4.2 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Character: Colorcoat HP200, manufactured by Corus, is the most well known
organic coated sheet steel product in the UK. It has a thick textured PVC film
(> 200 µm) in order to be resistant to wear and damage (including foot traffic
in roofing applications). The strip steel is primed before coating.
45
Colorcoat HP200 is available in a wide range of colours. HP200C has a coating
on the inner face that is suitable for more severe internal environments.
The new Colorcoat Celestia range is based on metallic finished organic

coatings.
Usage: Roof and wall cladding; composite panels for walls. PVC coatings are
used in a range of applications and are available in many colours (see Celestia
range).
Guidance on Colorcoat products is presented in the Corus publication The

[18]
Colorcoat Building . Corus guarantees the performance of its products in the
UK according to a Period to Repaint Decision, depending on the application
and environment. Some colours are less resistant to ultra-violet light (i.e. strong
sun) than others.
B.4.3 Fluorocarbon coatings

Character: Wet-applied fluorocarbons are usually referred to as PVF2 or PVDF

coatings. Blending is necessary to obtain proper coating character and PVF2/
acrylic blends are the norm. For good weathering performance, 70% PVF2 is
the usual formulation standard for exterior quality.
Usage: PVF2 is widely used as a decorative finish because of its good colour
retention, but is not well suited to roofing because of its vulnerability to damage
by foot traffic.
B.4.4 Polyesters
Character: Polyesters are often used in the form of powder coating for discrete
items for post-fabrication finishing. Pre-finished steels generally use wet-
applied unmodified or silicone modified polyesters.
Usage: Polyesters are tough and durable (the unmodified types are known to be
more vulnerable to chalking but are better for forming purposes). The finish
comes in various degrees of gloss with good colour retention, although there
can be a degree of dirt retention with the silicone modified versions. Remedial
coatings for clad surfaces are often of this type.
B.4.5 Miscellaneous coatings

Apart from the materials discussed above, the list in BS 6781 refers to alkyds,
acrylics, epoxies, polyurethanes, silicone modified acrylics, PVC organosols,
PVC copolymers, and various forms of applied laminate film.
Alkyds are used on internal surfaces but should not be used for exterior
exposure. Even stoved versions have limited durability and are subject to
chalking.
Acrylics have not found much favour in the UK, although they are used in Japan
and the USA. They were displaced in the aluminium market by powder
coatings. They have good colour retention and durability but can get dirty.
They have been used as textured coatings on, for instance, steel roofing tiles
such as those from Tileform and Decra.
46
Epoxies are usually found as thin priming coats for PVF2 or as barrier coats.
Finishes are tough and durable but chalk badly when exposed to the weather
in the UK. They perform well internally.
Polyurethanes are good decorative products that have been used successfully.
To take one well-known example, Versacor is based on an epoxy barrier coat
topped with either polyurethane or PVF2.
47
APPENDIX C Contact Information
C.1 Associations
Steel Frame Homes Association
PO Box 20260
London
NW1 5ZP
Tel: 020 7222 4912 Fax: 020 7222 5412
Galvanizers Association
Wren’s Court
56 Victoria Road
Sutton Coldfield
B72 1SY
Tel: 0121 355 8838 Fax: 0121 355 8727
Cold Rolled Section Association

Secretary: Robson, Rhodes Chartered Accountants
Centre City Tower
7 Hill Street
Birmingham
B5 4UU
Tel: 0121 697 6000 Fax: 0121 697 6113
C.2 Principal manufacturers of light steel framing for

residential applications in the UK
A comprehensive list of cold formed section manufacturers can be obtained

from the Cold Rolled Section Association.
Ayrshire Steel Framing

Irvine
KA12 8PH
Tel: 01294 274171 Fax: 01294 211231
The Forge Company (UK) Ltd

105-109 Strand
London
WC2R 0AA
Tel: 020 7836 7887 Fax: 020 7836 6020
British Steel Framing (incorporating Surebuild)

Corus Building Systems
Whitehead Works
Mendalgief Road
Newport
NP19 0XN
Tel: 01633 244000 Fax: 01633 211231
48
Metsec Framing Ltd (incorporating Metframe and Gypframe)
Broadwell Road
Oldbury
Warley
B69 4HE
Tel: 0121 552 1541 Fax: 0121 544 6779
Ward Building Components Limited

Sherburn
Malton
YO17 8PQ
Tel: 01944 710591 Fax: 01944 710555
C.3 Steel strip manufacturer

Corus Colors (formerly British Steel Strip Products)
Technical Advisory Service
Market Development
Commercial Office
PO Box 10
Newport
NP19 0XN
Tel: 01633 464646 Fax: 01633 464080
C.4 Other companies involved with cold formed steel

framing systems for building
British Gypsum Limited
Head Office
East Leake
Loughborough
LE12 6JT
Tel: 0115 945 1000/6123 Fax: 0115 945 6356
Britspace Modular Building Systems Limited

Broad Lane
Gilberdyke
Brough
HU15 2TS
Tel: 01430 440673 Fax: 01430 441958
Knauf Limited
PO Box 133
Sittingbourne
ME10 3HW
Tel: 01795 424499 Fax: 01795 428651
Larfarge Plasterboard Limited

Easton in Gordano
Bristol
BS20 0NF
Tel: 01275 377789 (Tech) Fax: 01275 372018 (Tech)
49
Structural Sections Limited
PO Box 92
Downing Street
Smethwick
Warley
B66 2PA
Tel: 0121 555 5918 Fax: 0121 555 5659
Terrapin Limited
Bond Avenue
Bletchley
Milton Keynes
MK1 1JJ
Tel: 01908 270900 Fax: 01908 270052
Yorkon Limited
New Lane
Huntington
YO3 9PT
Tel: 01904 610990 Fax: 01904 610880
50

262 Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings

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262 Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings

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Steel Construction Institute

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S O POPO-OLA BSc, MEng, PhD, DIC

SCI PUBLICATION P262

The Steel Construction Institute

Tel: 01344 623345

P262: Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings (2000 Edition)

© 2000 The Steel Construction Institute

Publication Number: SCI P262

ISBN 1 85942 111 3

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

FREE postage & packing within the UK

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P262: Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings (2000 Edition)

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P262: Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings (2000 Edition)

located within the building envelope, as is the case of warm frame

Light steel framing combines the benefits of lightness, flexibility in internal

P262: Durability of Light Steel Framing in Residential Buildings (2000 Edition)

Mr J A Robinson Corus Colors

Mr A Stephenson Corus (Welsh Technology Centre)

2 GALVANIZING AS CORROSION PROTECTION FOR STEEL 7

2.1 The hot dip galvanizing process 7

2.4 Factors affecting durability in the building envelope 12

of the PMF steel framed building at Ullenwood 20

4 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LONG DESIGN LIFE 31

This publication presents a summary and analysis of research findings on the

The performance of galvanized (zinc coated) steel components within warm-

Design life of galvanized steel sections in common applications in

Product application Environmental condition Design life / protective

Recommendations are given on the detailing of light steel framing in warm

calculée sur base de la perte d’épaisseur du revêtement en zinc, est supérieure

Application Conditions environnementales Durée de vie / mesures

Das Verhalten von galvanisch verzinkten Stahlbauteilen bei Verwendung

Zeit in Gegenden mit geringem Risiko von Kondensation wird vorgestellt.

Die folgende Tabelle faßt die erwartete Lebensdauer galvanisch verzinkter

Lebensdauer galvanisch verzinkter Stahlquerschnitte in üblichen

Produktanwendung Umgebungsbedingung Lebensdauer /

Empfehlungen für Ausführungsdetails von Kaltprofilen in warmen Tragwerken

Il comportamento di componenti realizzate in acciaio zincato (ossia rivestito di zinco)

misura della perdita di zinco in telai leggeri in acciaio in varie applicazioni e in

La tabella proposta presenta in sintesi la vita di progetto attesa di sezioni zincate in

Vita progettuale di profili in acciaio zincato impiegati in applicazioni comuni di edifici

Applicazione del prodotto Condizioni ambientali Vita di progetto /

(isolate) zincato G275

El funcionamiento de componentes de acero galvanizado (con revestimiento de zinc)

estructuras ligeras de acero en diferentes emplazamientos y tipos estructurales. Se

La tabla siguiente resume la vida de proyecto esperada en perfiles de acero galvanizado

Vida de proyecto de perfiles galvanizados de acero para aplicaciones corrientes en

Tipo de uso Condiciones medioambientales Vida de proyecto/

Se dan recomendaciones sobre los detalles de perfiles de acero conformados en frío en

Livslängden hos varmförzinkade stålkomponenter i en isolerad byggnadsdel där

i olika användningsområden och lägen. I publikationen presenteras en formel

Tabellen nedan sammanfattar förväntad livslängd hos varmförzinkade stålreglar

Livslängd för varmförzinkade stålreglar i olika applikationer i byggnader

Användningsområde Förutsättningar Livslängd/

Tak Låg risk för kondensation 100 år