Introduction to

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

(Limit State Method)

1
Introduction
 Steel has made possible some of the grandest structures both in
the past and in the present days

 Structural steel is widely used in making:

 Transmission towers
 Industrial buildings
 Bridges
 Storage structures
 Water tanks
Anatomy

Beams
Columns
Floors
Bracing
Systems
Foundation
Connections

3
Syllabus
Module 1: Introduction:
Steel as Structural Material; Advantages and disadvantages of
steel; Types of sections , I. S. Rolled Sections; Material
Overview, Basis for Structural Design; Loadings and Load
Combinations

Module 2: Connections:
Types of Connections, Bolted Connections; Advantages and
disadvantages of bolted joints Design of bolted connections;
Efficiency and design of joints; Welded Connections;
Advantages and disadvantages of welded joints, Design of
welded connections; Fillet and butt welds, Plug and slot welds
4
Module 3: Eccentric Connections
Types of eccentric connections, Bolted and weld connections,
load lying in plane of joint, load lying perpendicular to the plane
of joint, Design of eccentric connection using bolts and welds

Module 4: Tension Members

Types of failures, Gross and net sectional area, Rupture of
critical section, Strength calculation; Block shear failure,
Slenderness ratio, Design of tension members; Gusset plates,
Lug angles; tension splices; Design of tension member
subjected to axial and bending

5
Module 5: Compression Members
Types of failures, Strength calculation ; slenderness ratio, Design of
compression member; Design of eccentrically loaded compression
member; Built-up compression members; Design of built-up
compression members; Design of lacing system; Design of batten
plate

Module 6: Flexural Members

Introduction to flexural members: Beams; Design procedure of beam
members; Design of laterally supported beams; Design of laterally
unsupported beams; Built-up beams; Design of purlins

Module 7: Column Base

Slab Base, Gusseted Base

Module 8: Gantry Girders

Codal aspects on design criteria on gantry girder
6
 Text Books/References

Design of Steel Structures

Dr. Subramanian Narayanan - Oxford Publication
Limit State Design of Steel Structures
S. K. Duggal –Tata McGraw Hill

7
 Text Books/References
Design of Steel Structures
by Elias G. Abu-Saba
– CBS Publishers and Distributors
Design of steel structures
by E.H. Gaylord, C.N. Gaylord
& J.E. Stallmeyer – McGraw Hill.
Structural Steel work: Analysis and Design
by S. S. Ray – Blackwell Science

8
Codes
 Code of practice for general construction in
steel  IS: 800 - 2007
 Handbook for structural engineers
 SP: 6(1) – 1964 (Reaffirmed 2003)
 IS 808 : 1989 (Reaffirmed 2004)
 Steel Tables of any standard publication.

 Code of practice for design loads (other than

earthquake) for buildings and structures
 IS 875 : Part I to V : 1987
 IRC for vehicle load etc. in Bridge structures
9
ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
Indian Standard Junior Beam (ISJB) – JB
Indian Standard Light Beam (ISLB) – LB
Indian Standard Medium Weight Beam (ISMB)– MB
Indian Standard Wide Flange Beam (ISWB) – WB
Indian Standard Heavy Weight Beam (ISHB)– HB
Indian Standard column section (ISSC) – SC

10
ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS
I-Section

11
Channel – Sections
Indian Standard Junior Channel (ISJC) – JC
Indian Standard Light Channel (ISLC) – LC
Indian Standard Medium Weight (ISMC) – MC
Indian Standard parallel flange Channel (ISMCP)-MCP

12
 Angle – Sections
Indian Standard Equal Angel (ISA)

Indian Standard Unequal Angel (ISA)

13
Angle section
Tee – Sections
Indian Standard Normal Tee Bars (ISNT) – ISNT – NT
Indian Standard Deep Tee Bars (ISDT) – ISDT – DT
Indian Standard Light Tee Bars (ISLT) –ISLT – LT
Indian Standard Medium Tee Bars (ISNT) –ISMT – MT
Indian Standard Heavy Tee Bars (ISHT) –ISHT – HT

15
Rolled Steel Bar Section
Indian Standard Round Section-ISRO

Indian Standard Square Section-ISSQ

16
Rolled Steel Sections are designated as follows
ISRO100 means a round section of diameter 100mm,
while ISSQ50 means a square section each side of
which is 50mm.

100mm 50mm

17
 Rolled Steel sheets & strip
Indian Standard Steel Sheet Section- ISSH-SH
Indian Standard Steel Strip Section- ISST-ST

Rolled steel flats are designated by width of

the section in mm followed by the letter F &
thickness. Thus, 50 F 8 means a flat of
width 50 mm & thickness of 8 mm.

18
Square hollow section
Hollow section pipe

19
STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL
MATERIAL

1
Advantages of steel design

• Better quality control

• Lighter
• Faster to erect
• Reduced site time - Fast track Construction
• Large column free space and amenable for alteration
• Less material handling at site
• Less percentage of floor area occupied by structural
elements
• Has better ductility and hence superior lateral load
behavior; better earthquake resistance
2
Disadvantages of steel design

• Skilled labor is required.

• Higher cost of construction
• Maintenance cost is high.
• Poor fireproofing, as at 1000oF (538oC) 65% & at
1600oF (871oC) 15% of strength remains
• Electricity may be required.

3
 Chemical composition of steel:
Steel is an alloy which mainly contains iron and carbon. Apart from
the carbon a small percentage of manganese, silicon, phosphorus,
nickel and copper are also added to modify the specific properties of
the steel.
Chemical composition of structural steel (IS 2062-1992 & IS 8500)
Grade C Mn S P Si Carbon
Equivalent
Fe410WA 0.23 1.50 0.050 0.050 0.40 0.42
Fe410WB 0.22 1.50 0.045 0.045 0.40 0.41
Fe410WC 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 0.40 0.39
Fe 440 0.20 1.30 0.05(0.04) 0.05(0.04) 0.45 0.40
Fe 490 0.20 1.50 0.05(0.04) 0.05(0.04) 0.45 0.42
Fe 590 0.22 1.80 0.045(0.04) 0.045(0.04) 0.45 0.48
Notes:
1. Carbon Equivalent = (C+Mn)/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15
2. The terms in the bracket denotes the maximum limit for the flat products. 4
Types of structural steel:
Different structural steel can be produced based on the
necessity by changing slightly the chemical composition and
manufacturing process.

1. Carbon steel: In this type of structural steel carbon and

manganese are used as extra elements.

2. High Strength Carbon Steel: By increasing the carbon

content this type of steel can be manufactured which
basically produces steel with comparatively higher
strength but less ductility.

3. Stainless Steel: In this type of steel mainly foreign

material like nickel and chromium are used along with
small percentage of carbon.
5
 Properties of structural steel
The important mechanical properties of steel are:
ultimate strength, yield stress, ductility,
weldabilty, toughness, corrosion resistance and machinability.

The last four properties are important for durability of material

and often associated with fabrication of steel members.
The mechanical properties of steel largely depend on its
 Chemical composition
 Heat treatment
 Stress history
 Rolling methods
 Rolling thickness

6
Structural Steel
The steel used for structural works shall confirm to IS 2062 :
2011 (Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel).
Most Commonly used grade is Fe 410.
Followings are few physical properties of structural steel (As
per clause 2.2.4.1 of IS 800 : 2007):
 Unit mass of steel, ρ = 7850 kg/m3
 Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0 × 105 N/mm2
 Poisson’s ratio, µ = 0.3
 Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
 Co-efficient of thermal expansion, α= 12 × 10-6 /oc
Mechanical properties:
Following are the most important mechanical properties that are
frequently used in design of steel structures.
Yield stress, fy
Ultimate stress, fu
Minimum percentage elongation
These properties can be obtained by performing tensile tests of the steel
sample.

Mechanical properties of structural steel products (Table 1 of IS 800 : 2007)

Grade of Yield Stress (MPa) Ultimate Tensile Elongation

Steel t<20 t = 20 to 40 t>40 Stress (MPa) Percentage
Fe 410 250 240 230 410 23
Fe 440 300 290 280 440 22
Fe 490 350 330 320 490 22
Fe 540 410 390 380 540 20
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Some other important mechanical properties of steel

(i) Ductility: It is defined as

the property of a material by
virtue of which it undergoes
large inelastic i.e. permanent
deformation without loss of
strength under the
application of tensile load.

(ii) Hardness: It is one of the mechanical properties of steel

by virtue of which it offers resistance to the indentation and
scratching. The hardness of steel is measured by
 Brinell hardness test
 Vickers hardness test
 Rockwell hardness test
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(iii) Toughness: It is one of the mechanical
properties of steel by virtue of which it offers
resistance to fracture under the action of
impact loading.
Toughness = The ability to absorb energy up
to fracture.
 Toughness is generally measured by the area
under the stress-strain curve.

(iv) Fatigue: It is defined as the damage caused by the repeated

fluctuation of stresses which leads to the progressive cracking of the
structural element.
Damage and failure of the material under the action of cyclic
loading.
(v) Resistance against corrosion:
In the presence of moist air corrosion of steel is an extremely important
aspect.
To avoid corrosion paint or metallic coating may be used
10
 Few important terms associated with structural steel:
(a) Residual Stress:
Residual stresses are defined as the stresses which are locked into a
component or assembly of parts. At the time of rolling of steel
sections, fabrication of steel members, they are subjected to very
high temperature and after that they are allowed to cool which is
basically an uneven process. Due to this uneven heating and cooling,
residual stress in the structural member is generated.

(b) Stress Concentration:

Stress concentration indicates a highly localized state of stress at a
particular location of a member. Generally, if there exists an abrupt
change in the shape of the member like in the vicinity of notch or
holes, the stress generated at that location is several times greater
than the stress that would generate without that sudden change in
geometry.

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 Stress-strain curve for mild steel
Stress-Strain diagram for steel specimen is generally plotted by
performing tensile test, in which a specimen having gauge length
L0 and initial cross sectional area A0 is taken.
E
fu
Cʹ
F
fy Stress, f B
C D
A

O
Strain, ɛ

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Part OA- In this region the stress is proportional to strain, and is called the
limit of proportionality.
Part AB- After reaching ‘A’, change in strain is rapid compared to that of
stress but still the material behaves elastically up to elastic limit ‘B’.
Cʹ - represents the upper yield point
C - represents the lower yield point.
Part CD- Beyond yield point the material starts flowing plastically without
any significant increase in the stress and material undergoes large
deformation.
Part DE- After reaching point ‘D’, the strain hardening in the material begins
which necessitates requirement of higher load to continue deformation. This
phenomenon is called ‘strain hardening’.
E represents the ultimate stress fu.
Part EF- When the stress reaches point ‘E’ that is the stress corresponding to
the ultimate stress, the necking in material begins.
F - represents breaking stress – the stress corresponding to the breaking load.
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LIMIT STATE DESIGN
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

Safety at ultimate load and serviceability at working load

Working Stress Method:
Safety is ensured by limiting the stress of the material. The material is
assumed to behave in linear elastic manner. In this approach the stress-strain
behaviour is considered to be linear.

Permissible stress < (Yield stress / Factor of safety)

Details at: IS 800 – 1984.

Permissible stress in steel structural members
Types of stress Notation Permissible Factor of
stress (Mpa) safety
Axial tension σat 0.6fy 1.67
Axial compression σac 0.6fy 1.67
Bending tension σbt 0.66fy 1.515
Bending compression σbc 0.66fy 1.515
Average shear stress τva 0.4fy 2.5
Bearing stress σp 0.75fy 1.33
USM: It is also referred to Plastic Design Method. In this case
the limit state is attained when the members reach plastic
moment strength Mp and the structure is attained into a
mechanism. The safety measure of the structure is taken care of
by an appropriate choice of load factor. It is multiplied to the
working load and it is checked w.r.t to the ultimate load
corresponding to the member.
Working Load×Load Factor ≤Ultimate Load

LSM: In limit state design method, the structure is designed in

such a way that it can safely withstand all kind of loads that
may act on the structure under consideration in its entire design
life. In this approach, the science of reliability based design was
developed with the objective of providing a rational solution to
the problem of adequate safety. Uncertainty is reflected in
loading and material strength.
 Limit State of Strength
Factors
Governing
Ultimate
Strength

Stability Fatigue Plastic Collapse

Stability Against
Sway Stability
Overturning
Limit State of Strength:

These are associated with the failure of the structure under the action
of worst possible combination of loads along with proper partial
safety factor that may lead to loss of life and property. As provided
in IS 800: 2007, Limit state of strength includes –
• Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or in part.
• Loss of stability of the structure.
• Failure due to excess deformation or rupture.
• Fracture due to fatigue.
• Brittle fracture.
 Limit State Serviceability

Check for
Serviceability
Limit States

Deflection Vibration Durability Fire

limit limit consideration Resistance
Limit State of Serviceability:

These are associated with the discomfort faced by the user while
using the structure.
• Excess deflection or deformation of the structure.
• Excess vibration of the structure causing discomfort to the
commuters.
• Repairable damage or crack generated due to fatigue.
• Corrosion and durability
 Partial Safety Factor for Load
(Clause 5.3.3, Table 4, IS 800: 2007)
𝑄𝑑 = 𝛾𝑓𝑘 𝑄𝑐𝑘
𝑘
Where, 𝛾𝑓 = the partial safety factor for kth load or load effect, 𝑄𝑐
= Characteristic load or load effect, 𝑄𝑑 = Design load or load
effect.

Note
Characteristic values (loads/stresses) are defined as the values
that are not expected to be exceeded within the life of the
structure with more than 5% probability.

Generally partial factor of safety considered is in all cases higher

than unity. Whereas for serviceability limit states unit factor of
safety is considered as it is checked under the action of service
load for structure.
 Partial Safety Factor for Loads, 𝜸𝒇 (Table 4, IS 800: 2007)
Combinatio Limit State of Strength Limit State of Serviceability
ns DL LL WL/ AL DL LL WL/
Leadin Accompa EL Leading Accomp EL
g nying anying
DL+LL+CL 1.5 1.5 1.05 - -1.0 1.0 1.0 -
DL+LL+CL 1.2 1.2 1.05 0.6 -1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8
+WL/EL 1.2 1.2 0.53 1.2 -
DL+WL/EL 1.5 - - 1.5 - 1.0 - - 1.0
(0.9)
DL+ER 1.2 1.2 - - - - - - -
(0.9)
DL+LL+AL 1.0 0.35 0.35 - 1.0 - - - -
Notes:
(i) DL=dead load, LL=imposed (live) load, CL=crane load, WL=wind load, EL=earthquake
load, AL=accidental load.
(ii) During simultaneous action of different live loads one which has greater effect on the
member under consideration is considered as the leading live load.
(iii)Value in the bracket should be considered when dead load contributes to the stability
against overturning or it causes reduction in stress due to other loads.
 Partial Safety Factor for Material

Partial safety factor for material

𝑆𝑑 = 𝑆𝑢 /𝛾𝑚
Where, 𝛾𝑚 = Partial safety factor for material as given in Table 1.5.
𝑆𝑢 = Ultimate strength of the material, 𝑆𝑑 = Design strength of the
material.

Generally, a factor of unity (one) or less is applied to the

resistances of the material.
 Partial safety factor for material, 𝜸𝒎 (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)
Definition Partial Safety Factor
Resistance governed by yielding, 𝛾𝑚0 1.10
Resistance of member to buckling, 𝛾𝑚0 1.10
Resistance governed by ultimate stress, 1.25
𝛾𝑚1
Resistance of connection Shop Field
Fabrication Fabrication
(a) Bolts, friction type, 𝛾𝑚𝑓 1.25 1.25
(b) Bolts, bearing type, 𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25 1.25
(c) Rivets, 𝛾𝑚𝑟 1.25 1.25
(d) Welds, 𝛾𝑚𝑤 1.25 1.50
 Deflection Limits (Table 6, IS 800: 2007)
Type of Deflection Design Member Supporting Maximum
Building Load Deflection
LL/WL Purlins and Elastic Cladding Span/150
girts Brittle Cladding Span/180
LL Simple span Elastic Cladding Span/240
Brittle Cladding Span/300
LL Cantilever Elastic Cladding Span/120
Vertical span Brittle Cladding Span/150
LL/WL Rafter Profiled Metal sheeting Span/180
Industrial supporting Plastered sheeting Span/240
Buildings CL(manual operation) Gantry Crane Span/500
CL (electric operation up to 50t) Gantry Crane Span/750

CL (electric operation over 50t) Gantry Crane Span/1000

No cranes Column Elastic Cladding Height/150

Brittle Cladding Height/240
Lateral Crane + wind Gantry Crane(absolute) Span/400
(lateral) Relative displacement 10mm
between rails supporting
crane
Crane + wind Column/fra Gantry(Elastic cladding, Height/200
me pendant operated)
Gantry(Brittle cladding, cab Height/400
operated)
 Deflection Limits (Table 6, IS 800: 2007)

Type of Building Deflection Design Member Supporting Maximum

Load Deflection
LL Floor & Roof Elements not Span/300
susceptible to
Other Vertical cracking
Buildings Elements Span/360
susceptible to
cracking
LL Cantilever Elements not Span/150
susceptible to
cracking
Elements Span/180
susceptible to
cracking
WL Building Elastic cladding Height/300
Lateral Brittle cladding Height/500
WL Inter story drift - Story
height/300
 Cross Sectional Classification (Clause 3.7, Table 2)

Class 1
Plastic

Classification of Cross Class 2

Section Compact

Class 3
Semi-Compact
 Load and Load Combinations

 Dead loads – [IS:875 (Part-1)]

 Imposed loads (i.e. Live loads, Crane loads etc) – [IS:875 (Part 2)]
 Wind loads – [IS:875 (Part-3)]
 Snow loads - [IS:875 (Part-4)]
 Temperature, Hydrostatic, Soil pressure, Fatigue, Accidental,
Impact, Explosions etc and load combinations [IS:875 (Part-5)]
 Earthquake load – [IS:1893-2002 (Part-1)]
 Erection loads – [IS:800-2007 Cl. 3.3]
 Other secondary effects such as temperature change, differential
settlement, eccentric connections etc.
 In IS:800-2007 (Cl. 5.3.1) the loads/actions acting on a structural
system has been classified in three groups, these are as follows:
 Permanent actions (Qp) – Action due to self-weight of the structural
components, basically the dead loads.
 Variable actions (Qv) – Action due to loads at construction and
service stage such as all type of imposed loads, wind and earthquake
loads etc.
 Accidental actions (Qa) – Action due to accidental loads acting on
the structure such as due to explosion, due to sudden impact etc.
 While designing the steel structure following load combination
must be considered along with partial safety factors
• Dead loads + Imposed loads
 Dead loads + Imposed loads + Wind / Earthquake loads
 Dead loads + Wind / Earthquake loads
 Dead loads + Erection loads
 Wind Load Calculation
Cl. 5.3, IS 875 (Part 3) 1987
Basic
wind Zone
The design wind speed (m/s) at any height z is speed, m/s
55 I
II
𝑉𝑧 = 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑉𝑏 50
47 III
44 IV
Where, 𝑉𝑏 = Basic wind speed (Figure 1) 39 V
33 VI
𝑘1 = Probability factor (risk coefficient)
(Table 1)
𝑘2 = Terrain, height and structure size
factor (Table 2)
𝑘3 = Topography factor (Clause 5.3.3 )
 Design Wind Pressure
(cl. 5.4; IS 875 part 3)

Design wind pressure at any height above mean ground level

is obtained by

𝑝𝑧 = 0.6𝑉𝑧2

The wind pressure at any height of a structure

depends on following.
Velocity and density of the air
Height above ground level
Shape and aspect ratio of the building
Topography of the surrounding ground surface
Angle of wind attack
Solidity ratio or openings in the structure
 Design Wind Force:

1. The total wind load for a building as a whole is given by

𝐹 = 𝐶𝑓 𝐴𝑒 𝑝𝑧 [cl. 6.3 of IS 875 part-3 ]

Where, 𝐶𝑓 =Force coefficient of the building

𝐴𝑒 = Effective frontal area
𝑝𝑧 = design wind pressure

2. Wind force on roof and walls is given by

𝐹 = 𝐶𝑝𝑒 − 𝐶𝑝𝑖 𝐴𝑝𝑧 [cl. 6.2.1 of IS 875 part-3]

Where, 𝐶𝑝𝑒 = External pressure coefficient (cl. 6.2.2 of IS 875 part-3)

𝐶𝑝𝑖 = Internal pressure coefficient (cl. 6.2.3 of IS 875 part-3)

A = Surface area of structural element

INTRODUCTION TO
CONNECTIONS

1
Fabrication of structures between following
members:

• Beam & column

• Beam & beam
• Beam & cross beam
• Column & column
• Column & brackets
• Column & caps
• Base plate of trusses
• Truss member connections through gussets
• Purlins & rafter
• Wind braces and columns
• Rails & columns
2
• Stiffeners in plate girders
• Diaphragms in plate girders
• Flange and web connections in plate girders
• Stiffener plates in column joints

Methods of Fabrications:
Rivet Joints
Bolt Joints
Weld Joints
The combinations of two or three of the above

3
 Requirements of good connection

1. It should be rigid enough to avoid fluctuating

stresses which may cause fatigue failure.
2. It should be such that there is the least possible
weakening of the parts to be joined.
3. It should be such that it can be easily installed,
inspected, & maintained.

4
RIVET CONNECTION
Rivet Head
Head Diameter

Shank

Nominal Diameter

5
Advantages of Riveted connections
 Ease of riveting process.
 Rivet connection is permanent in nature
 Cheaper fabrication cost.
 Low maintenance cost.
 Dissimilar metals can also be joined, even non-metallic joints
are possible with riveted joints.
 Rivet connection is possible without electricity in remote area
 Disadvantages of Rivet Connection:
(i) Necessity of pre-heating the rivets prior to driving
(ii) High level of noise
(iii)Skilled work necessary for inspection of connection
(iv)Cost involved in careful inspection and removal of poorly
installed rivets
(v)Labor cost is high

7
 Rivet

Power driven riveting Hand driven riveting

or Hot rivet or Cold rivet

Power driven shop Hand driven

rivet(PDS) shop rivet(HDS)

Power driven Hand driven field

field rivet(PDF) rivet(HDF)
8
 Commonly used rivet head

1.6d 2d

0.7d 0.25d

Length Length

d
d
Snap Head
Flat head

9
 Assumption:
1. Friction between the plates is neglected.
2. The shear stress is uniform on the cross section of
the rivet.
3. The distribution of direct stress on the portion of the
plates between the rivet holes is uniform.
4. Rivets in group subjected to direct loads share the
load equally.
5. Bending stress in the rivet is neglected.
6. Rivets fill completely the holes in which they are
driven
7. Bearing stress distribution is uniform and contact
area is d × t
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BOLT CONNECTION
Clause 2.4: Bolts, nuts
and washers shall
conform as
appropriate to:
IS 1363-1967, IS 1364-
1967, IS 1367-1967, IS
3640-1967, IS 3757-
1972, IS 6623-1972 and
IS 6639-1972
Advantages:
• Less Manpower
• High strength bolts are much stronger than
rivet. Hence, bolted connections need less
fasteners than rivet joints
• Bolting operation is much faster
• Bolting operation is very silent in contrast to
hammering noise in riveting
• Bolting is a cold process; No risk of fire

• Bolt can be removed, replaced or retightened

easily in the event of faulty bolting or
damaged bolts due to accidents/hazards
 Disadvantages:
• Bolted connections have lesser strength in
axial tension as the net area at the root of
the threads is less

• Under vibratory loads, the strength is reduced

if the connections get loosened

• Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because

of non uniform diameter

• Architectural look
TYPES OF BOLT
• According to material and strength
(i) Ordinary structural bolt
(ii) High strength steel bolt
• According to Type of Shank
(i) Unfinished or black bolt
(ii) Turned bolt
(iii) High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolt
• According to pitch and fit of thread
(i) Standard pitch bolt
(ii) Fine pitch bolt
(iii) Coarse pitch bolt
• According to shape of head and nut
(i) Square bolt
(ii) Hexagonal bolt
 Terminology

Pitch, p  Pitch is the centre to centre distance of adjacent rivets or bolt holes
measured in the direction of stress.
Minimum pitch: 2.5 d (clause 10.2.2)
To prevent bearing failure between two bolts
Sufficient space to tighten bolts
16
 Terminology
Maximum pitch: Desirable to place bolts sufficiently closed (clause 10.2.3)
(1) To reduce length of connection and gusset plate
(2) To have uniform stress
(Distance between two consecutive bolts) < 16 t or 200 mm in tension
< 12 t or 200 mm in compression
(Distance between two adjacent bolts) < 32 t or 300 mm

Gauge, g  A row of rivets which is parallel to the direction of stress is called

gauge line. The normal distance between two adjacent gauge lines is called
gauge.

Edge distance, e  The distance between the edge of a member or cover plate
from the centre of the nearest rivet/bolt hole.

Minimum edge distance for rivet: 1.5 d

17
 Nominal diameter, d It is the diameter of the shank of the
rivet. For bolts the diameter of the unthreaded portion of the
shank is called its nominal diameter.

Gross diameter, D The diameter of the rivet hole or bolt

hole is called its gross diameter.

For rivet:
As per clause 3.6.1.1 of IS 800:1984
D = d + 1.5 mm for d < 25mm
= d + 2 mm for d 25mm

18
 For Bolt:

Minimum and maximum edge distance and end distance are given in
clause 10.2.4.2 and 10.2.4.3

The minimum edge/end distances > 1.7 times the hole diameter
(In case of sheared or hand-flame cut edges)
> 1.5 times the hole diameter
(In case of rolled, machine-flame cut, sawn and planed edges.)

The maximum edge distance < 12tε where ε = (250/f y)1/2

(t is the thickness of the thinner plate)
Bolt holes:
Bolt holes are required to facilitate the insertion of bolts to make
connection between steel members. Bolt holes are usually made
larger than the nominal diameter of bolt to smooth the progress of
erection and accommodate minor discrepancies.

Bolt hole = bolt diameter + clearances of hole (Clause 10.2.1, Table 19)

Diameter, d Standard clearance Over size Short slot Long short

12-14 1 3 4 2.5 d
16-22 2 4 6 2.5 d
24 2 6 8 2.5 d
>24 3 8 10 2.5 d
 INTRODUCTION TO
BOLT CONNECTIONS

1
 TYPES OF JOINTS

(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts& plates

(ii) Depending upon mode of load transmission
(iii)Depending upon nature and location of load

2
 TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates

Lap Joint
Single line bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered or zig-zag bolting

Butt Joint
Single bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered or zig-zag bolting

3
Bolting pattern

Chain bolting

Zig-Zag bolting

Diamond bolting
(i) Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates
Single bolted Lap Joint:

Triple bolted lap joint:

Single bolted single cover butt joint:

Single bolted double cover butt joint

Double bolted double cover butt joint

5
 TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(ii) Depending upon the mode of load transmission

(a)Single shear
(b)Double shear
(c) Multiple shear

6
(ii) Depending upon the mode of load transmission

(a) Single shear

(b) Double shear

(c) Multiple shear

7
 TYPES OF BOLT JOINTS
(iii) Depending upon nature and location of load

(a) Direct shear connection

(b)Eccentric connection
(c) Pure moment connection
(d) Moment shear connection

8
(a) Direct shear connection

9
(b) Eccentric connection

10
(c) Pure moment connection

11
(d) Moment shear connection

12
The following are the failure modes of a bolted joint:

•Shear failure of the bolt

•Bearing failure of the bolt

•Tensile failure of bolt

•Shear failure of the plate

•Bearing failure of the plate

•Tensile failure of plate

Shear Failure of Bolt

(a) Single shear

(b) Double shear

14
Things to remember for bolted connections:
•Stress concentration results in a considerable decrement
in the tensile strength.

•Loose fit of the joint can reduce the stiffness which may
result in excessive deflections.

•Vibrations can cause loosening of nuts which can

jeopardize the safety of structure.
 Criteria for designing bolted joints with
axially loaded members

• The length of joint should be as small as possible to

save material on cover plates and gusset plates.

• The center line of all the members meeting at a joint

should coincide at one point only. Otherwise the joint will
twist out of position.

• The number of bolts should be increased gradually

towards the joint for uniform stress distribution in bolts .
Criteria for designing bolted joints with
axially loaded members

• The arrangement should satisfy the pitch, gauge and edge

distance requirements.

• The strength of joint reduces due to the bolt holes. The

reduction in area due to bolt holes can be minimized by
arranging in a zig-zag form.
 D E

C
A

B
 Design of
Fillet Welds
Design strength of fillet weld
The design strength of fillet weld is calculated on its throat area.
f u Lw te
Pd w =
3 γmw

Lw = length of weld in mm
fu = ultimate stress of weld in MPa
te = effective throat thickness = 0.7S
γmw = partial safety factor
= 1.25 for shop welding and
= 1.5 for site welding
S = size of weld in mm
Example:
A tie member of a roof truss consists of ISA 100×75×8 of Fe410
grade, is welded to a 10 mm gusset plate. Design the welded
connection to transmit a tensile load, T. Assume connection are made
in the workshop.

Lw1
10 mm

100 T

Lw2

10 mm gusset plate ISA 100 × 75 × 8

Solution : Minimum weld size = 3 mm [Table 21, IS 800]
3
Maximum weld size =  8  6mm [clause 10.5.8.2, IS 800]
4
Therefore, Let us adopt 5 mm thick fillet weld.
Throat thickness, t e  0.7  5  3.5 m m

For ISA 100×75×8, Gross area, Ag = 1336mm2 , Cz = 31mm

f y Ag 250 × 1336
Full strength of the angle 10
3

γm0 1.1
303.64 kN
3.5  410
Strength of 5-mm weld =  662.8 N / m m
3  1.25
Force to resist by weld at 100 mm side of angle,
3
P2  662.8  100  10  66.28 kN

Force to resist by weld at upper side of angle,

Ty P2 303.64  31 66.28
P1      61kN
d 2 100 2

Force to resist by weld at lower side of angle,

P3  T  P1  P2  303.64  61  66.28  176.36 kN

61  10
3

Length required at upper side of angle, L w1   92 m m

662.8

176.36  10
3

Length required at upper side of angle, Lw 3   266m m

662.8
Total Length (effective) of weld = 266 + 92+100 = 458 mm
Note: Add twice the weld size at the ends.
Thus total length = 458+2S = 468 mm
Example. Design a suitable fillet weld to connect web plate to flange
plate and flange plate to flange cover plate of a built-up girder as
shown in the figure, for the following data. Assume shop welding.
Web plate: 1200 mm × 12 mm
Flange plate: 450 mm × 20 mm
Flange cover plate: 350 mm × 16 mm
Maximum Factored shear force: 1600 kN
 450 mm

350 mm

16 mm
20 mm

1200/2=600 mm

12 mm

Centroidal axis
Solution: For Fe 410 steel: f u  410 M Pa

For shop weld:  m w  1.25

fu 410
Permissible shear stress    189.37 N / m m
2

3   mw 3  1.25

Connection of web plate to flange plate:

Size of weld: Minimum = 5 mm [Table 21, IS 800]

Maximum = 12 – 1.5 =10.5 mm [clause 10.5.8.1, IS 800]
Let us provide 7 mm size of fillet weld.
Effective throat thickness of weld t e  K S  0.7  7  4.9 m m
 t e  2  4.9  9.8 m m
A y  450  20  (600  10)  350  16  (600  20  8)

 900.68  10 m m
4 3
 350  16 450  20 12  1200
3 3 3

I zz  2  [  350  16  628   450  20  610 ] 

2 2

12 12 12
 12.8  10 m m
9 4

1600  10  (900.68  10 )
3 4
VAy
Shear stress:   114.9 N / m m  189.37 N / m m
2 2

I zz   t e 12.8  10  9.8
9

Hence, the weld is safe.

Connection of flange plate to flange cover plate:
Adopt a 7 mm fillet weld.
t e  K S  0.7  7  4.9 m m
 t e  2  4.9  9.8 m m
Ay  350  16  (600  20  8)  351.68  10 mm
4 3

1600  10  (351.68  10 )
3 4
VAy
Shear stress:   44.86 N / m m  189.37 N / m m
2 2

I zz   t e 12.8  10  9.8
9

Hence, the weld is safe.

 Design of
Ordinary Black Bolts
Types of Bolted Connections

(i) Bearing Type Bolt

(Clause 10.3)
(i) Friction Type Bolt
(Clause 10.4)

(i) Lap Joints

(ii) Butt Joints

 Design of Ordinary Black Bolts

1. Shearing strength of bolts

2. Bearing strength of bolts
3. Tensile strength of bolts
4. Tensile strength of plate
5. Combined shear and tension
 Design of Ordinary Black Bolts (Clause 10.3)
f ub
1) Bolts in Shear V nsb n n Anb n s A sb lj lg pkg
3
Vnsb = nominal capacity of bolts in shear
fub = ultimate tensile strength of bolts
nn = no. of shear planes with threads intercepting the plane
ns = no. of shear planes without threads intercepting the
plane
βlj = reduction factor which allows for overloading of end
bolts that occur in long connections
βlg = reduction factor for large grip lengths
βpkg = reduction factor for packing plates thicker than 6mm
Anb = net tensile area of bolt to be considered at the root of
the threads = 0.78×π×d2/4
Asb = nominal plain shank area of the bolt;
Threads excluded from shear plane

Threads included in shear plane

 V dsb V nsb mb

Vdsb = design shear force

γmb = partial safety factor for the material of bolt = 1.25

Reduction Factor for Long Joints

If length of joint lj > 15d, where d = nominal diameter of

bolts,

then βlj = 1.075 – lj/ (200d), 0.75 ≤ βlj ≤ 1.0

Reduction Factor for Large Grip Length

If total thickness of connected plates lg > 5d, then βlg = 8d/

(3 + lg)
Note: βlg < βlj and lg < 8d

Reduction Factor for Packing Plates

If thickness of packing plates tpkg > 6mm, then
βpkg = 1 – 0.0125tpkg
2) Bolts in Bearing
V npb 2.5 k b dt f u

Vnpb = nominal bearing strength of bolt

fu = ultimate tensile stress of plate

d = nominal diameter of bolt

t = summation of thickness of connected plates

experiencing bearing stress in same direction
 e p
kb = smaller of , 0.25, f ub f u ,1
3d 0 3d 0
fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts

d0 = diameter of bolt hole

p = pitch of fastener along bearing direction

e = edge distance
V dpb V npb mb

Vdpb = design shear force

γmb = partial safety factor = 1.25

3) Bolts in Tension
mb
Tnb 0.9 f ub Anb f yb Asb
m0
Tnb = nominal capacity of a bolt in tension
fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts
An = net tensile stress area
Asb = shank area of bolt
fyb = yield stress of bolt
γm0 = partial safety factor = 1.1
γm1 = partial safety factor = 1.25

T db T nb mb

Tdb = design tensile force

γmb = partial safety factor = 1.25

4) Tension Capacity of Plate

0.9 f u An
Where An b nd 0 t T nd
m1
Tnd = tension capacity of plate

fu = ultimate tensile stress of plate

An = net effective area of plate

γml = partial safety factor = 1.25

b = width of plate

n = number of holes along width perpendicular to the direction of load

d0 = hole diameter

t = thickness of plate
5) Bolts with combined Shear and Tension
2 2
V Te
1.0
V sd T nd

V = applied shear force

Vsd = design shear capacity

Te = externally applied tension

Tnd = design tension capacity

6) Strength of Solid Plate
0.9 f u Asp
T sp
m1

where Asp = b×t

b = width of plate
t = thickness of plate
fu = ultimate tensile stress of plate
γm1 = partial safety factor = 1.25

Efficiency of Joint
stre n g th o f jo in t p e r p itch le n g th
100
stre n g th o f so lid p la te p e r p itch le n g th
 Example: Calculate the shear strength of 16 mm diameter
bolt of grade 4.6. The bolt is under triple shear as shown
in the figure below.

f ub
Solution: V dsb 3
n n Anb n s A sb lj lg pkg
mb
nn = no. of shear planes with threads intercepting the plane =1
ns = no. of shear planes without threads intercepting the plane
=2
Nominal diameter of bolt, d =16 mm
Diameter of hole, d 0  18 mm (Ref. Table 19)
For grade 4.6 bolts; f ub  400 M Pa

For Fe 410 grade of steel; f u  410 M Pa

Partial safety factor for bolt,  m b  1.25
For 16 mm diameter bolt;

Net shear area of bolt at threads is, Anb  0.78   d 2  157 m m 2
 4
And Ans   d  201 m m
2 2

4
Thus, f ub 400 3
V dsb n n Anb n s A sb 1 157 2 201 103 10 N
3 mb
3 1.25

Therefore, the design shear strength, Vdsb = 103 kN

Worked out Examples
on Design of
Ordinary Black Bolts
Example: Design the following joints using ordinary black bolts between two
plates of width 200 mm and thicknesses 10 mm and 18 mm respectively to
transmit a factored load of 150 kN.

a) Lap joint
b) Single cover butt joint with cover plate of 8 mm.
c) Double cover butt joint with 8 mm covers plates.
Use plates made of Fe 410 grade steel and 16 mm diameter bolt of grade
4.6.
Example: Design the following joints between two plates of width 200 mm
and thicknesses 10 mm and 18 mm respectively to transmit a factored load
of 150 kN.

a) Lap joint
b) Single cover butt joint with cover plate of 8 mm.
c) Double cover butt joint with 8 mm covers plates.
Use plates made of Fe 410 grade steel and 16 mm diameter bolt of grade
4.6.
Solution: Nominal diameter of bolt, d  1 6 m m
Diameter of hole, d 0  18 mm (Ref. Table 19)
For grade 4.6 bolts; f ub  400 M Pa
For Fe 410 grade of steel; f u  410 M Pa
Partial safety factor for bolt,  m b  1.25
a) Lap joint:
The bolts will be in single shear.
n  1 ns  0
Assuming threads in the shear plane, n ;
For 16 mm diameter bolt; Net shear area of the bolt at threads is,
Anb  157 m m
2
 f ub
Design shear strength per bolt , V dsb   n n Anb  n s A sb 
3   mb
3
400  10
 1  157  0   29 kN
3  1.25

Minimum pitch, p  2.5 d  2.5  16  40

Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d0 (for rolled edge) =1.5×18=27 mm
= 1.7 d0 (for hand-flame cut edge) = 1.7×18=30.6 mm
Provide p=50 mm and e= 31 mm
2.5  k b  d  t  f u
Design bearing strength per bolt, V dpb 
 mb

kb is smaller of 31/(3×18), 50/(3×18)-0.25, 400/410, 1

Kb = 0.57
 3
2.5  0.57  16  10  410  10 kN
V dpb 
1.25

= 74.78 kN
Therefore, bolt value = 29 kN.
Number of bolts required = 150/6 = 5.2
Provide 6 bolts.
Arrange the bolts in two lines.
18mm Direction of load
10mm 150 kN

31mm

138mm 200 mm

31mm
b) Single cover butt joint:
50mm 50mm

The bolts also will be in single shear.

So V dsb  29 kN
 2.5  k b  d  t  f u
Design bearing strength per bolt, V dpb 
 mb
p = 50 mm, e = 31 mm, Kb = 0.57, t = 8 mm
3
2.5  0.57  16  8  410  10
V dpb 
1.25
=59.83 kN

Therefore the bolt value is 29 kN. 150

Number of bolts required for this connection   5.1
29

Provide 6 bolts and arranging it in three lines.

Direction of load
18mm 10mm
150 kN

31mm

69mm
69mm 200 mm

31mm

50mm
c) Double cover butt joint:
The bolts will be in double shear.
Assuming threads in the shear planes. Therefore n n  2 ; n s  0
Since the two plates of thicknesses 18 mm and 10 mm are to be jointed,
packing plate of thickness (18-10) = 8 mm will be required.
As per clause 10.3.3.3 of IS:800 2007,
Design shear capacity of bolts will be decreased by factor  pk
 pkg  (1  0.0125 t pkg )
 (1  0 .0 1 2 5  8)
 0 .9
f ub
Design strength of bolt in double shear, V dsb  ( n n Anb  n s A sb )  pk
3   mb
3
400  10
  2  157  0.9
3  1.25
= 52.21 kN
Design bearing strength per bolt, 2.5  k b  d  t  f u
V dpb 
 mb
p = 65 mm, e = 31 mm, Kb = 0.57, t = 10 mm
3
2.5  0.57  16  10  410  10
V dpb 
1.25
=74.78 kN
Therefore the bolt value is 52.21 kN.
150
Number of bolts required for this connection  2.87
52.21

Using 4 bolts to arrange the joint as single bolted double cover butt joint.
8mm cover plates
Direction of load
18mm 10mm
150 kN

Packing plate(8mm)
31mm

138mm 200 mm

31mm

65mm
Example: Two plates 10 mm thick are joined by 16mm diameter bolts in
a triple staggered lap joint. Find efficiency of the joint.

18

10
10

1-1 2-2 3-3

25
20
20
20
20

25

40
dh = 16+2=18mm
fu 400
n n Anb n s A sb 1 157 0
Psingle shear = V dsb
3 3
29.0 kN
mb
1.25

Pbearing V dpb 2 .5 k b d tf u mb

e p
kb = smaller of , 0.25, f ub f u ,1
3d g 3d g

Here, e = 25 mm, p=40mm

kb = 25/(3×18), 40/(3×18)-0.25, 400/410, 1

kb = 0.46
 2.5 0.46 16 10 410
Pbearing 60.35 K N
1.25

Bolt value = 29.0 KN

Strength of joint based on bolt value = 7×29.0 = 203 KN

Strength of joint along 1-1 0.9 f u b nd h t ml

= 10-3 × 0.9×410×(130-2×18)×10/1.25 = 277.49 KN

Strength of joint along 2-2 0.9 f u b nd h t ml

2 Bv
= 10-3 × 0.9×410×(130-3×18)×10/1.25 + 2×29
= 282.35 KN

Strength of joint along 3-3 0.9 f u b nd h t m l 5 B v

= 10-3 × 0.9×410×(130-2×18)×10/1.25 + 5×29
= 422.49 KN
Strength of joint = 203 KN

Strength of solid plate 0.9 f u b t ml

= 0.9×410×130×10/1.25

=383.75 KN
203
Efficiency, 100 52.9%
383.75
Design of High Strength
Friction Grip Bolts
1) Shear strength of HSFG Bolts

V nsf f
n e K h F0

Vnsf = nominal shear capacity of bolt

µf = coefficient of friction Ref. Clause 10.4.3, Table 20

Kh = 1.0 for fasteners in clearance holes

= 0.85 for fasteners in oversized and short slotted holes and long slotted
holes loaded perpendicular to the slots

= 0.7 for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded parallel to the slots

ne = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to slip

F0 = proof load = Anbf0

f0 = proof stress = 0.7 fub

Anb = net area of bolts at threads

fub Ultimate tensile stress in bolt

V dsf V nsf mf

Vdsf = design shear force

γmf = partial safety factor

= 1.1 if slip resistance is designed at service load

= 1.25 if slip resistance is designed at ultimate load

Reduction Factor for Long Joints

If length of joint lj > 15d, where d = nominal diameter of

bolts,

then βlj = 1.075 – lj/ (200d), 0.75 ≤ βlj ≤ 1.0

Vnsf is reduced by a factor βlj

2) Bolts in Bearing

V npb 2.5 k b dtf u

Vnpb = nominal bearing strength of bolt

fu = ultimate tensile stress

d = nominal diameter of bolt

t = summation of thickness of connected plates

experiencing bearing stress in same direction
 e p
kb = smaller of , 0.25, f ub f u ,1
3d 0 3d 0

fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts

d0 = diameter of bolt hole

p = pitch of fastener along bearing direction

e = edge distance
V dsb V npb mb

Vdsb = design shear force

γmb = partial safety factor = 1.25

 m1
3) Bolts in Tension Tnf 0.9 f ub Anb f yb Asb
m0

Tnf = design tensile strength of bolt

fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts
Anb = net tensile stress area of bolt
Asb = shank area of bolt
fyb = yield stress of bolt
γm0 = partial safety factor = 1.1
γm1 = partial safety factor = 1.25

T df T nf mb

Tdf = design tensile force

γmb = partial safety factor = 1.25

4) Bolts with combined Shear and Tension
2 2
V sf Tf
1.0
V sdf T sdf

Vsf = applied shear force at service load

Vsdf = design shear capacity

Tf = externally applied tension at service load

Tsdf = design tension capacity

5) Prying forces
(Clause 10.4.7)

4
lv f 0 be t
Q Te 2
2 le 27 l e l v

Q = additional force of fastener due to prying action

lv = distance from bolt centre line to toe of fillet weld or to

half the root radius of a rolled section

le = distance between prying force and bolt centre line

 le 1.1t f0 f y

β = 2 for non pre-tensioned bolts

1 for pre-tensioned bolts

η = 1.5

f0 = proof stress

t = thickness of end plate

t m in 4.4 M p
f y be

where Mp = Telv/2 = Qle

Example:
An ISA 110 mm ×110 mm ×10 mm carries a factored tensile force of 150
kN. It is to be jointed with a 10 mm thick gusset plate. Design the joint
using HSFG bolt when (a) no slip is permitted, (b) when slip is permitted.
Assume steel is Fe 410 grade.

Solution:
Let us provide HSFG bolts of grade 8.8 and of diameter 20 mm.

For 8.8 grade bolts: f ub  800 M Pa


Net tensile stress area of bolt, Anb  0.78   20  245 m m
2 2

4
For Fe 410 grade of steel: f u  410 M Pa
(a) Slip-critical connection (slip is not permitted ):
3
proof load, F0  Anb  0.7 f ub  245  0.7  800  10  137.2 kN

Slip resistance of bolt   f n e k h F0 /  m f

here,  f = 0.5 (assuming)

n e = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to slip
=1
 m f = 1.25 at ultimate load

k h = 1.0 (assuming bolts in clearance holes)

137.2
Slip resistance of bolt  0.5  1  1   54.88 kN
1.25

150
Number of bolts required   2.73
54.87
Thus provide 3 nos. HSFG bolts.
(b) Bearing type connection: (slip is permitted )
Strength of bolt in single shear,

Anb f ub 245  800 3

V dsb    10  90.53 kN
3 m b 3  1.25

Strength of bolt in bearing, 2.5 k b dtf u

V dpb 
 mb
Assume e = 40 mm [Minimum e = 1.7d0 = 37.4 mm]
p = 60 mm [Minimum p = 2.5d = 50 mm]

kb is smaller of 40/(3×22) , 60/(3×22) - 0.25 , 400/410, 1

Therefore, kb = 0.61
3
So, 2.5  0.61  20  10  410  10
V dpb   100.04 kN
1.25
Hence, strength of bolt = 90.53 kN
Number of bolts required 150
  1.66
Thus provide 2 HSFG bolts 90.53
WELD CONNECTION
Welding is the process of connecting metal pieces by application
of heat (i.e. fusion) with or without pressure.

Types of Welding Process

•Forge Welding
•Thermit Welding
•Gas Welding
•Resistance Welding
•Electric-arc Welding
Advantages of weld connections

1. As no hole is required for welding, hence no reduction of area. So,

structural members are more effective in taking the load.

2. In welding, filler plates, gusseted plates, connecting angles etc.

are not used, which leads to reduced overall weight of the
structure.

3. Welded joints are more economical as less material is required.

4. The efficiency of welded joints is more than that of the

riveted/bolted joints.

5. The welded joint look better than the bulky riveted/bolted joints
Advantages of welding
6. The speed of fabrication is faster in comparison with the riveted
joints.

7. Complete rigid joints can be provided with welding process.

8. The alteration & addition to the existing structure is easy as

compare to rivet joints.

9. No noise is produced during the welding process as in the case of

riveting.

10. The welding process requires less work space in comparison to

riveting.

11. Any shape of joint can be made with ease.

Disadvantages of welding joints
• Welded joints are brittle & therefore their fatigue strength is less
than the members joined.

• Due to uneven heating & cooling of the members during the

welding, the members may distort resulting in additional stresses.

• Skilled labor & electricity are required for welding

• No provision for expansion & contraction is kept in welded

connection & therefore, there is possibility of cracks.

• The inspection of welding work is more difficult & costlier than

the riveting work.

• Defects like internal air pocket, slag inclusion & incomplete

penetration are difficult to detect.
Types of Welds
Classified according to their formations:

• Fillet Weld

• Butt Weld

• Plug Weld
 Basic types of welds and their symbols

Form of weld Section Symbol

Fillet

Square butt

Single-V-butt
Basic types of welds and their symbols

Double-V-butt

Single-U-butt

Double-U-butt

Single-bevel-
butt
Basic types of welds and their symbols

Double -bevel-
butt

Single-J-butt

Double-J-butt
Shape of weld Symbol
Flat
Convex
Concave
Fillet welding
When two lapped plates are to be joined fillet welding is
used.
Design of Fillet Welds
Few terms are used while designing a fillet weld:

1. Size of fillet weld

2. Throat of fillet weld
3. Effective length of the fillet weld
4. End return
5. Overlap
6. Side fillet
7. Intermittent fillet weld
8. Single fillet weld
9. Permissible stress & strength of fillet weld
Size of Fillet weld

Toe
Weld face

Toe
Fusion Zone

Leg
Root
1. Size of the weld :

The sides containing the right angle of the fillet weld

are called legs. The size of the weld is specified by
the minimum leg length. The length is the distance
from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld,
measured along the fusion face.
Table: Minimum size of first run or single run fillet weld
(Clause 10.5.2.3; Table 21)

Thickness of thicker part Minimum size of

Weld (mm)
Over (mm) Up to and
Including(mm)
- 10 3
10 20 5
20 32 6
32 50 8 of first run
10 for minimum size
of weld
Note :
1. When the minimum size of the fillet weld is greater than the
thickness of the thinner part, the minimum size of the weld should
be taken as the thickness of the thinner part.
2. When the thicker part is more than 50 mm thick, special
precaution like preheating etc. will have to be taken.

As per Clause 10.5.2.1 of IS 800:2007 for deep penetration welds,

where the depth of penetration beyond the root run is a minimum
of 2.4 mm, the size of the fillet weld is minimum leg size plus 2.4
mm.
The maximum size of the fillet weld
= Thickness of the thinner plate – 1.5mm
= ¾ of nominal thickness of angle
Effective throat thickness
The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld is the
perpendicular distance from the root to the hypotenuse joining
the two ends of the legs, while reinforcement is neglected.

BA  BC  S A
 AC  2S
D
AB  AD  BD
2 2 2
S
T
 BD  AB  AD
2 2
B
2 S C
 S  S
 BD  S    BD 
2

 2 2

 BD  T  0.707S  0.7S
 For the angle other than right-angled fillet weld the value of
throat thickness is given as:

T = KS

Where,
T = Throat thickness of weld
KA constant depends upon the angle between fusion face
S Thickness of the weld

Effective throat thickness shall not be less than 3 mm and generally

not exceeding 0.7t or 1.0t under special circumstances where t is the
thickness of the thinner plate(Clause 10.5.3.1 of IS 800)
Values of K for different angles between fusion faces
(Table 22 of IS 800:2007, Clause 10.5.3.2)

Angle between Constant, K

fusion face

600-900 0.7
910-1000 0.65
1010-1060 0.6
1070-1130 0.55
1140-1200 0.5
Effective length of fillet: - The effective length of the fillet
weld is the area of the weld for which the specified size & the
effective throat thickness of the weld exist.

Effective length (l) = Overall length (L) – 2S

The effective length should not be less than four times the size
of the weld. Otherwise size of the weld must be taken as the
one fourth of the effective weld length.

i.e.
Design strength of fillet weld
The design strength of fillet weld is calculated on its throat area.
f u Lw te
Pd w =
3 γmw

Lw = length of weld in mm
fu = ultimate stress of weld in MPa
te = effective throat thickness = 0.7S
γmw = partial safety factor
= 1.25 for shop welding and
= 1.5 for site welding
S = size of weld in mm
 Design Procedure
1. Assume size of weld based on thickness of members to be joined.

2. By equating design strength of weld to external factored load,

effective length of weld is calculated. If length exceeds 150te, reduce
design capacity of weld as prescribed in clause 10.5.7.3 and is as
given below.

The design strength of weld will be reduced by a factor as follows.

0.2l j
lw
= 1.2 -
150t e
Where, lj = length of joint in the direction of force transfer
te = throat thickness of the weld.

3. End returns of length equal to twice the size of weld are provided
at each end of longitudinal fillet weld.
End return:
The fillet weld terminating
at the end or side of a
member should be
returned around the
corner whenever
practicable for a distance
not less than twice the
weld size as shown in the
figure:

Overlap
The overlap of a lap joint should not be less than four times the
thickness of the thinner plate or 40 mm which ever is more.
Design of Butt Welds
Butt / Groove welding
Butt weld is used when the plates to be joined are in the same plane or when T
joint is desired.
Butt welding
A butt weld is specified by the size of the weld. Size is defined by the
effective throat thickness.

Specification:

1. Size of the weld

2. Effective length of the butt weld

3. Effective area of the butt weld

4. Reinforcements
1. Size of the weld
Size of the weld is specified by the effective throat thickness
as follows:

(a) The size of the butt weld is the thickness of the thinner plate.
(b) The effective throat thickness in case of complete penetration
is taken as the thickness of the thinner part.
Double-V, Double-U, Double-J & Double Bevel butt joints are the
examples of completely penetrated butt weld.
(c) In case of incomplete penetration of butt weld the effective
throat thickness is taken as the 7/8th of the thickness of the
thinner part. But for purpose of stress calculation the effective
throat thickness should not exceed 5/8th of the thickness of the
thinner part.

(d)The difference in thickness between the two plates should

not be more than 25% of the thickness or 3mm whichever is
more.

(e) If difference is more than 25% tapering less than 1 in 5 is

to be done.
2. The effective length of the butt weld

It is the area of the butt weld for which the specified size (i.e. the
throat thickness) of the weld exists.

The effective length should not be less than four times the size
of the weld. Otherwise size of the weld must be taken as the
one fourth of the effective weld length.

i.e.

Note:- In drawing only effective lengths are shown, the

welder must provide an additional length of 2S to get the
overall depth.
Reinforcements :
Reinforcement is the extra weld metal
which make the throat dimension at least
10% greater than the thickness of the
weld material. The extra deposit of
metals above the thinner plate between 1
mm to 3 mm is not considered for stress
calculation or design. The reinforcement
is provided to increase the efficiency of
the joint.

Stress in the butt weld : The stresses of the butt weld should be taken
equal to the stresses of the parent metal in the case of shop weld.

These values are reduced to 80% in case of field weld.

Design strength of butt weld
The design strength of butt weld in tension or compression is
governed by yield f y Lw te
T dw =
γmw
Lw = effective length of weld in mm
fy = smaller of yield stress of weld and parent material in MPa
te = effective throat thickness in mm
γmw = partial safety factor
= 1.25 for shop welding and
= 1.5 for site welding

The design strength of butt weld in shear is also governed by yield

f y Lw te
Vdw =
3 γmw
Stresses due to individual forces

When subjected to either compressive or tensile due to axial force

or shear force alone, the stress in the weld is given by
P
fa o r q 
t e lw

Where,
fa = calculated normal stress due to axial force in N/mm2
q = shear stress in N/mm2
P = force transmitted (axial force N or shear force Q)
t e = effective throat thickness of weld in mm
l w= effective length of weld in mm
Combination of stresses
Fillet welds
While subjected to a combination of normal stress (due to axial
tension/compression or bending tension/compression) and shear
stresses, the equivalent stress fe should satisfy the following

2 2 fu
fe  f  3q
a

3  mw
Where,

fa = normal stress, compression or tension, due to axial force or

bending moment.
q= shear stress due to shear force or tension.
Combined bearing, Bending and shear
If bearing stress, (fbr) is combined with bending stress (fb)
(tensile or compressive) and shear stresses (q) under the most
unfavourable conditions of loading, the equivalent stress (fe) is
obtained from the following formula:

2 2 2
fe  f  f  f b f br  3 q
b br

fe = equivalent stress
fb = calculated stress due to bending in N/mm2
fbr = calculated stress due to bearing in N/mm2
q = shear stress in N/mm2
Example:
Two plates of thickness 12 mm and 10 mm are to be jointed by a
groove weld. The joint is subjected to a factored tensile force of 250
kN. Assuming an effective length of 150 mm, check the safety of the
joint for
a) Single-V groove weld joint and,
b) Double-V groove weld joint.
Assume Fe 410 grade steel plates and that the welds are shop welded.

12 mm 10 mm

Single-V groove weld

12 mm 10 mm

Double-V groove weld

(a) Single-V groove weld:
5 5
Throat thickness, te  t  10  6.25 m m
8 8
Effective length of weld, L w  150 m m

Lw te f y 150  6.25  250 3

Strength of weld=   10  187.5 kN  250 kN
 mw 1.25

Hence the joint is not safe.

(b) Double-V groove weld:

Throat thickness = thickness of thinner plate = 10 mm
Lw te f y 150  10  250 3
Strength of weld =   10  300 kN  250 kN
 mw 1.25

Hence, the joint is safe.

Example:
A joint is subjected to a factored shear force of 300 kN. Assuming
single-V groove weld joint find the effective length of the weld if the
thickness of thinner plate is 8 mm. Assume Fe 410 grade steel plates
and that the welds are shop welded.

Solution:

For single-V groove weld, effective throat thickness =

5 5
te  t  8  5 mm
8 8
3
3 γmw V dw 3 1.25 300 10
Length of the weld, L w 520 m m
fy te 250 5

Thus, the effective length of the weld will be 520 mm.

Design of Plug and Slot Weld
 Plug and Slot Weld

A slot is cut in one of the overlapping member and the welding

metal is filled in the slot.
If the slot is small and completely filled with weld metal, it is called
plug weld.
If the periphery of the slot is filled with weld metal, it is called as
slot weld.
Following specifications are for the design of plug or slot weld as
per IS816-1969:

1. The width or diameter of the slot should not be less than three
times the thickness of the part in which the slot is formed or 25
mm, whichever is greater
2. The distance between edge of the part and edge of slot or plug or
between adjacent slots or plugs should not less than 3 times
thickness of thinner member or 25mm, whichever is greater.

3. Corners at the enclosed ends should be rounded to a radius not

less than one and a half times the thickness of the upper plate or
12 mm which ever is greater.
The design shear stress on a plug or slot weld will be same as that
in fillet weld and is specified in 10.5.7.1.1 of IS 800:2007
Example: An ISMC 300 @ 363 N/mm is used to transmit factored
force 800 kN. The channel section is connected to a 12mm thick
gusset plate. Design a fillet weld connection if the overlap is limited
to 300 mm. Use slot welds if required. Assume site welding.
Solution
The properties of ISMC 300 are,
A= 4630 mm2 , tf = 13.6 mm , tw= 7.8 mm
maximum size of weld= 7.8 - 1.5 = 6.3 mm. (Cl. 10.5.8.1)
Minimum size of the weld = 3 mm (Table 21 IS 800:2007)
Adopt a 6-mm size weld.
Throat thickness = KS = 0.7 x 6 = 4.2 mm
fu
Strength of the weld per mm = t e
3  mw
= 4.2  410 / ( 3  1.5 )
= 663 N/mm
Required length of weld = 800  1000 / 663  1207m m

The maximum length of weld that can be provided in the

channel = 300  2  300  900m m  1207m m

Hence, use two slots welds of width 25 mm

( 3 t  3  7.8  23.4 or 25 mm whichever is greater

Assume the length of the slot weld is x mm, then,

1207  2  300  300  4 x
or, x  76.75 mm
Hence, provide 80 mm x 25 mm slots , two in numbers as
shown in the figure.
Example
A pipe of 100 mm diameter and 8 mm thick is connected
to a 16 mm thick plate with fillet weld. It is subjected to
a vertical factored load of 10 kN at a distance of 0.5 m
from the welded end. It is also subjected to a factored
twisting moment of 3 kNm. Find the size of the weld
assuming shop welding and steel of grade to be Fe410
Solution:
Here, fu = 410 MPa , ymw = 1.25
fu 410
Permissible shear stress = = =189.37 N/mm2
3×γmw 3×1.25
Hence, P = 10 kN
M = P. e = 10 x 0.5 = 5 kNm
T = 3 kNm
Polar moment of inertia, Ip = 2πr3 ×t = 2π×503 ×t
= 785398t mm4
Izz= Ip/2 = 392699t mm4
3
P 10×10
(1) Shear stress due to direct load, q1 = =
2πrt 2×π×50×t
31.83
= N/mm2
t
 T
(2) Shear stress due to twisting moment, q2 = ×r
Ip

6
3×10 ×50 191
= = N/mm2
785398t t
M
(3) Normal stress due to bending, fa= ×r
Izz
6
5×10 636.62
= ×50 = N/mm2
392699t t

Resultant shear stress, 𝑞 = 𝑞1 2 + 𝑞2 2

31.83 2 191 2 193.6

= + = N/mm2
t t t
Equivalent stress due to normal and shear stress,

636.62 2 3×193.6 2 861.75

fe = fa 2 +3q2 = + = N/mm2
t t t
fu
fe ≤ = 189.37
3 ×γmw

861.75
≤ 189.37
t

So, t = 4.55 mm

t
Hence, s = = 6.4 ≈ 7 mm
0.707
So, the size of the weld will be 7 mm.
ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Load lying in plane of bolted joint
Load lying in plane of bolted joint
Analysis
• Acting shear force (P) is replace by a Force acting through the
centroid of the bolt group and a moment (M=P×e) where e is
the eccentricity of the load

P
(passing through centroid)
P
e

M=Pe
Load lying in plane of bolted joint
If, Direct load =P, Bending moment, M = Pe
Therefore, Direct axial shear, Fa = P/n
Where
n No of bolts in the group
Fa Force on each bolt due to axial load

Fa Fm Fa Fm

+ =

Direct Force Combined direct

Moment Force & moment
Again, Rotational shear or shear due to moment on each bolts,
Fm  r
Where,
r  Radial distance of the bolts from the CG of the group
Fm
 Fm  kr  k  Here k Proportionality constant
r
Moment due to Fm in each bolt = (kr).r = kr2
Hence, the total moment will be:
F r    kr  r M t   kr k  r
2 2
m

Fm
But, k 
r
Fm
 M   kr  r
2 2

Mr P er
 Fm  
r r
2 2
For extreme bolt

P Mr P er
Fa  ;  Fm  
 
2 2
n r r

R  Fa  Fm  2 Fa Fm co s 
2 2
Resultant force,
Example: Calculate the safe load F that can be carried by the
connection as shown in the figure below. HSFG bolts of grade 8.8
with 20 mm diameter are used. Assume the thickness of the bracket
plate as 12 mm and column used is ISWB 350. Assume no slip is
permitted and slip factor (μf) as 0.5. All dimensions in the figure
below are in mm.
Solution:
HSFG 8.8 bolt, Ø = 20 mm, μf = 0.5.
ISWB 350, tf = 11.4 mm
Proof load, 𝐹𝑜 = 𝐴𝑛𝑏 × 0.7𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝜋
= 0.78 × × 202 × 0.7 × 800 × 10−3 = 137 kN
4

(1) Slip resistance of bolt in bearing, 𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑓 = 𝜇𝑓 𝑛𝑒 𝑘ℎ 𝐹𝑜 /γ𝑛𝑓

= 0.5×1×1×137/1.25 = 55 kN

(2) Strength of bolt in bearing,

2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢
𝑉𝑑𝑝𝑏 =
𝛾𝑚𝑏
 𝑒 40
= = 0.606,
3𝑑𝑜 3×22
𝑝 60
− 0.25 = − 0.25 = 0.66,
𝑘𝑏 = least of 3𝑑𝑜 3×22
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
= = 0.975,
𝑓𝑢 410
1
= 0.606

Here, thickness, t will be the thickness of flange of ISWB350 = 11.4

mm.

410
So, 𝑉𝑑𝑝𝑏 = 2.5 × 0.606 × 20 × 11.4 × × 10−3
1.25
= 113 kN

Hence, Bolt Value= least of (55 & 113) = 55 kN

 𝑟1 = 502 + 602 = 78.1 𝑚𝑚, 𝑟2 = 50 𝑚𝑚

𝑟 2 = 4𝑟12 + 2𝑟22 = 4 × 78.12 + 2 × 502

= 29398 𝑚𝑚2
𝐹
𝐹𝑎 =
6
𝐹 × 180
𝐹𝑚1 = × 78.1 = 0.478𝐹
29398
𝐹 × 180
𝐹𝑚2 = × 50 = 0.306𝐹
29398
−1
50
𝜃1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 50.19° ; 𝜃2 = 0
60
 𝐹𝑟1 = 𝐹𝑎2 + 𝐹𝑚21 + 2𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑚1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1

1 2 1
=𝐹 + 0.4782 + 2 × × 0.478 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠50.19
6 6

= 0.599𝐹

1 2 1
𝐹𝑟2 = 𝐹 + 0.3062 +2× × 0.306 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠0
6 6

= 0.473𝐹
∴ 𝐹𝑟 = max 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑟1 & 𝐹𝑟2 = 0.599𝐹
∴ 0.599𝐹 = 55

𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 92 kN
DESIGN OF ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Load lying in plane of bolted joint
Design procedure for eccentric load lying in plane of bolt
groups:
•Assume a suitable diameter ‘d’ for the bolt.

•Find strength of one bolt in shear, bearing and get bolt value, Bsd.

•If moment coming on the joint is much less compare to the direct
load, use formula: n = P/ Bsd to find approximate numbers of
bolts.

•Increase the number of bolts to a certain percentages (say 50%)

and then arrange the total number of bolts in two or more vertical
lines at a suitable spacing, edge and pitch.

•If moment on the joint is much high compare to the direct load,
use formula:n  6M
n ' p  B sd
Design procedure for eccentric load lying in plane of bolt
groups:
Here, n = number of bolts per line.
p = pitch of the bolt.
n' = number of bolt lines.

•Increase the number of bolts to a certain percentages (say 50%)

and then arrange the number of bolts per line.

•The resultant force for the critical bolt is to be calculated.

•If resultant force in the critical bolt is less than the bolt value,
then the joint is safe.

•Otherwise, increase the number of bolts per line.

Example: Design a bolted bracket connection to transfer an end
reaction of 300 kN with an eccentricity of 170 mm, due to factored
load as shown in the figure. The steel used is of grade FE 410. Use 20
mm diameter bolt of grade 4.6. The thickness of bracket plate is 10
mm and the column section is ISHB 200 @ 365.91 N/m.

eo =170 mm

ISHB 200 300 kN

Bracket plate
Example: Design a bolted bracket connection to transfer an end
reaction of 300 kN with an eccentricity of 170 mm, due to factored
load as shown in the figure. The steel used is of grade FE 410. Use 20
mm diameter bolt of grade 4.6. The thickness of bracket plate is 10
mm and the column section is ISHB 200 @ 365.91 N/m.

eo =170 mm

ISHB 200 300 kN

Bracket plate
Solution: For Fe 410 grade of steel: f u  410 M Pa
For bolts of grade 4.6: f ub  400 N / m m 2
Partial safety factor for the material of bolt:  m b  1.25
For column section ISHB 200 @ 365.91 N/m,
Gauge, g  100 m m
Thickness of flange, t f  9.0 m m
Diameter of bolt, d  2 0 m m
Diameter of hole, d 0  22 mm [Table 19 IS 800]
Minimum edge distance, e = 1.5×22 = 33 mm [cl. 10.2.4.2 –IS 800]
Net shear area of the bolt at threads,

Anb  0.78   20  245 m m
2 2

4
Minimum pitch, p = 2.5×20 = 50 mm

Provide e = 35 mm and p = 60 mm
 f ub
Strength of bolt in single shear, V dsb   n n Anb  n s A sb 
3   mb
3
400  10
 1  245  0   45.26 kN
3  1.25

2.5  k b  d  t  f u
Strength of bolt in bearing, V dpb 
 mb

kb is smaller of 35/(3×22), 60/(3×22)-0.25, 400/410, 1

Hence, kb = 0.53
3
2.5  0.53  20  9  410  10
V sd   78.23 kN
1.25

Hence, the strength of the bolt, V sd  45.26 kN

Let us provide bolts in two vertical rows.

Moment due to eccentricity, M = 170×300 = 51000 kN-mm
number of row, n   2
Number of bolts required in one row,
6M 6  51000
n   7.51  8
pn V sd 60  2  45.26

Provide 16 bolts on each bracket plate with 8 bolts in each vertical

line.
eo =170 mm

ISHB 200 300 kN

50 mm

θ rn
c/c distance
@ 60 mm

Bracket plate
Force on critical bolt A
P 300
The direct force, F1    18.75 kN
n 16
P e 0 rn
The force in the bolt due to twisting moment, F2 
r
2

Eccentricity, eo = 170 mm
rn  210  50  215.87 m m
2 2

 r  4  [(210  50 )  (150  50 )  (90  50 )  (30  50 )]

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 342400 m m
2

300  170  215.87

F2   32.15 kN
342400
 50
cos    0.232
210  50
2 2

Resultant force on the critical bolt,

F  F1  F2  2 F1 F2 co s 
2 2

F  18.75  32.15  2  18.75  32.15  0.232

2 2

 40.8 kN  45.26 kN

Hence, connection is safe.

ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Load lying in plane of welded joint
 Load lying in plane of welded joint

e b
y

d r

x

Maximum stress will be, where r is maximum and

angle between the two force is minimum
Let us consider a weld of size = S
Throat thickness, t  0.707S

If
P  Total vertical load
e  Eccentricity
L  total length of the weld = 2b + d

Then, the direct shear stress in the weld,

Also, the stress due to bending,

 Where,
M  Moment = Pe
r  The radial distance of the welding point
from the CG of the weld
Ip Polar moment of inertia of the weld = Ixx + Iyy

At any point the resultant stress is given by

Where,  the angle between them

For critical condition, developed stress should be
less than the permissible stress in weld.
Example:
A bracket is subjected to a load of 50 kN and is connected to a
stanchion by welding. Find the size of the weld so that the load can
be carried safely.
50 kN

mm

X Distance of the CG of the welded area from BC

 Solution :
Eccentricity of the load = 150 + 100 – 25 = 225 mm

mm4

Similarly,
mm4

mm4

Area =
Maximum radial distance, mm
Moment, kNm

Maximum shear stress due to bending,

Direct shear stress,

Resultant stress,
Strength of weld = 410/ (√3×1.25) = 189.37MPa

Therefore, 539.88/t = 189.37, Thus t = 539.88/189.37 = 2.85 mm

Size of the weld, s= t/0.707 = 4.03 mm

Hence, provide 5 mm size of the weld.

 ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Load lying perpendicular to the plane of bolted joint

1
 P Gusset Plate
e

+
+
+
+ h
+
Line of +
rotation +
b
Bracket angle
Column
Forces on bolts
Clause 10.11.2.1 of IS 800:2007 provides general method of analysis

In this type of loading, the bolts are in the combined action of shear
2
and tension.
Assumptions
In practice, the line of rotation (i.e. the neutral axis) is assumed to
lie at a height of 1 7 th the depth of bracket measured from the
bottom edge of bracket to the center line of the top most bolt.

Center of rotation will not be center of bolt group. Because the area
of bracket section below the center of rotation will be in
compression which will be much higher than the area of bolts in
tension.

Center of rotation will not be at the foot of bracket. Because bottom

of the bracket and stanchion are not perfectly rigid.

3
 The tensile force T in any bolt above the line of rotation will be
proportional to its distance from the NA or the line of rotation.

So, Here,
yi Distance from NA to any bolt
k  elastic constant

The moment of resistance due to this tensile force = 𝑇𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑘𝑦𝑖 2

So, total Moment of resistance provided by the bolts in tension,

𝑀′ = 𝑘𝑦𝑖 2 = 𝑘 𝑦𝑖 2

4
 Or,

Therefore, Tensile force in bolt i,

Tensile force in the extreme critical bolt will be:

Total tensile force,

For equilibrium, total tensile force = total compressive force, Thus

This compressive force acts at a distance of from the

NA
5
Hence taking moment about NA we get
External moment (M) = Moment resisted by bolts in tension
(M’) + Moment resisted by compressive force.

6
Also the tensile force in the extreme bolt,

Where ymax is the maximum distance of the bolt from neutral axis.
Thus,

7
Design Steps
1. Select nominal diameter of bolt and provide pitch and edge
distance suitably.

2. Calculate the design shear strength (Vdsb)

3. Select number of bolt lines, n’ and external moment (M) due to

eccentricity.

4. Find the approximate number of bolts (n) per line from the
following formula:
6M
n
n ' p  V sdb

5. Compute the shear force (Vsb) in the bolt.

8
Design Steps
6. Calculate the design tensile strength of the bolt (Tdb).

7. Calculate tensile force (Tb) in the extreme critical bolt.

8. Check for developed shear and tension individually:

Vsb < Vdsb and Tb < Tdb.

9. The connection should be checked against combined shear and

tension using the interaction formula:
𝑉𝑠𝑏 2 𝑇𝑏 2
+ ≤ 1.0
𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 𝑇𝑑𝑏

9
 DESIGN OF ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Load lying perpendicular to the plane of bolted joint

1
Design Steps
1. Select nominal diameter of bolt and provide pitch and edge
distance suitably.

2. Calculate the design shear strength (Vdsb)

3. Select number of bolt lines, n’ and external moment (M) due to

eccentricity.

4. Find the approximate number of bolts (n) per line from the
following formula:
6M
n
n ' p  V sdb

5. Compute the shear force (Vsb) in the bolt.

2
Design Steps
6. Calculate the design tensile strength of the bolt (Tdb).

7. Calculate tensile force (Tb) in the extreme critical bolt.

8. Check for developed shear and tension individually:

Vsb < Vdsb and Tb < Tdb.

9. The connection should be checked against combined shear and

tension using the interaction formula:
𝑉𝑠𝑏 2 𝑇𝑏 2
+ ≤ 1.0
𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 𝑇𝑑𝑏

3
Example:
Design a bracket connection to transfer an end reaction of 200 kN
due to factored load as shown in the figure. The end reaction from
the girder acts at an eccentricity of 250 mm from the face of the
column flange. Design bolted joint connecting the Tee-flange with
the column flange. Steel is of grade Fe 410 and bolts of grade 4.6
200 kN
A

250mm

Tee bracket

A
4
Solution:
For Fe 410 grade of steel: 𝑓𝑢 = 410 𝑀𝑃𝑎
For bolts of grade 4.6 : 𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 400 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Partial safety factor for the material of bolt: 𝛾𝑚𝑏 = 1.25
The bolts along section AA are subjected to
i) Shear due to the load, P = 200 kN passing through the c.g. of the
joint
ii) Bending moment, M = 200×250 = 50,000 kN-mm

Let us provide 24 mm diameter bolts for making the connection.

Diameter of hole d0 = 24+2 = 26 mm [ table 19, IS 800]
Net tensile stress area,
𝜋
𝐴𝑛𝑏 = 0.78 × × 242 = 353 𝑚𝑚2
4

5
Minimum pitch, p = 2.5×24 = 60 mm
Minimum edge distance, e = 1.5d0 = 1.5×26 = 39 mm [cl. 10.2.4.2, IS 800]
Provide p = 65 mm and e = 40 mm.
𝐴𝑛𝑏 𝑓𝑢𝑏
Strength of bolt in single shear, 𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠𝑑 =
3𝛾𝑚𝑏
353×400
= × 10−3
3×1.25
= 65.22 kN
𝑇𝑛𝑏
Strength of bolt in tension, 𝑇𝑑𝑏 =
𝛾𝑚𝑏

𝑇𝑛𝑏 = 0.9𝑓𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑛𝑏 = 0.9 × 400 × 353 × 10−3 = 127.08 𝑘𝑁

127.08
Hence, 𝑇𝑑𝑏 = = 101.66 kN
1.25
The bolts will be provided in two vertical rows, one on each side of
the web of the Tee section, connecting the flanges of the two sections.
6
Number of bolts required in one row,
6𝑀 6 × 50000
𝑛= ′
= = 5.95 ≈ 6
𝑝𝑛 𝑉𝑠𝑑 65 × 2 × 65.22
Hence provide 6 bolts in each row at a pitch of 65 mm and edge
distance of 40 mm.
Total depth of the bracket plate = 5×65+2×40 = 405 mm
h = 405 – 40 = 365 mm
The neutral axis is assumed to lie at h/7 from the bottom of the
365
bracket, i.e., at = 52.14 mm
7

𝑦𝑖 = 2 × [ 65 + 40 − 52.14 + 130 + 40 − 52.14

+ 195 + 40 − 52.14 + 260 + 40 − 52.14

+(325 + 40 − 52.14)]
= 1828.6 mm 7
𝑦𝑖2 = 2 × 52.862 + 117.862 + 182.862 + 247.862 + 312.862

= 418877.8 𝑚𝑚2
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ − 52.14 = 365 − 52.14 = 312.86 𝑚𝑚2

200 kN
A
250mm

365 312.86
405 mm

52.14

A
8
Maximum tensile force in the critical bolt,
𝑀𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 50000×312.86
𝑇𝑏 = = = 37.35 kN < 101.66 (𝑇𝑑𝑏 )
𝑦𝑖2 418877.8

Shear force in the critical bolt,

𝑃 200
𝑉𝑠𝑏 = = = 16.67 𝑘𝑁 < 65.22 𝑘𝑁 (𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 )
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡 2×6

Check
2 2
𝑉𝑠𝑏 𝑇𝑏
+ ≤ 1.0
𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 𝑇𝑑𝑏

16.67 2 37.35 2
or + = 0.2 ≤ 1
65.22 101.66

Hence the bolt group is safe. 9

 ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Load lying perpendicular to the plane of welded joint

1
 Load Lying Perpendicular to the Plane of Weld Joint
(a) Fillet Weld
(b) Butt Weld

Load
The direct shear stress in the weld = q =
Effective weld area

2
(a) Fillet Weld
𝑃 𝑃
1. The shear stress in the fillet weld, 𝑞 = =
𝑙𝑤 𝑡𝑡 2𝑑×𝑡𝑡
Here, P is the load and e is the eccentricity
d is the depth of bracket plate/welding depth
𝑙𝑤 is total effective length of weld
𝑡𝑡 is the throat thickness of the fillet weld
2. The stress due to bending,

&

Resultant stress,
3
Design Steps (Fillet weld)
1. Select a suitable size of weld and then compute throat thickness
𝑓
and weld strength, 𝑅𝑤 = 𝑢
3𝛾𝑚𝑤

3𝑃𝑒
2. Calculate the depth of weld using expression: 𝑑 =
𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑤

3. Increase depth d to certain percentage to accommodate shear

stress as well.

𝑃
4. Calculate direct shear stress, 𝑞 = and should be less than
2𝑑×𝑡𝑡
𝑅𝑤

4
Design Steps (Fillet weld)
3𝑃𝑒
5. Similarly, compute stress due to bending, 𝑓𝑏 = and should
𝑡𝑡 ×𝑑 2
be less than 𝑅𝑤

6. Calculate equivalent stress 𝑓𝑒 = 𝑞 2 + 𝑓𝑏 2 and should be less

than 𝑅𝑤

7. If the equivalent stress exceeds the design weld strength 𝑅𝑤

then length of weld should increased and above process be
repeated till the checks are satisfied.

5
Example: (Fillet weld)

Design a fillet weld to

connect a 10 mm thick
bracket to the flange of a
column as shown in the
figure below.

6
 Solution:
Unknown: Size of weld
Let s = size of weld; Throat thickness, tt = 0.707s
3
P 50× 10 176.8
Vertical shear stress, q= = = M Pa
2dt t 2× 200× 0.707s s

6M 6× P × e
Horizontal shear stress due to bending, f b = 2
= 2
2t t d 2t t d
3
6× 50× 10 × 150
= 2
2× 0.707s× 200
795.6
= M Pa
s

7
Resultant stress at extreme fiber,
2 2
 176.8   795.6  815
fe  q  fb   
2 2
   
 s   s  s

Weld strength, 𝑅𝑤  410 /   3  1.25   189.37 M Pa

780
  189.37
s
 s  4.3
So, Adopt a weld size of 5 mm.

8
(b) Groove Weld
𝑃 𝑃
1. The shear stress in the fillet weld, 𝑞 = =
𝑙𝑤 𝑡𝑒 𝑑×𝑡𝑒
Here, P is the load and e is the eccentricity
d is the depth of bracket plate/welding depth
𝑙𝑤 is total effective length of weld
𝑡𝑒 is the effective thickness of the groove weld
2. The stress due to bending,

&

Resultant stress,
9
Design Steps (Groove weld)
1. Select a suitable size of weld and then compute effective
𝑓𝑦
thickness and weld strength, 𝑅𝑤 =
𝛾0

6𝑃𝑒
2. Calculate the depth of weld using expression: 𝑑 =
𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑤

3. Increase depth d to certain percentage to accommodate shear

stress as well.

𝑃
4. Calculate direct shear stress, 𝑞 = and should be less than
𝑑×𝑡𝑒
𝑅𝑤

10
Design Steps (Groove weld)
6𝑃𝑒
5. Similarly, compute stress due to bending, 𝑓𝑏 = and should
𝑡𝑒 ×𝑑 2
be less than 𝑅𝑤

6. Calculate equivalent stress 𝑓𝑒 = 3𝑞2 + 𝑓𝑏 2 and should be less

than 𝑅𝑤

7. If the equivalent stress exceeds the design weld strength 𝑅𝑤

then length of weld should be increased and above process be
repeated till the checks are satisfied.

11
Example: (Groove weld)

Design a groove weld to

connect a 10 mm thick
bracket to the flange of a
column as shown in the
figure below.

12
 Solution:
Let provide a double J groove weld.
Therefore, effective throat thickness = thickness of bracket
plate = te = 10 mm
3
P 50× 10
Vertical shear stress, q= = = 25 M P a
dt e 200× 10

Horizontal shear stress due to bending, 6M 6× P × e

fb = 2
= 2
t ed t ed
3
6× 50× 10 × 150
= 2
10× 200
=112.5 M P a

13
Resultant stress at extreme fiber,

3   25    112.5   120.55
2 2
fe  3q  f b 
2 2

Weld strength, 𝑅𝑤  f y /  m 0  250 / 1.1  227.27 M P a

Here, the resultant stress is less than the weld strength.

So the joint is safe.

14
TENSION MEMBERS
AND NET AREA
 TENSION MEMBERS

Tension members are structural members that are

subjected to axial tensile forces (truss members, cables
in suspension bridges, bracing for buildings, etc).

Any cross-sectional configuration may be used, since the

only determinant of strength is the cross-sectional area.

Circular rods and rolled angle shapes are commonly used.

A member carrying direct tension is called a “tie”.

1 Wires & Cables

Types of
2 Rods & wires
tension
3 Single structural shapes & plates
members:
4. Built up sections

Various forms of tension members

Various forms of tension members
 Factors affecting the strength
 Effect of bolt holes: As discussed earlier bolt holes result in a
reduction in the area of cross section offered to resist tension and
hence cause a decrease in the strength.
 Geometry factor: A lower ratio of gauge length g to the diameter d
results in containment of contraction at the net section and hence
is more efficient.
 Ductility factor: An increase in the ductility of the member
increases the strength of the member as it results in a more even
distribution of stresses.
 Effect of residual stresses: Residual stresses have a more
pronounced effect in the case where fatigue is involved.
 Spacing of fasteners: The closer spacing of fasteners relative to
their diameter may sometimes lead to block shear failure at the
ends.
 Shear lag effect: The non-uniform stress distribution that takes
place in a tension member adjoining a connection, in which every
element of the cross section is not directly connected, is
commonly termed as the shear lag effect. This effect decreases the
design strength of the member because the whole cross section is
not completely effective at the critical section location.

Net area
When a tension member is joined to any other members by bolts,
pins or holes its gross cross-sectional area is reduced by the holes
of these fasteners. Hence, the tension members are designed for its
net sectional area. The areas of each part of a section, calculated
after deducting the areas of holes etc., if any, from the gross area
of the respective part, is termed as net area. Thus, net area of the
respective part = gross area of the respective part - area of holes
in that part.
1. Net Sectional Area: Plate

(i) Chain bolts in the plate section:

𝑨𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝒃 − 𝒏𝒅𝒉 𝒕 Where,

t  Thickness of the plate
dh Gross Diameter of the plate
b  width of plate
n→ No. of bolts in one line
(ii) Staggered/zig-zag bolt

In case of staggered bolts the net cross-sectional area along the chain
𝒑𝟐𝒔𝒊 𝒕
of the bolts is increased by an amount equal to
𝟒𝒈𝒊

Where,
psi  Staggered pitch
gi  Gauge distance 2
𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑡
Deduction = Sum of sectional area holes =
4𝑔𝑖

Failure: 1-2-3-4 / 1-2-5-6 / 1-2-5-3-4

 𝒑𝟐𝒔𝒊
𝑨𝒏 = 𝒃 − 𝒏𝒅𝒉 + 𝒕
𝟒𝒈𝒊
𝒊

Where,
b , t = width and thickness of the plate respectively.
dh = diameter of the bolt hole (2 mm in addition to the diameter of the
hole, in case the directly punched holes).
g = gauge length between the bolt holes as shown in following figure.
ps = staggered-pitch length between line of bolt Holes as shown in
following figure.
n = number of bolt holes in the critical section.
i = subscript for summation of all the inclined legs.
(iii) For staggered bolts of different pitch & gauge distance
the net area will be as follows

𝒑𝟐𝒔𝟏 𝒑𝟐𝒔𝟐
𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑 + + 𝑡
4𝑔1 4𝑔2

Failure: 1-2-3/1-2-4-5-6 /1-2-5-6/1-2-4-7

CALCULATION OF
NET AREA IN
TENSION MEMBERS
Example: Calculate the net area of an angle ISA 75×75×6 which
is connected to the gusset plate through single leg as shown in
following figure. Bolts used are M20 grade 4.6.

Gusset plate Gusset plate

Weld
Bolt
ISA 75x75x6
ISA 75x75x6

(a) Bolt Connection (b) Weld Connection

Solution:
(a) For bolt connection
Diameter of bolt hole = 20+ 2 = 22 mm
Net Area of connected leg, Anc = (75-6/2-22) × 6 = 300 mm2
Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (75-6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
Net area, An = Anc + Ago = 300 + 432 = 732 mm2
(b) For weld connection
Net Area of connected leg, Anc = (75-6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (75-6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
Net area, An = Anc + Ago = 432 + 432 = 864 mm2
Example: A flat size of 200 × 8 mm of grade Fe 410 is used as
tension member in a roof truss. It is connected to a 12 mm
gusset plate by M16 bolt of grade 4.6 using two alternate
methods of bolting as shown in following figures. Calculate the
net area of the members.
Solution:
Diameter of bolt hole = 16 + 2 = 18 mm
(a) Chain bolting
The critical sectional area of the plate will be along 1-2-3-4.
So the net area, An = (200 – 2 × 18) × 8 = 1312 mm2

(b) Zig-zag bolting

In this case, the critical section may fail along 1-2-3, 4-5-2-3, 4-5-
2-6-7 or 4-5-6-7. Hence, the net area for all possible sections
needs to be calculated and the minimum value will be considered
as net area.
The net area along 1-2-3, 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ 𝑡 = (200 – 18) × 8 =
1456 mm2
Net area along 4-5-2-3,

2
𝑝𝑠𝑖 752
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑏 − 𝑛𝑑ℎ + × 𝑡 = 200 − 2 × 18 + ×8
4𝑔𝑖 4 × 50
=1537 mm2

Net area along 4-5-2-6-7,

752
𝐴𝑛 = 200 − 3 × 18 + 2 × × 8= 1618 mm2
4×50
It may be noted that the section along 4-5-6-7 will not be critical
as the strength of the bolt 1 will be added to this section.
Thus the net sectional area = min of (1456 mm2, 1537 mm2 and
1618 mm2) = 1456 mm2
Therefore, the most critical sectional area will be along 1-2-3.
DESIGN STRENGTH OF
TENSION MEMBERS
 Design Strength of Tension Members

The factored design tension T, in the members shall satisfy the

following requirement (Clause 6.1, IS:800-2007) :

T < Td

Where Td = design strength of the member under axial tension.

Td is the lowest of the design strength due to the

(i) yielding of gross-section, Tdg ,

(ii) rupture of critical section Tdn and
(iii) block shear failure, Tdb.
 Design Strength due to Yielding of Gross-section
The design strength of the member under axial tension,
Tdg as governed by yielding of gross section is given by
(Clause 6.2, IS 800: 2007)

Tdg = Agfy /m0

Where,
fy is the yield stress of material in MPa,
Ag is the gross area of cross-section
m0 is the partial safety factor of failure in tension by
yielding (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)
 Design Strength Due to Rupture of Critical Section

Plates
The design strength in tension of a plate, Tdn as
governed by rupture of net cross-sectional area, An , at
the holes is given by (Cl. 6.3.1, IS 800: 2007)

Tdn = 0.9Anfu /m1

Where,
fu is the ultimate stress of material in MPa,
An is the net effective area of cross-section
m1 is the partial safety factor of failure in tension at
ultimate stress (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)
Threaded Rods
The design strength of threaded rods in tension, Tdn as
governed by rupture is given by (Cl. 6.3.2, IS 800: 2007)
Tdn = 0.9Anfu /m1
Where,
An is the net root area at the threaded section

Single Angles
The rupture strength of an angle connected through
one leg is affected by Shear Lag. The design strength, Tdn as
governed by rupture at net section is given by
(Cl. 6.3.3, IS 800: 2007):

Tdn = 0.9Ancfu /m1 + Agofy /m0

Where,
= 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc)  fum0 /fym1
 0.7
Here, w = outstanding leg width,

bs = shear lag width, as shown in figure below.

Angles with single leg connection (Fig. 6, IS 800: 2007)

LC = length of the end connection, that is the distance between the

outermost bolts in the end joint measured along the load direction or
length of the weld along the load direction.
For preliminary sizing, the rupture strength of net section may be
approximately taken as:

Tdn =  Anfu /m1

Here,  = 0.6 for one or two bolts, 0.7 for three bolts
and 0.8 for four or more bolts along the length in the end
connection or equivalent weld length;

An = net area of the total cross-section;

Anc = net area of the connected leg;
Ago = gross area of the outstanding leg; and
t = thickness of the leg.
Other Section (Clause 6.3.4)

The rupture strength, Tdn , of the double angles, channels, I-

sections and other rolled steel sections, connected by one or
more elements to an end gusset is also governed by shear lag
effects. The design tensile strength of such sections as
governed by tearing of net section may also be calculated
using equation in Cl. 6.3.3, IS 800: 2007, where  is
calculated based on the shear lag distance bs , taken from the
furthest edge of the outstanding leg to the nearest bolt/weld
line in the connected leg of the cross section.
 Design Strength due to Block Shear
(Cl. 6.4, IS 800: 2007)

The strength as governed by block shear at an end

connection of plates and angles is calculated as follows:

Bolted Connections
The block shear strength, Tdb of connection shall be
taken as the smaller of,
Tdb = Avgfy /3m0 + 0.9Atnfu/m1 (For tension fracture and shear yield)
or
Tdb = 0.9Avnfu /3m1 + Atgfy /m0 (For tension yield and shear fracture)
 Block shear failure (Fig. 7, IS 800: 2007)
where
Avg and Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along bolt line
parallel to external force, respectively (1-2 & 3-4 as shown in Fig.
7A and 1-2 as shown in Fig. 7B)
Atg and Atn= minimum gross and net area in tension from the bolt
hole to the toe of the angle, end bolt line, perpendicular to the line
of force, respectively (2-3 as shown in Fig. 7B), and fu and fy =
ultimate and yield stress of the material, respectively.
Welded Connection
The block shear strength, Tdb shall be checked for welded end
connections by taking an appropriate section in the member around
the end weld, which can shear off as a block.

Slenderness Ratio
The slenderness ratio is the ratio of unsupported length and least
radius of gyration. Theoretically there should not be any upper
limit of the slenderness ratio for a tension member as stability is of
little importance. However, a tension member may be subjected to
reversal force like wind, earthquake etc. Also, the limitation is
necessary to prevent undesirable vibration and lateral movement.
For this, IS 800-2007 code (clause 3.8, Table 3) has specified the
maximum values of effective slenderness ratio.
Maximum effective slenderness ratio (Table 3, IS 800: 2007)

Member Maximum effective

slenderness ratio
A tension member in which a reversal of direct 180
stress occurs due to loads other than wind or
seismic forces
A member subjected to compressive forces 250
resulting only from a combination of
wind/earthquake actions, provided the deformation
of such a member does not adversely affect the
stresses in any part of the structure.
A member normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or 350
a bracing member which is not considered effective
when subjected to reversal of stress resulting from
the action of wind or earthquake forces
Members always in tension (other than pre- 400
tensioned members)
STRENGTH CALCULATION OF
TENSION MEMBERS
Example:
Two ISA 75×50×8 are connected to a gusset plate on its same side
of thickness 10mm by four M18 grade 4.6 bolts. Find the design
tensile strength of the angle if (1) gusset is connected to the longer
leg (2) gusset is connected to the shorter leg.

75
ISA
T 18 ф 75x50x8
bolt
75

30 50 50 50 30
Solution:
(1) Gusset connected to the longer leg
2 ISA 75 × 50 × 8 connected back to back with its longer
length.
Thus, the gross area will be Ag = 2 × 938 = 1876 mm2
Strength due to yielding of gross section:
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×1876
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = = 426.36 × 103 N = 426.36 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
Dia. of bolt = 18 mm
Dia. of hole = 18+2 = 20
Let us assume pitch distance = 50 mm , edge distance = 30 mm
Strength governed by rupture of net section:
Anc = (75 - 8/2 - 20) × 8 = 408 mm2
Ago = (50 - 8/2) × 8 = 368 mm2
An = 408 + 368 = 776 mm2
𝑏𝑠 𝑤 𝑓𝑦 50:40;8 50 250
𝛽= 1.4 − 0.076 × × = 1 .4 − 0.076 × × ×
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢 3×50 8 410

= 1.242
𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0
Again, 𝛽 ≤ and ≥ 0.7
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1

𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0 410 × 1.1

= = 1.443
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1 250 × 1.25
Thus, satisfying above criteria, 𝛽 = 1.242
 0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜 0.9×410×408 1.242×250×368
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = + = 224.31 × 103 N =
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 1.25 1.1
224.31 kN
So, the strength due to rupture for two angles = 2 × 224.31 = 448.62 kN
𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢 0.8×776×410
Alternatively, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = 2 × = 2× = 407kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

Strength governed by block shear:

Avg = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30) = 1440 mm2
Avn = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30 – 3.5 × 20)= 880 mm2`
Atg = 8 × 35= 280 mm2
[as gauge g = 40 for 75 mm leg; p = 75 – 40 = 35]
Atn = 8 × (35 – 0.5 × 20) = 200 mm2
0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑔 0.9×410×880 250×280
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + = + = 213.62 × 103 N = 213.62
3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 3×1.25 1.1
kN
Thus, Tdb1 for both the angle will be:
2 × 213.62 kN = 427.24 kN.
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑛 1440×250 0.9×410×200
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1 3×1.1 1.25

= 248 × 103 N = 248 kN

So, Tdb2 for both the angle will be: 2 × 248 kN = 496 kN.
Thus, the block shear, Tdb = 427.24 kN
Design tensile strength of angle will be least of Tdg , Tdn and Tdb
(426.36 kN, 448.62 kN and 427.24 kN) = 426.36 kN
(2) Gusset connected to the shorter leg
Strength due to yielding of gross section:
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×1876
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = = 426.36 × 103 N = 426.36 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
Dia. of bolt = 18 mm
Dia. of hole = 18+2 = 20
Let us assume pitch distance = 50 mm , end distance = 30 mm.
Assuming gauge length for 50 mm leg = 25 mm
Strength governed by rupture of net section:
Anc = (50 - 8/2 - 20) × 8 = 208 mm2
Ago = (75 - 8/2) × 8 = 568mm2
An = 208 + 568 = 776 mm2
 𝑏𝑠 𝑤 𝑓𝑦 75:25;8 75 250
𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 × × = 1 .4 − 0.076 × × × = 1.133
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢 3×50 8 410

𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0
Again, 𝛽 ≤ and ≥ 0.7
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1

𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0 410 × 1.1

= = 1.443
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1 250 × 1.25
Thus, satisfying above criteria, 𝛽 = 1.133
0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜 0.9×410×208 1.133×250×568
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = + = 207.661 × 103 N =
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 1.25 1.1
207.66 kN
So, the strength due to rupture for two angles = 2 × 207.66 = 415.32 kN

𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢 0.8×776×410

Alternatively, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = 2 × = 2× = 407kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25
Strength governed by block shear:
Avg = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30) = 1440 mm2
Avn = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30 – 3.5 × 20)= 880 mm2`
Atg = 8 × 25 = 200 mm2
[as gauge g = 25 for 50 mm leg; p = 50 – 25 = 25]
Atn = 8 × (25 – 0.5 × 20) = 120 mm2
0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑔 0.9×410×880 250×200
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + = + = 195.43 × 103 N =
3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 3×1.25 1.1
195.43 kN
Thus, Tdb1 for both the angle will be: 2 × 195.43 kN = 390.86 kN.
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑛 1440×250 0.9×410×120
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + = + = 224.37 × 103 N
3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1 3×1.1 1.25
= 224.37 kN
So, Tdb2 for both the angle will be: 2 × 224.37 kN = 448.74
kN.
Thus, the block shear, Tdb = 390.86 kN
Design tensile strength of angle will be least of Tdg , Tdn and
Tdb (426.36 kN, 415.32 kN and 390.86 kN) = 390.86 kN

(1) gusset is connected to the longer leg, Td = 426.36 kN

(2) gusset is connected to the shorter leg, Td = 390.86 kN

STRENGTH OF TENSION MEMBERS
WITH WELD CONNECTION
Example:
An ISA 90×60×6 angle of Fe 410 grade steel is connected to a 10
mm thick gusset plate by weld as shown in the figure below.
Calculate the design tensile strength of the angle if gusset is
connected to the (a) longer leg (b) shorter leg.

75 75
ISA 90 x 60 x 6
ISA 90 x 60 x 6
90 T 60 T

75
75
Solution:
(a) Gusset is connected to longer leg
Gross area, Ag for ISA 90 × 60 × 6 = 865 mm2. [From IS hand book:
SP:6(1)-1964]
The net area of connected leg, Anc = (90 - 6/2) × 6 = 522 mm2
Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (60 - 6/2) × 6 = 342 mm2
(i) Tensile strength governed by yielding of gross section:
[Clause 6.2]
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×865
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = × 10−3 = 196.6 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
(ii) Tensile strength governed by rupture of net section:
Therefore, the length of outstanding leg will be, w = 60 mm.
So, the shear lag width, bs = 60 mm.
The average length of weld along the direction of load
= Lc = (75+75) /2= 75 mm. Thus,
𝑏𝑠 𝑤 𝑓𝑦
𝛽= 1.4 − 0.076 × ×
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢
60 60 250
= 1.4 – 0.076× × × = 1.029
75 6 410
𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0
Again, 𝛽 ≤ and ≥ 0.7
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1

𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0 410 × 1.1

= = 1.443
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1 250 × 1.25
Thus, satisfying above criteria, 𝛽 = 1.029
0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = +
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0
0.9×410×522 1.029×250×342
So, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = 234× 103 N = 234 kN
1.25 1.1
 𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢
Alternatively, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 =
𝛾𝑚1

Here, An =Anc +Ago = 522+342=864 mm2

0.8×864×410
Thus, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = = 226.71 × 103 N = 226.7 kN
1.25
(iii) Tensile strength governed by block shear:
Assuming average length of weld on each side as 75 mm
Avg = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2 [As gusset plate thickness = 10 mm]
Avn = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2
Atg = 90 × 10 = 900 mm2
Atn = 90 × 10 = 900 mm2
 𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑛 1500×250 0.9×410×900
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1 3×1.1 1.25

= 462.5 kN
0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑔 0.9×1500×410 250×900
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 3×1.25 1.1

= 460.2 kN
So, Tdb = 460.2 kN
Thus, the design tensile strength of the angle = least of (i), (ii)
and (iii) = 196.6 kN.
(b) Gusset connected to shorter leg
The net area of connected leg, Anc = (60 - 6/2) × 6 = 342 mm2
Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (90 - 6/2) × 6 = 522 mm2
Net cross sectional area, An = 522 + 342 = 864 mm2

i) Tensile strength governed by yielding of gross section:

𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×865
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = × 10−3 = 196.6 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

(ii) Tensile strength governed by rupture of net section:

Here, the section is connected through its shorter leg.
Therefore, the length of outstanding leg will be, w = 90 mm.
So, the shear lag width, bs = 90 mm.
The average length of weld along the direction of load
= Lc = (75+75) /2= 75 mm. Thus,
𝑏𝑠 𝑤 𝑓𝑦
𝛽= 1.4 − 0.076 × ×
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢
90 90 250
= 1.4 – 0.076× × × = 0.566
75 6 410
𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0
Again, 𝛽 ≤ and ≥ 0.7
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1

𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0 410 × 1.1

= = 1.443
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1 250 × 1.25
Thus, satisfying above criteria, 𝛽 = 0.7
0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = +
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0
0.9×410×342 0.7×250×522
So, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = 184 kN
1.25 1.1
 𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢 0.8×864×410
Alternatively, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = = = 226.7 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

(iii) Tensile strength governed by block shear:

Avg = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2
Avn = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2
Atg = 60 × 10 = 600 mm2
Atn = 60 × 10 = 600 mm2

𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑛 1500×250 0.9×410×600

𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1 3×1.1 1.25

= 373.9 kN
 0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑔 0.9×1500×410 250×600
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 3×1.25 1.1

= 392 kN
So, Tdb = 373.9 kN

Thus, the design tensile strength of the angle = least of (i), (ii) and
(iii) = least of (196.36, 184 and 373.9 ) = 184 kN.
STEPS FOR DESIGN OF
TENSION MEMBERS
Steps to design tension members
1. Find the gross area required to carry the given factored load (Tu)
considering the strength in yielding from the following
expression.
𝑻𝒖 ×𝜸𝒎𝟎
𝑨𝒈 =
𝒇𝒚
2. Select a suitable shape of section depending on the type of
structure and location of the member such that the gross area is more
than the gross area obtained in step 1.
Note:
Usually if the minimum edge and pitch distance is maintained, strength in yielding gives
least value. So, the design will be safe if gross area provided is greater than the gross area
required.

3. Determine the number of bolts or the welding length required and

suitably arrange the bolts.
Steps to design tension members

4. Find the strength considering

 Yielding of gross section (Tdg)
 Rupture at critical section (Tdn)
 Strength in block shear(Tdb)

5. If any of the above strength (Tdg, Tdn and Tdb) become less than
the factored tensile force (Tu), increase the size of the section and
repeat from step 3.
Steps to design tension members

6. Also, if the design strength (minimum of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb in

step 4. is too high compare to the factored load (Tu), decrease the
section size suitably and repeat from step 3.

7. Check for the slenderness ratio of the member as per Table 3,

IS 800: 2007. If the value of slenderness ratio exceeds the value
given in code, then increase the size of the section and redesign.
GUI based MATLAB Algorithm
Design is done for single angle sections with bolted connections.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Inputs:
Factored load 180.000 kN
Length of tension member 2500 mm
Allowable slenderness ratio 350.00
Type of section unequal with Connected leg larger
Ultimate stress of steel 410.000 N/mm^2
Yield stress of steel 250.000 N/mm^2
Partial safety factor governed by:
Ultimate stress(ym1) 1.250
Yielding(ym0) 1.100
Ultimate strength of bolt 400.000 N/mm^2
Diameter of bolt 20.000 mm
Partial safety factor for Bolt 1.250

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Output:
Required area of cross section area is 792.000 mm^2.

Test Case 1:
Section chosen is ISA 65 x 45 x 8 with combined cross section area 817.000
mm^2.
Shearing strength of one bolt is 45.274 kN.
Bearing strength of one bolt is 59.636 kN.
Number of bolt = Factored load/minimum of 45.274 and 59.636
Number of bolts for this factored load is 4

• Gross section yielding:

Tdg = Ag x fy/ym0
Tdg = 185.682 kN.

• Check for net section rupture:

alpha = 0.8 calculated from number of bolts
An = 640.000 mm^2
Tdn = alpha x An x fu/ym1
Tdn = 167.936 kN
As Tdn<Factored load, taking other section.....
Test Case 2:

Section chosen is ISA 70 x 45 x 8 with combined cross section area 858.000 mm^2.
Shearing strength of one bolt is 45.274 kN.
Bearing strength of one bolt is 59.636 kN.
Number of bolt = Factored load/minimum of 45.274 and 59.636
Number of bolts for this factored load is 4

• Gross section yielding:

Tdg = Ag x fy/ym0
Tdg = 195.000 kN.

• Check for net section rupture:

alpha = 0.8 calculated from number of bolts
An = 680.000 mm^2
Tdn = alpha x An x fu/ym1
Tdn = 178.432 kN
As Tdn<Factored load, taking other section.....
Test Case 3:

Section chosen is ISA 90 x 60 x 6 with combined cross section area 865.000

mm^2.
Shearing strength of one bolt is 45.274 kN.
Bearing strength of one bolt is 44.727 kN.
Number of bolt = Factored load/minimum of 45.274 and 44.727
Number of bolts for this factored load is 5

• Gross section yielding:

Tdg = Ag x fy/ym0
Tdg = 196.591 kN.

• Check for net section rupture:

alpha = 0.8 calculated from number of bolts
An = 732.000 mm^2
Tdn = alpha x An x fu/ym1
Tdn = 192.077 kN
Test Case 3:

• Block shear failure:

Maximum and minimum values of gauge distance calculated is 23.00 mm and
79.00 mm respectively.
avg=1380.000 mm^2
avn=786.000 mm^2
atn=138.000 mm^2
atg=204.000 mm^2
Td1 = Avg x fy/root(3) x ym0 + 0.9Atn x fu/ym1
Td2 = 0.9Avn x fu/root(3) x ym1 + Atg x fy/ym0
Tdb1 = 221.821 kN
Tdb2 = 180.329 kN

• Check for Slenderness ratio:

lamda = 2500/12.8 = 195 <350; so OK.

Hence the chosen section ISA 90 x 60 x 6 is OK and

OPTIMUM one under the present load and configuration.
If the connection is fillet weld:
Design is done for single angle sections with welded connections.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Inputs:
Factored load 180.000 kN
Length of tension member 2500.000 mm
Allowable slenderness ratio 350.00
Type of section unequal with Connected leg larger
Ultimate stress of steel 410.000 N/mm^2
Yield stress of steel 250.000 N/mm^2
Partial safety factor governed by:
Ultimate stress(ym1) 1.250
Yielding(ym0) 1.100
Throat thickness of weld 3.500 mm
Partial safety factor of weld 1.250
Weld is distributed on two sides parallel to axis to the load

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Output:
Required area of cross section area is 792.000 mm^2.
Strength of weld per mm = throat thickness of weld x fu/(root(3) x ymw)
Strength of weld per mm = 0.663 kN
Total weld required in mm = factored load/strength of weld per mm
Total weld = 272.000 mm

Test Case 1:

Section chosen is ISA 65 x 45 x 8 with combined cross section area 817.000

mm^2 and centre of gravity is 21.900 mm above the base of its unconnected leg.

Minimum length of weld at the upper side of the angle = factored load x centre of
gravity/(weld per length x length of connected leg
Minimum length of weld at the upper side of the angle,lw1 = 92.000 mm
Minimum length of weld at the lower side of the angle,lw2 = 272.000-92.000 =
180.000 mm
• Gross section yielding:
Tdg = Ag x fy/ym0
Tdg = 185.682 kN.

• Check for net section rupture:

alpha = 0.8
An = 816.000 mm^2
Tdn = alpha x An x fu/ym1 = 214.118 kN

• Block shear failure:

avg=2880.000 mm^2; avn=2880.000 mm^2
atn=520.000 mm^2; atg=520.000 mm^2

Td1 = Avg x fy/root(3) x ym0 + 0.9Atn x fu/ym1

Td2 = 0.9Avn x fu/root(3) x ym1 + Atg x fy/ym0
Tdb1 = 531.417 kN; Tdb2 = 609.046 kN

• Check for Slenderness ratio:

lamda = 2500/12.5 = 200 < 350 OK
Hence the chosen section ISA 65 x 45 x 8 is OK under the present load and
configuration.
Example:
A tension member 3 m long carries a factored tensile load of 200
kN. Design a suitable single angle unequal section when
connection is made with (i) 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6
and (ii) fillet weld. Assume longer leg to be connected with plate.
Solution:
Step 1:
𝑃 200×103
Approximate gross area required = 𝐴𝑔 = = = 880 mm2
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 250/1.1

Let use ISA 75 × 50 × 10 with gross area, Ag as 1152 mm2

Anc = (75 - 10/2 - 22) × 10 = 480 mm2
Ago = (50 - 10/2) × 10 = 450 mm2
An = 480 + 450 = 930 mm2
Design strength due to yielding of gross section
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×1152
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = = 261.8 × 103 N = 261.8 kN > 200 kN;
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

so ok.
DESIGN CALCULATION FOR
TENSION MEMBERS
Example:
A tension member 3 m long carries a factored tensile load of 200
kN. Design a suitable single angle unequal section when
connection is made with (i) 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6
and (ii) fillet weld. Assume longer leg to be connected with plate.
Solution (Connected with bolts):
Step 1:
𝑃 200×103
Approximate gross area required = 𝐴𝑔 = = = 880 mm2
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 250/1.1

Let use ISA 75 × 50 × 10 with gross area, Ag as 1152 mm2

Anc = (75 - 10/2 - 22) × 10 = 480 mm2
Ago = (50 - 10/2) × 10 = 450 mm2
An = 480 + 450 = 930 mm2
Design strength due to yielding of gross section
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×1152
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = = 261.8 × 103 N = 261.8 kN > 200 kN;
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

so ok.
Step 2:

a) For bolt connection

Cross sectional area of 20 mm diameter bolt
= 0.78 × π/4 × 202 = 245 mm2.
𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑏 :𝑛𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑏
3
Shear strength of M20 bolt in single shear = =
𝛾𝑚𝑏
(400/√3)×(1×245)
1.25
= 45.3 × 103 N = 45.3 kN
Bearing strength of bolts = 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
Here, thickness of the angle is 10 mm;
Let the edge distance = 30 mm and pitch = 50 mm
Thus, kb = lesser of [30/(3 × 22), 50/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1]
= 0.454
Bearing strength of bolt = 2.5 × 20 × 10 × 0.454 × 400/1.25 =
72.64 × 103 N = 72.64 kN
So bolt value = 45.3 kN
Step 3:
No. of bolts required = 200/45.3 = 4.4
Thus, use 5 bolts of 20 mm diameter in one line at pitch of 50
mm and edge distance of 30 mm.
Step 4:
Design strength governed by rupture of net section
Here, length of outstanding leg is: w = 50 mm and w1 = 40 mm.
So the shear lag width, bs = w + w1 – t = 50 + 40 – 10 = 80 mm.
Distance between end bolts , Lc = 4 × 50 = 200 mm.
𝑏 𝑤 𝑓𝑦 80 50 250
𝛽= 1.4 − 0.076 𝑠 × × = 1 .4 − 0.076 × × = 1.307
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢 200 10 410
𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0
Again, 𝛽 ≤ and ≥ 0.7
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1

𝑓𝑢 𝛾𝑚0 410 × 1.1

= = 1.443
𝑓𝑦 𝛾𝑚1 250 × 1.25
Thus, satisfying above criteria, 𝛽 = 1.307
 0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜 0.9×410×480 1.307×250×450
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = +
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 1.25 1.1

= 275.37× 103 N = 275.37 kN

𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢 0.8×930×410
Also, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = = = 244 × 103 N = 244 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

Design strength governed by block shear

Avg = 10 × (4 × 50 + 30) = 2300 mm2
Avn = 10 × (4 × 50 + 30 – 4.5 × 22) = 1310 mm2
Atg = 10 × 40 = 400 mm2
[assuming gauge g = 35 for 75 mm leg; p = 75 – 35 = 40]
Atn = 10 × (40 – 0.5 × 22) = 290 mm2
 0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑔 0.9×1310×410 250×400
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + = + = 314.2 kN
3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 3×1.25 1.1
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑛 2300×250 0.9×410×290
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + = + = 387.4 kN
3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1 3×1.1 1.25

So, Tdb = 314.2 kN

Thus, the design tensile strength of angle = 261.8 kN > 200 kN.
Hence, the selected angle is safe.
Again, the minimum radius of gyration (rmin) of the angle ISA
75×50×10 = 10.6 mm
The maximum slenderness ratio, λmax = Leff / rmin = 3 × 103 / 10.6 =
283 < 350.
So the angle is safe.
Solution (Connected with fillet weld):
(a) Strength due to yielding of gross section
𝑃 200×1000
Approximate area required = 𝐴𝑔 = = = 880 mm2
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 250/1.1

Use ISA 75 × 50 × 10 with Ag = 1152 mm2 and cx = 26 mm

Anc = (75 - 10/2) × 10 = 700 mm2
Ago = (50 - 10/2) × 10 = 450 mm2
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×1152
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = = 261.8 × 103 N = 261.8 kN > 200 kN;
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

so section is safe.

(b) Strength governed by rupture of net section

Here, shear lag width, bs = 50 mm. Assuming average weld length,
Lw as 165 mm
 𝑏 𝑤 𝑓𝑦 50 50 250
𝛽= 1.4 − 0.076 𝑠 × × = 1 .4 − 0.076 × × = 1.329
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢 165 10 410

0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜 0.9×410×700 1.329×250×450

𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = + =342.56 kN
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 1.25 1.1

An = Anc + Ago = 700 + 450 = 1150 mm2

𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢 0.8×1150×410
Also, 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = = = 301.8 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

(c) Strength governed by block shear

Avg = 10 × 165 × 2 = 3300 mm2
Avn = 10 × 165 × 2 = 3300 mm2
Atg = 10 × 75 = 750 mm2
Atn = 10 × 75 = 750 mm2
 0.9𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑔 0.9×410×3300 250×750
𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 3×1.25 1.1
= 732.88 × 103 N = 732.88 kN
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑡𝑛 3300×250 0.9×410×750
𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + = +
3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1 3×1.1 1.25
= 654.41 × 103 N = 654.41 kN
Thus, Tdb = 654.41 kN
Design tensile strength of angle = 261.36 kN > 200 kN, hence safe
Again, the minimum radius of gyration (rmin) of the angle ISA
75×50×10 = 10.6 mm
The maximum slenderness ratio, λmax = Leff / rmin = 3 × 103 / 10.6 =
283 < 350.
So the angle is safe.
Weld distribution:
75;26
Force resisted by weld at lower side of angle P1 = 200 × =
75
130.7 kN
26
Force resisted by weld at upper side of angle P2 = 200 × = 69.3 kN
75
Let use 6 mm weld. So the throat thickness of the weld will be (te) =
.707 × 6 = 4.24 mm
𝑃1 130.7 ×103
Length required at lower side Lw1 = 𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢 = 4.24×410 = 163 mm
3𝛾𝑚𝑤 3×1.25

𝑃2 69.3×103
Length required at upper side Lw2 = 𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢 = 4.24×410 = 86 mm
3𝛾𝑚𝑤 3×1.25

Here, average length of weld = (163+86)/2 = 124.5 mm

 𝑏 𝑤 𝑓𝑦
Thus, actual 𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 𝑠 × ×
𝐿𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑢
50 50 250
= 1 .4 − 0.076 × × = 1.307
124.5 10 410

0.9𝑓𝑢 𝐴𝑛𝑐 𝛽𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑜 0.9×410×700 1.307×250×450

𝑇𝑑𝑛 = + = + =340.31 kN
𝛾𝑚1 𝛾𝑚0 1.25 1.1

And 𝑇𝑑𝑛 > 𝑇𝑢 = 200 𝑘𝑁. So ok.

DESIGN OF GUSSET PLATE
 Gusset Plate
Gusset plates are provided to make connections at the
places where more than one member is to be joined,
e.g., joints of truss, truss girders etc. The line of action
of the members meeting at a joint should coincide as
shown in below figure.
Design of Gusset Plates

 The shape and size of a gusset plate is decided on the

basis of direction of members meeting at the joint.
 The plate size is decided to meet the specification of pitch
and edge distance for the bolts to connect the members
meeting at the joint.
 Gusset plates are designed to resist the shear, direct and
flexural stresses acting on the critical sections.
 It is a usual practice to provide thickness of gusset plate
equal to or slightly higher than the members that are to be
connected by the gusset plates.
Example 2: Design the gusset plate of thickness 12 mm at
the joint O of a lower chord of truss as shown in the figure
below. Use M20 grade 4.6 bolts.

180 kN
140 kN C
ISA 90x60x8 ISA 100x65x6
B

D
300 kN 200 kN
A O 2-ISA 100x75x8
Solution:
Forces on members OA, OB, OC and OD are:
FOA = 300 kN
FOB = 140 kN
FOC = 180 kN
FOD = 200 kN
Shear strength of M20 bolts in single shear
𝑓𝑢𝑏
𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑏 :𝑛𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑏 (400/√3)×(1×245)
3
= = = 45.3 kN
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25

Shear strength of M20 bolts in double shear = 45.3 × 2

= 90.6 kN.
Assume pitch as 60 mm and edge distance as 40 mm.
Member OB:
kb = 40/(3 × 22), 60/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1 = 0.606
Bearing strength of bolts on 8 mm thick angles,
= 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
= 2.5 × 20 × 8 × 0.606 × 400/1.25 = 77.57 × 103 N = 77.57 kN
Strength of angle per pitch length
0.9×𝑓𝑢 ×𝐴𝑛 0.9×410×[ 60;22 ×8]
= 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = =
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

= 89.74 kN
So the bolt value = 45.3 kN (lesser of 45.3, 77.57 and 89.74)
No. of bolt required = 140/45.3 = 3.1 ≈ 4
The length of gusset plate = 3 × 60 + 2 × 40 = 260 mm
Member OC:
Here, the value of kb will be same as derived for member OB as
pitch and edge are same. Bearing strength of bolts on 6 mm thick
angles = 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
= 2.5 × 20 × 6 × 0.606 × 400/1.25 = 58.18 kN
Strength of angle per pitch length
0.9×𝑓𝑢 ×𝐴𝑛 0.9×410×[ 60;22 ×6]
= 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = =
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

= 67.31 × 103 N = 67.31 kN

So the bolt value = 45.3 kN (lesser of 45.3, 58.18 and 67.31)
No. of bolt required = 180/45.3 = 3.97 ≈ 4
Length of gusset plate = 3×60 + 2×40 = 260 mm
Member AD:
Net force in member AD = 300 – 200 = 100 kN
Bearing strength of bolts on 12 mm thick gusset plate
= 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
= 2.5 × 20 × 12 × 0.606 × 400/1.25 = 96.9 × 103 N = 116.4 kN
0.9×𝑓𝑢 ×𝐴𝑛
Strength of angle per pitch length = 𝑇𝑑𝑛 =
𝛾𝑚1
0.9×410×[ 60;22 ×16]
= = 179.5 × 103 N = 179.5 kN
1.25
So the bolt value = 90.6 kN (i.e., lesser of 90.6 kN, 116.4 kN and
179.5 kN)
No. of bolts required = 100/90.6 = 1.1 ≈ 2
Length of gusset plate = 60 + 2 × 40 = 140 mm
Bolt arrangements are shown in following figure.
LUG ANGLES
 Lug Angles

 For a tension member subjected to a very large loading, the number

of bolts or the length of weld required to make its connection with
other members may often become large. Therefore, the size of
gusset plates becomes very large which will be uneconomical.
 The lug angle is a short length of an angle section used at a joint to
connect the outstanding leg of the member, thereby reducing the
length of the joint.
 For effective sharing of loads, the lug angle is provided at the
beginning of the joint.
 Lug angle is connected to outstanding leg of the main angle.
 Lug Angles

 Thus, the gusset plate material can be saved by the use of lug
angles. However, extra material is necessary for the use of lug
angles and their connections. Also, lug angles are not very
efficient in transmitting the load.
 Moreover, an eccentricity develops between the load and the
c.g. of the bolt group; thereby the use of lug angles is generally
avoided.
 Lug angles may be avoided by the use of unequal angle section
with the larger leg as the connected leg and using two rows of
staggered bolts.
 Design of Lug Angles
Cl. 10.12, IS 800:2007 provides the general procedure for design of
lug angles.
1. In the case of main member being an angle section:
• Lug angle is connected to the outstanding leg of the main angle.
• When an unequal angle is used, the load gets distributed in the
ratio of gross area of the connected leg and the outstanding leg.
• Lug angle and their connection to gusset or other supporting
member shall be capable of developing strength not less than 20%
in excess of force in the outstanding leg of main member.
• The attachment of lug angle to the main angle shall be capable of
developing strength of not less than 40% in excess of the force in
the outstanding leg of the angle.
Design of Lug Angles

2. In the case of main member being channel like section:

• The lug angle, as far as possible, should be disposed
symmetrically with respect to the section of the member.
• Lug angle and their connection to gusset or other supporting
member shall be capable of developing strength of not less
than 10% in excess of the force in the flange of the channel.
• Attachment of the lug angle to the member shall be capable
of developing strength of not less than 20% in excess of that
force.
 Design of Lug Angles

3. In no case fewer than two bolts, rivets or equivalent weld length

be used for attaching lug angle to gusset or other supporting
member.

4. The effective connection of the lug angle shall as far as possible

terminate at the end of the member connected.

5. The fastening of lug angle to the member shall preferably start in

advance of direct connection of the member to gusset or other
supporting member.
Example
A tension member carrying a factored tensile load of 180 kN has to
convert through a gusset plate of 10 mm thick using 16 mm diameter
of ordinary bolt of grade 4.6. The available length of the gusset plate
for making connection is 250 mm. Design the member & its
connection. Also design the lug angle if required.
Solution:
𝑇 180×103
Gross area required = = = 792 mm2
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 250/1.1

Select angle ISA 75 × 75 × 6 with Ag = 866 mm2 and rmin = 14.6 mm

Anc = (75 - 6/2 - 18) × 6 = 324 mm2
Ago = (75 - 6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
An = 324 + 432 = 756 mm2
Strength governed due to rupture of net section
𝛼×𝐴𝑛 ×𝑓𝑢 0.8×756×410
𝑇𝑑𝑛 = = =198.4 × 103 N = 198.4 kN > 180 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25

Hence, the chosen section is safe.

End connection
Strength of M16 bolts in single shear,
𝑓𝑢
𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑏 +𝑛𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑏 (400/√3)×(1×157)
3
= = = 29 × 103 N = 29.0 kN
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25

Assume pitch as 40 mm and edge distance as 30 mm.

kb = least of [30/(3 × 18), 40/(3 × 18) - 0.25, 400/410, 1]= 0.49
Bearing strength of bolts on 8 mm thick angles,
= 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
= 2.5 × 16 × 6 × 0.49 × 400/1.25 = 37.63 × 103 N = 37.63 kN
Therefore, bolt value = 29.0 kN
No. of bolts required = 180/29.0 = 6.2 ≈ 7
Length of gusset plate = 6 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 300 mm > 250 mm,
therefore lug angle should be used.
Lug Angle
Gross area of connected leg, Agc = (75 - 6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (75 - 6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
Load on outstanding leg of main angle = 180 × 432/(432 + 432)
= 90 kN
Load on lug angle = 1.2×90 kN = 108 kN [Cl. 10.12.2, IS 800-
2007]
𝑇 108×103
Net area required for the lug angle = = = 475 mm2
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 250/1.1

Select ISA 60 × 60 × 5 as lug angle with Ag = 575 mm2

Let assume that the section is weakened by one row of 16 mm
diameter bolt.
So, the net area available = 575 – 16×5 = 495 mm2
Connection of lug angle with gusset plate
No. of bolts required = 108/29.0 = 3.72 ≈ 4
Length of gusset plate = 3 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 180 mm
Connection of main angle with gusset plate
Load on connected leg = 90 kN
No. of bolts required = 90/29.0 = 3.1 ≈ 4
Length of gusset plate = 3 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 180 mm

Connection of lug angle to main angle

No. of bolts required to connect outstanding leg of two angles
=1.4× 90/29.0 = 4.34 ≈ 5
Length of gusset plate = 4 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 220 mm.
The arrangement of bolts for connecting lug angle is shown in
following Figure
 SPLICES
IN TENSION MEMBERS
 Splices
Splices are introduced if the available length is less than the
required length of a tension member. If a single piece of requisite
length is not available, tension members are spliced to transmit the
necessary tension from one member to another. Various types of
splices are shown below.
Design of splices
 The strength of the splice plate and the bolts which are joining
them should be able to develop strength equal to the design load.
 When tension members of dissimilar thicknesses are to be
connected, packing/filler plates are introduced.
 The design shear capacity of bolts carrying shear through a packing
or filler plate in excess of 6 mm shall be decreased by a factor as
given below (Cl. 10.3.3.3, IS 800:2007).
βpkg = 1 – 0.0125tpk
Where, tpk = thickness of the packing plate in mm.
• As per IS specification, the splice connection should be designed
for a force of at least 0.3 times the member design capacity in
tension or the design action, which ever is more.
Example: Design a tension splice to connect two tension
member plates of size 200  10 and 220  12. The member is
subjected to a factored tensile force of 280 kN. Use M20
grade 4.6 ordinary bolts for the connection.
Solution:

Splice will be provided in both sides of the tension members.

Therefore, bolt value needs to be calculated for double shear.
Shear strength of M20 bolts in double shear
𝑓𝑢
𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑏 :𝑛𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑏 (400/√3)×(2×245)
3
= = = 90.6 × 103 N = 90.6 kN
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25

Assume pitch as 50 mm and edge distance as 30 mm.

kb = 30/(3 × 22), 50/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1 = 0.454
Bearing strength of bolts on 10 mm thick plate = 2.5 × d × t × kb
× fub/γmb = 2.5 × 20 × 10 × 0.454 × 400/1.25 = 72.64 × 103 N
= 72.64 kN
So the bolt value = 72.64 kN
No. of bolts required = 280/72.64 = 3.85 ≈ 4
Thickness of packing required = 12 – 10 = 2 mm
Since the thickness of packing is less than 6 mm, no additional
bolt will be necessary to connect it with the plate.
Thus, 4 nos. of bolts will be required on the splice with a pitch of
50 mm as shown in the figure below.
 2 mm
10 mm packing 12 mm

20 mm ф bolt @ 50 mm c/c

200 mm 220 mm

20 mm ф bolt @ 50 mm c/c
Check for strength at critical section:
Strength of main plate at critical section
0.9×𝑓𝑢 ×𝐴𝑛 0.9×410×[ 200;22×2 ×10]
= 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = = = 460.5 × 103 N =
𝛾𝑚1 1.25
460.5 kN > 280 kN
Thus the section is OK.
Design strength due to yielding of gross section:
𝑓𝑦 ×𝐴𝑔 250×200×10
𝑇𝑑𝑔 = = = 454.5 × 103 N = 454.5 kN > 280 kN.
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

So the design tensile strength of the member will be 454.5 kN.

Thickness of splice plate:
Let the thickness of splice plate is t.
Thus the strength of splice plate will be:
0.9×410×[ 200;22×2 ×𝑡×2]
= 92.1024t × 103 N = 92.1024t kN
1.25
The splice will be designed for 0.3 × 454.5 kN = 136 kN or the
factored tensile load of 280 kN which ever is more.
Thus the thickness of the splice plate will be:
280
𝑡= = 3.04 mm
92.1024
Let use 4 mm thick splice plate on both side of the member.
 4 mm splice
2 mm
10 mm packing 12 mm

4 mm splice
20 mm ф bolt @ 50 mm c/c

200 mm 220 mm

20 mm ф bolt @ 50 mm c/c
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Definition:- A structural member which is straight and is
subjected to compressive forces along its axis is termed as a
compression member.

Various types of compression members

• The vertical compressive member in RCC buildings is

generally termed as column where as for steel building it
is called stanchion.

• The compressive member in a roof truss or bracing is

called as strut.

• The principal compression in a crane is called boom.

 MODES OF FAILURE OF COLUMN

1. Squashing
2. Local buckling
2. Overall flexural buckling
4. Torsional buckling
5. Flexural-torsional buckling

1. Squashing:
If the length of the compression member is relatively small then
the column will be able to attain its full strength or ‘squash
load’. Squash load = yield strength × cross sectional area.

2. Local buckling:
The individual elements of a compressive member such as
web, flange etc. may buckle locally.
3. Overall flexural buckling:
Failure due to flexural buckling occurs due to excessive
deflection of the member in its plane of weaker principle axis.

4. Torsional buckling:
Torsional buckling failure occurs due to torsional moment. The
member gets twisted about the shear center in the longitudinal
axis.

5. Flexural-torsional buckling
The flexural-torsional buckling occurs when the member bends
and twists simultaneously. Such type of failure happens with
unsymmetrical cross sections
 Classifications of Compression Member
depending on the length

 Short compression member: The failure stress will be equal

to the yield stress and buckling will not occur.

 Long compression member: Stress will occur due to

buckling of the member.

 Intermediate compression member: Failure will occur due

to the combined effect of crushing and buckling.
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF EULER COLUMN

The theory of column buckling was first originated by Euler.

Euler considered an ideal column with the following
features.

 Material is homogenous and isotropic

 Material is perfectly elastic
 No imperfections (member is perfectly straight at its
initial state)
 No eccentricity of loading
 Column ends are hinged
 Column has no flaw
 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF EULER COLUMN

The governing differential equation is

Pcr 𝑑2𝑦 𝑃𝑐𝑟
+ 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
The lowest value of the critical load
l 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
y
𝑙
x
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = =
𝐴 𝐴𝑙2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝑟 2 𝜋 2𝐸 𝜋 2𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 2
= 2
= 2
𝑙 𝑙/𝑟 𝜆
Thus, the critical stress is inversely proportional to slenderness
ratio (𝜆)
 STRENGTH CURVE FOR AN IDEAL STRUT
(Axially loaded initially straight pin-ended column)

Column fails when the compressive stress is greater than or equal to the
values defined by ACB.
AC  Failure by yielding (Low slenderness ratios)
CB  Failure by bucking (  c )
𝑓𝑐 B'
Plastic yield defined by 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑓𝑦

For 𝑓𝑐 = 𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa;

𝐸
C Elastic buckling (𝜎𝑐𝑟 ),
𝑓𝑦 A A'
𝜆𝑐 = 𝜋 = 88.85 𝜋2 𝐸
𝑓𝑦 defined by
𝜆2

𝜆𝑐 𝜆 = 𝑙/𝑟

8
STRENGTH CURVE FOR AN IDEAL STRUT

fc/fy Plastic yield

1.0 Elastic buckling

1.0  = (fy / scr )1/2

Strength curve in a non-dimensional form

9
Factors affecting strength of a compressive member

 Material property of the member

 Length of the member
 Cross sectional configuration
 Support conditions
 Imperfections
 Residual stresses

The imperfections include the following:

• The material not being isotropic and homogenous
• Geometric variations of columns
• Eccentricity of load
 Cross Section Shapes for
Rolled Steel Compression Members

(a) Single Angle (b) Double Angle (c) Tee

(d) Channel (e) Hollow Circular (f) Rectangular Hollow

Section (CHS) Section (RHS)
 Cross Section Shapes for Built - up or
fabricated Compression Members

(a) Chanel (b) Chanel (f) Built-up Box Section

face to face Back to back

(d) Plated I Section (e) Built - up I Section

Effective Length Factor for Centrally Loaded Columns
with various End (Table 11 of IS 800 2007)

Theoretical K IS-800
End Conditions
value provisions
Columns with both ends pinned 1.0 1.0

Columns with both ends fixed 0.5 0.65

Columns with one end fixed and
0.7 0.8
other end pinned
Columns with one end fixed and
2.0 2.0
other end free
Columns partially restrained at
1.0 1.2
each end
Columns with one end
unrestrained and other end 2.0 2.0
rotation partially restrained
Effective Length of Compression Member (Table 11 IS 800 :2007)
 Effective length of column in frames
ANNEX D (clause 7.2.2) – IS 800 :2007

IS 800, gives the following equations for the effective length

factor k, based on Wood’s curve:
 For non-sway frames (braced frames):

1+0.145 𝛽1 +𝛽2 − 0.265 𝛽1 𝛽2

K= (D-1 IS 800:2007)
2−0.364 𝛽1 +𝛽2 − 0.247 𝛽1 𝛽2

 For sway frames (moment – resisting frames):

1 – 0.2 𝛽1 +𝛽2 − 0.12 𝛽1 𝛽2 0.5
K= (D-1 IS 800:2007)
1−0.8 𝛽1 +𝛽2 + 0.6 𝛽1 𝛽2
𝐾
Where 𝛽1 , 𝛽2 are given, 𝛽 =
𝐾𝑐 + 𝐾𝑏
Kc and Kb are the effective flexural stiffness of the columns or
beams meeting at the joint at the ends of the columns and rigidly
connected at the joints.
 DESIGN STRENGTH OF
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 Multiple column design curves

Following four basic approaches were adopted to establish

column design formulae or curves.

i) Formula based on maximum strength

ii) Formula based on the yield limit sate (i.e., Perry-Robertson
formula)
iii) Formula based on tangent modulus theory
iv) Empirical formula such as Merchant-Rankine formula

The Indian code (IS 800 :2007) has adopted the multiple column
curves which is based on the Perry-Robertson theory and is
shown in the figure. This is similar to British Code BS 5950
(part-1) 2000.
 Merchant-Rankine formula The Indian code (IS 800 :1984)
1 1 1 𝑓𝑒 ×𝑓𝑦
= + 𝑛 Or , 𝑓 = 1
𝑓 𝑛 𝑓𝑒 𝑛 𝑓𝑦 𝑛 𝑛
𝑓𝑒 𝑛 + 𝑓𝑦

𝜋2 𝐸
Here, 𝑓𝑒 is the elastic critical stress in compression = 𝑓𝑐𝑐 =
𝜆2
n is a factor as 1.4

The allowable compressive stress will be

𝑓𝑐𝑐 × 𝑓𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑐 = 0.6 1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑓𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑦
 𝑓𝑦
𝜆=
𝑓𝑐𝑟

Based on Perry-Robertson theory

Table 7, IS 800 :2007

Buckling Class a b c d
𝛼 (imperfection
0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
factor)
 Buckling Class of Cross Sections (Table 10 IS 800 :2007)……
Cross Section Limits Buckling about Axis Buckling Class
Rolled I Section h/bf > 1.2 : z-z a
tf ≤ 40 mm y-y b
40 mm ≤ tf ≤ 100 z-z b
mm y-y c
h/bf ≤ 1,2 ; z-z b
tf ≤ 100 mm y-y c
z-z d
tf > 100 mm
y-y d
Welded I Section
z-z b
tf ≤ 40 mm
y-y c

z-z c
tf > 40mm
y-y d
Hollow Section
hot rolled any a

cold formed any b

 Buckling Class of Cross Sections (Table 10 IS 800 :2007)
Cross Section Limits Buckling about Axis Buckling Class

Welded Box Section Generally

any b
(except as
below)
thick welds z-z c
and
b/tf < 30
y-y c
h/tw < 30
Channel, Angle, T and Solid Sections

any c

Built-up Member

any c
 DESIGN STRENGTH:

The design compressive strength Pd, of a members is given by

(Cl. 7.1.2 IS 800 :2007):
𝑃 < 𝑃𝑑
Where 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑
𝐴𝑒 = effective sectional area ( cl. 7.3.2 IS 800)
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = design compressive stress of axially
loaded compressive members
as per clause 7.1.2.1 of IS 800 :2007
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = =𝜒 ≤
𝜙+[𝜙2 −𝜆2 ]0.5 𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0

Where 𝜙 = 0.5[1 + 𝛼 𝜆 − 0.2 + 𝜆2 ]

𝐾𝐿 2
𝜆= 𝑓𝑦 /𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 𝑓𝑦 /(𝜋 2 𝐸)
𝑟
 𝐾𝐿 2
fcc = Euler buckling stress = 𝜋 2 𝐸/
𝑟

Where 𝐾𝐿/𝑟 = effective slenderness ratio or ratio of

effective length KL, to appropriate radius of
gyration r
α = imperfection factor as given in Table 7, IS
800 :2007
𝜒 = stress reduction factor for different buckling
class, slenderness ratio, and yield stress
1
𝜒=
[𝜙+ 𝜙2 −𝜆2 0.5 ]

𝛾 m0 = partial safety factor for material strength

The stress reduction factor 𝝌 for different buckling classes a,
b, c and d is given in Table 8(a-d) of IS 800 :2007.
The design compressive stress fcd for various buckling classes
can be found in Table 9(a-d) of IS 800-2007.
 Allowable slenderness ratio of compression members:
(Table 3 IS 800:2007)

Type of Member KL/r

Carrying loads resulting from DL & superimposed loads 180
Carrying loads resulting from wind & seismic loads provided 250
the deformation of such a member does not adversely
affect the stress in any part of the structure
Normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or a bracing member 350
which is not considered effective when subjected to
reversal of stress resulting from the action of wind or
earthquake forces
Lacing bars in columns 145
Elements (components) in built-up section 50
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Example: Determine the design axial load on the column
section ISMB 400, given that the height of the column is 3.5 m
and that it is pin-ended. Also assume the following:
𝑓𝑦 = 250 N/mm2, 𝑓𝑢 = 410 N/mm2; E = 2×105 N/mm2

Solution:
Properties of ISMB 400 [Table I SP:6(1)-1964]
Depth of section, h = 400 mm
Flange thickness, 𝑡𝑓 = 16 mm
Thickness of web, 𝑡𝑤 = 8.9 mm
Flange width, b = 140 mm
Cross-sectional area, A = 7846 mm2
𝑟𝑧 = 161.5 mm, 𝑟𝑦 = 28.2 mm
a) Buckling curve classification (Table 10, IS 800 :2007):
ℎ 400
= = 2.86 > 1.2; 𝑡𝑓 = 16 mm < 40 𝑚𝑚
𝑏 140
Hence, we should use buckling curve ‘a’ about z-z axis and ‘b’ about
y-y axis.
b) Effective length:
Since both ends are pinned effective length, 𝐾𝐿𝑦 = 𝐾𝐿𝑧 = 3.5 𝑚
c) Non-dimensional slenderness ratio:(7.1.2.1 of IS 800 :2007)

About z-z axis: 𝛼 = 0.21[Table 7, IS 800 :2007]𝜆𝑧 = 𝑓𝑦 /𝑓𝑐𝑐 =

𝐾𝐿𝑧 2
𝑓𝑦 /(𝜋 2 𝐸)
𝑟𝑧

2
3500
= 250 × /(𝜋 2 × 2 × 105)
161.5
= 0.2439
 𝜙 = 0.5 1 + 𝛼 𝜆 − 0.2 + 𝜆2
= 0.5 1 + 0.21 0.2439 − 0.2 + 0.24392 =0.534

𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑐𝑑 =
𝜙 + [𝜙 2 − 𝜆2 ]0.5
250/1.1
= = 225.2 N/mm2
0.534:[0.534 2 ;0.24392 ]0.5

About y-y axis: 𝛼 = 0.34[Table 7, IS 800 :2007]𝜆𝑌 = 𝑓𝑦 /𝑓𝑐𝑐 =

2
𝐾𝐿𝑦
𝑓𝑦 /(𝜋 2 𝐸)
𝑟𝑦

2
3500
= 250 × /(𝜋 2 × 2 × 105)
28.2
= 1.3968
 𝜙 = 0.5 1 + 𝛼 𝜆 − 0.2 + 𝜆2

= 0.5 1 + 0.34 1.3968 − 0.2 + 1.39682 =1.679

𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑐𝑑 =
𝜙 + [𝜙 2 − 𝜆2 ]0.5

250/1.1
= = 87.06N/mm2
1.679:[1.6792 ;1.39682 ]0.5

The same may be obtained by using Table 9b of IS 800 :2007.

𝐾𝐿𝑦 3500
Thus, for = = 124.11 and 𝑓𝑦 = 250 Mpa, from Table 9b,
𝑟𝑦 28.2

91.7;81
We get 𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 91.7 − × 4.11 = 87.3 N/mm2
10
d) Design stresses:
About zz direction,
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 225.2N/mm2
About yydirection,
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 87.06N/mm2
Hence, design axial compressive stress,

𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 87.06N/mm2

The design strength,

𝑃𝑑 = 7846 × 87.06 × 10;3

= 683.07 kN
Example: Calculate the compressive strength of a compound
column consisting of ISHB 250 @ 54.7 kg/m with one cover
plate of 300×16 mm on each flange (as shown in the figure) and
having a length of 4 m. Assume that the bottom of the column is
fixed and top is hinged and 𝑓𝑦 =250 N/mm2

y Cover plate-300×16

ISHB 250
z z

125 mm 𝑦1

16 mm
y
Solution:
Properties of ISHB 250 @ 54.7 kg/m : [Table I SP:6(1)-1964]
C/S area, A = 6971 mm2
𝐼𝑧𝑧 =7983.9 ×104 mm4
𝐼𝑦𝑦 =2011.7 ×104mm4
𝑡𝑓 = 9.7 mm
a) Determination the radii of gyration for the compound section:

𝐼𝑧 for plates = 2 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐴𝑝 𝑦12

300 × 163 2
=2 + 300 × 16 × 125 + 8
12
= 17001.92 × 104 mm4
Total 𝐼𝑧 = 7983.9 ×104 + 17001.92 × 104
= 24985.82 × 104 mm4
Area of the built-up section = 6971 + 2 × 300 × 16
= 16571 mm2
𝐼𝑧 24985.82×104
𝑟𝑧 = = = 122.79 mm
𝐴 16571

16×3003
𝐼𝑦 of plates = 2 × = 7200 × 104 mm4
12

Total 𝐼𝑦 = 2011.7 ×104 + 7200 × 104 = 9211.7 × 104 mm4

𝐼𝑦 9211.7×104
𝑟𝑦 = = = 74.56mm
𝐴 16571

∴ 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 74.56 mm
b) Buckling curve classification:
From Table 10 of IS 800 :2007, for built up section buckling
class is ‘c’ about any axis.
c) Design strength:
Effective length of the column (Table 11 of IS 800 :2007)
= 0.8𝐿 = 0.8 × 4 × 103 = 3200 mm
𝐾𝐿 3200
∴ 𝜆= = = 42.92
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 74.56

From table 9c of IS 800 :2007, for 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and 𝜆 =42.92

198;183
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 198 − × 2.92 = 193.62 N/mm2
10
Hence, design strength = 193.62 × 16571 × 10;3
= 3208.48kN
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
OF ANGLE STRUTS
 Angle Struts
(Cl. 7.5 of IS 800 :2007)

1. Single Angle Struts ( Cl. 7.5.1 IS 800 :2007):

The compression in single angles may be transferred either
concentrically to its centroid through end gusset or
eccentrically by one of its leg to a gusset or adjacent member.

 Concentric loading: ( Cl. 7.5.1.1 IS 800 2007)

When a single angle is concentrically loaded in compression,
the design strength may be evaluated as per clause 7.1.2 of IS
800 :2007.
 Loaded through one leg ( Cl. 7.5.1.2 of IS 800 :2007)
When the single angle is loaded concentrically through one leg of
its legs, the flexural torsional buckling strength may be evaluated
using an equivalent slenderness ratio 𝜆𝑒 given by
𝜆𝑒 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝜆2𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘3 𝜆2𝜙

Where 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 = constants depending upon the end condition

as per Table 12 of IS 800-2007.

𝑙/𝑟𝑣𝑣
𝜆𝑣𝑣 =
𝜀 𝜋 2 𝐸/250

(𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )/2𝑡
𝜆𝜙 =
𝜀 𝜋 2 𝐸/250
Where, l = centre to centre length of the supporting member
𝑟𝑣𝑣 = radius of gyration about minor axis
𝑏1 , 𝑏2 = width of two legs of the angle
t = thickness of the leg
ε = yield stress ratio, 𝜀 = 250/𝑓𝑦

Table 12: Constants k1, k2, k3 (IS 800:2007)

No. of bolts at the Gusset/Connecting

k1 k2 k3
end of member member fixity
Fixed 0.2 0.35 20
≥2
Hinged 0.7 0.60 5
Fixed 0.75 0.35 20
1
Hinged 1.25 0.50 60
Example: An ISA 150×150×12 used as a strut has the effective
length as 3 m. Calculate the strength when it is connected by
a) One bolt at each end
b) Two bolts at each end
c) Welded at each end

Solution:
For ISA 150×150×12, A = 3459 mm2, [Table III, SP:6(1)-1964]
rvv = 29.3 mm

For angle sections, Buckling curve ‘c’ is used. [Table 10, IS 800:2007]

Imperfection factor, α = 0.49 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

a) Connected by one bolt at each end:

Assuming fixed conditions, for one bolt at each end,

k1 = 0.75, k2 = 0.35, k3 = 20 [Table 12, IS 800:2007]
c/c length, l = 3000 mm

Yield stress ratio, 𝜀 = 250/𝑓𝑦 = 250/250 = 1

[cl.7.5.1.2 of IS 800:2007]

𝑙/𝑟𝑣𝑣 3000/29.3
𝜆𝑣𝑣 = = = 1.1523
𝜀 𝜋 2 𝐸/250 1× 𝜋2 ×2× 105 /250
 150+150
(𝑏1 :𝑏2 )/2𝑡 2×12
𝜆𝜙 = = = 0.1407
𝜀 𝜋2 𝐸/250 1× 𝜋2 ×2×105 /250

Hence, 𝜆𝑒 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝜆2𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘3 𝜆2𝜙

= 0.75 + 0.35 × 1.15232 + 20 × 0.14072

= 1.2692

𝜙 = 0.5[1 + 𝛼 𝜆 − 0.2 + 𝜆2 ]
= 0.5[1 + 0.49 × 1.2692 − 0.2 + 1.26922 ]
= 1.5674
 𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑐𝑑 =
∅:[∅2 ;𝜆2 ]0.5
250/1.1
=
1.5674:[1.5674 2 ;1.26922 ]0.5

= 91.38 N/mm2

𝑃𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 3459×91.38× 10;3 = 316.1 kN

b) Connected by two bolts at each end:

Assuming fixed conditions, for two bolts at each end,

k1 = 0.2, k2 = 0.35, k3 = 20 [Table 12, IS 800:2007]
Effective length, l = 3000 mm ; 𝜀=1
𝜆𝑣𝑣 = 1.1523
𝜆𝜙 = 0.1407

𝜆𝑒 = 0.2 + 0.35 × 1.15232 + 20 × 0.14072

= 1.03
 𝜙 = 0.5[1 + 𝛼 𝜆 − 0.2 + 𝜆2 ]
= 0.5 1 + 0.49 × 1.03 − 0.2 + 1.032
= 1.2338

𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑐𝑑 =
∅:[∅2 ;𝜆2 ]0.5
250/1.1
= = 118.8 N/mm2
1.2338:[1.23382 ;1.032 ]0.5

𝑃𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 3459×118.8× 10;3 = 410.9 kN

c) Connected by weld at each end:

This case will be exactly similar to earlier case, i.e., Connected by
two bolts at each end. Therefore,
𝑃𝑑 = 410.9 kN
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
OF DOUBLE ANGLES
Effective length for Double Angle Struts:(Cl. 7.5.2 IS 800:2007)

The effective length, KL, in the plane of end gusset shall be taken as
between 0.7 and 0.85 times the distance between intersections,
depending on the degree of the restraint provided. The effective
length, KL, in the plane perpendicular to that of the end gusset, shall
be taken as equal to the distance between centres of intersections.
Example: A discontinuous strut of length 4 m consists of two
unequal angles ISA 100×75×8 and is connected to a 10 mm thick
gusset plate by its longer leg. Determine the strength if it is
connected on the:
i) Opposite side of the gusset plate
ii) Same side of the gusset plate
Solution:
Properties of ISA 100×75×8 : [Table IV, SP:6(1)-1964]
A= 1336 mm2
rx = 31.4 mm ry = 21.8 mm
ru = 34.8 mm rv = 15.9 mm
Cx = 31.0 mm Cy = 18.7 mm
Ix = 131.6×104 mm4 Iy = 63.3×104 mm4
i) Angles placed on opposite sides of the gusset plate:

For double angle struts

𝐴′ = 2×1336 = 2672 mm2
𝑟𝑥′ = 31.4 mm (same as for single angle)
2
𝐼𝑦′ = 2 𝐼𝑦 + 𝐴 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑡𝑔 /2

= 2 × 63.3×104 + 1336 × 18.7 + 10/2 2

= 276.68×104 𝑚𝑚4
 𝐼𝑦′ 276.68×104
𝑟𝑦′ = = = 32.18 𝑚𝑚
𝐴′ 2672

Hence, 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = min 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑥′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑦′ = 31.4 𝑚𝑚

Effective Length, 𝑙𝑒 = 0.85 𝑙 = 0.85 × 4 = 3.4 𝑚 [Cl. 7.5.2.1, IS 800]

𝑙𝑒
Slenderness Ratio, λ =
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

3.4 × 1000
= = 108.28 < 180 [table 3, IS 800 2007]
31.4

Hence, the section is ok.

Buckling class for angle section – ‘c’ [Table 10, IS 800 :2007]
For 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and 𝜆 = 108.28 and buckling class c, using
Table 9(c) of IS 800 :2007, we have
107−94.6
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 107 − × 8.28 = 96.73 MPa
10

Hence strength of the member = 96.73 × 2672 × 10−3

= 258.46 𝑘𝑁
ii) Angle placed on the same side of the gusset plate

𝐴′ = 2672 mm2
𝑟𝑦′ = 21.8 mm (same as for single angle)

𝐼𝑥′ = 2 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐴𝐶𝑥 2
= 2 × 131.6×104 + 1336 × 312
= 519.98×104 𝑚𝑚4
 𝐼𝑥′ 519.98×104
𝑟𝑥′ = = = 44. 11 𝑚𝑚
𝐴′ 2672

Hence, 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = min 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑥′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑦′ = 21.8 𝑚𝑚

Effective Length, 𝑙𝑒 = 0.85 𝑙 = 0.85 × 4 = 3.4 𝑚 [cl. 7.5.2.1, IS 800]

𝑙𝑒
Slenderness Ratio, λ =
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

3.4 × 1000
= = 155.96 < 180 [table 3, IS 800 2007]
21.8

Hence, the section is ok.

Buckling class for angle section – ‘c’ [table 10, IS 800 :2007]
For 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and 𝜆 = 155.96 and buckling class c, using table
9(c) of IS 800 :2007, we have
59.2−53.3
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 59.2 − × 5.96 = 55.68 MPa
10

Hence strength of the member = 55.68 × 2672 × 10−3

= 148.78 𝑘𝑁

Strength of the member when Angles placed on

(i) Opposite sides of the gusset plate: 258.46 𝑘𝑁

(ii) Same side of the gusset plate: 148.78 𝑘𝑁
 DESIGN OF
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 Steps for design of compression members:
1) Assume a suitable design compression stress (𝑓𝑐𝑑 ) as 0.4fy
to 0.6 fy.
𝑃𝑑
2) Effective sectional area required is, 𝐴𝑒 =
𝑓𝑐𝑑

3) A section is to be selected which gives effective area required

and then calculate rmin.

4) Determine effective length, knowing the end conditions and by

deciding the type of connection.
5) Determine the slenderness ratio and hence design stress fcd and
load carrying capacity Pd.
6) Modify the section if calculated Pd differs significantly from the
design load.
Slenderness ratio to be assumed while selecting the
trial section:

Type of member Slenderness Ratio (l/r)

Single angles 100-150
Single channels 90-150
Double angles 80-120
Double channels 40-80
Single I-sections 80-150
Double I-sections 30-60

•Compute KL/r for the section selected & check for

slenderness ratio.
Example: Design a compression member carrying an axial load of
250kN. The effective length of the member is 3 m. Design the
member with 2 equal angles in star orientation as shown in the figure
below.
y
10 mm
v u

x x

u v
y
Solution:
Assuming 𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 0.5𝑓𝑦 = 0.5 × 250 = 125 𝑀𝑃𝑎

250×1000
Required area = = 2000 𝑚𝑚2
125

Selecting 2 ISA 90×90×6 with the following properties

[Table III, SP:6(1)-1964]

𝐴 = 1047 𝑚𝑚2

𝑐𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 = 24.2 𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑥 = 𝑟𝑦 = 27.7 𝑚𝑚

𝑟𝑢 = 35 𝑚𝑚 𝑟𝑣 = 17.5 𝑚𝑚

𝐴′ = 2 × 1047 = 2094 𝑚𝑚2

Assuming 10 mm gusset plate.

 𝑡𝑔 2
We know, 𝐼𝑥′ = 2 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐴 𝐶𝑥 +
2

𝑡𝑔 2
𝑟𝑥′ = 𝑟𝑦′ = 2
𝑟𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 +
2

= 27.72 + (24.2 + 10
2
) 2 = 40.25 𝑚𝑚

𝑡𝑔 2
𝑟𝑣′ = 2
𝑟𝑣 + 2 𝑐𝑦 +
2

= 17.52 + 2 × (24.2 + 10
2
)2 = 44.85 𝑚𝑚

𝑟𝑢′ = 𝑟𝑢 = 35 𝑚𝑚, Hence, 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 35 𝑚𝑚

Effective Length, 𝑙𝑒 = 0.85 𝑙 = 0.85 × 3000 [cl. 7.5.2.1, IS 800]

= 2550 𝑚𝑚
 𝑙𝑒 2550
So 𝜆 = = = 72.86 < 180 hence safe.
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 35

For 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and 𝜆 = 72.86 and buckling class c,

using table 9(c) of IS 800 :2007, we have

152−136
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 152 − × 2.86 = 147.42 MPa
10

Hence strength of the member = 147.42 × 2094 × 10−3

= 308.7 𝑘𝑁 > 250 𝑘𝑁

Hence the member is safe.

Tack welding:
Tack welding should be provided along the length to avoid local
buckling of each of the elements
𝜆𝑒 ≤ 0.6𝜆 = 0.6 × 72.86 = 43.716 or 40, whichever is less
(clause 7.8.1)
So, 𝜆𝑒 = 𝑆/𝑟𝑣 = 40
Hence, spacing between welds, 𝑆 = 40 × 𝑟𝑣 (Min r of the
individual member) = 40 × 17.5 = 700 𝑚𝑚
Welding is designed to resist a transverse load (P) of 2.5% of
axial load = 2.5 × 250/100 = 6.25 𝑘𝑁
Using 5 mm weld size (shop weld)
𝑃 6.25×103
Hence length of weld = 𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑢 = 0.7×5×410 = 9.43 mm
3𝛾𝑚𝑤 3×1.25

Hence provide a 5mm tack welding of 10 mm length at 700 mm

spacing.
 Design of Compression Member using GUI in
MATLAB

Example: Design a single angle discontinuous

strut to carry a factored load of 50 kN. Assume
that the distance between its joints is 2 m. Use
𝑓𝑦 = 250 Mpa.
 DESIGN OF BUILT UP
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 Why Built-up Sections?
A built up compression member are those which
consist of two or more rolled steel sections. The
reasons for built-up columns are follows: -

1. The built up sections provide large cross-sectional

area which cannot be furnished by single rolled steel
section.
2. The built up sections provide special shape &
depth. The special shape & depth facilitate
connections between different members.

3. The built up sections provide sufficient large radius

of gyration in two different directions.
4. As larger radius of gyration is capable of handling
more stress thereby requiring lesser area. which
ultimately leads to an economic design.
Examples of Built-up Sections
Channel Back to Back
Channel Face to Face
I Section with Chanel at Top
Double I Section
I Section with Plates
Star Angle
Design of built-up compression member
Step1: -
Find the effective length from the actual length & end
conditions
Step2: -
Assume value of λ between 30-60 for the built section.
Step3: -
Find design compressive stress (𝑓𝑐𝑑) from Table 9(C) of
IS:800-2007 for the given value of λ

Step4: -
𝑃
Find the area as 𝐴 =
𝑓𝑐𝑑
Step5: -
Choose a built-up section so that the total area becomes more
than the required area calculated in step 4. Also, arrange the
members in such that the values of Izz will become close to Iyy.

Step6: -
With the above arrangement, find rmin and then calculate λ.

Step7: -
From Table 9(C) find the value of 𝑓 𝑐𝑑 and then the design
compressive strength 𝑃𝑑 . If 𝑃𝑑 >P then OK, otherwise chose a
higher section & repeat the Steps 5-7
Example: Design a laced column 10.5 m long to carry factored
axial load of 1000 kN. The column is restrained in position but
not in direction at both the ends. Use 2 channel section placed as
back to back as shown in the figure below.
Solution:
For steel of grade Fe 410:
𝑓𝑢 = 410 MPa, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa
Design of column:
𝑃 = 1000 kN = 1000 × 103 N
L = 1.0 × 10.5 = 10.5 m
Let the design axial compressive stress for the column be
150 MPa
1000×103
Required area = = 6666.67 mm2
150
Let us try two ISMC 250 @ 298.2 N/m.
Relevant properties of ISMC 250 [ Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]
𝐴 = 3867 mm2, 𝑟𝑧𝑧 = 99.4 mm,
𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 23.8 mm 𝑡𝑓 = 14.1 mm
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 3816.8 × 104 mm4 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 219.1 × 104 mm4
𝑐𝑦𝑦 = 23 mm 𝑏 = 80 mm
Area provided = 2 × 3867 = 7734 mm2

In the design of built-up column with two sections, the sections

are so spaced that the least radius of gyration of the built-up
section becomes as large a value as possible. Therefore, the
radius of gyration about y-y axis is increased so that it becomes
equal to or more than the radius of gyration about z-z axis. This
can be achieved by spacing the sections in such a way that 𝑟𝑧𝑧
becomes 𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Let us first check the safety of the section.
 𝐿 10.5 × 103
= = 105.63
𝑟𝑧𝑧 99.4
As per clause 7.6.1.5 of IS 800:2007,
𝐾𝐿
The effective slenderness ratio, = 1.05 × 105.63
𝑟 𝑒
= 110.91 < 180
𝐾𝐿
For = 110.91, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and buckling class c, the
𝑟 𝑒
design compressive stress from Table 9c of IS 800 :2007
94.6−83.7
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 94.6 − × 0.91 = 93.61 MPa
10

Therefore load carrying capacity = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

= 7734 × 93.61 × 10−3
= 723.98 kN < 1000 kN
Which is not safe.
Try two ISMC 300 @ 351.2 N/m
Relevant properties of ISMC 300 [ Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]
𝐴 = 4564 mm2, 𝑟𝑧𝑧 = 118.1 mm,
𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 26.1 mm 𝑡𝑓 = 13.6 mm
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 6362.6 × 104 mm4 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 310.8 × 104 mm4
𝑐𝑦𝑦 = 23.6 mm 𝑏 = 90 mm
Area provided = 2 × 4564 = 9128 mm2
𝐿 10.5 × 103
= = 88.91
𝑟𝑧𝑧 118.1
As per clause 7.6.1.5 of IS 800:2007,
𝐾𝐿
The effective slenderness ratio, = 1.05 × 88.91
𝑟 𝑒
= 93.35 < 180
 𝐾𝐿
For = 93.35, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and buckling class c, the
𝑟 𝑒
design compressive stress from Table 9c of IS 800 :2007
121−107
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 121 − × 3.35 = 116.31 Mpa
10

Therefore load carrying capacity = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

= 9128 × 116.31 × 10−3
= 1061.68 kN > 1000 kN
Which is safe.

Let us provide two channels back-to-back.

Spacing of channels:
𝑆 2
2𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝐴 + 𝐶𝑦𝑦
2
𝑆 2
or 2 × 6362.6 × 104 = 2 × 310.8 × 104 + 4564 + 23.6
2
𝑆 2
or + 23.6 = 13259.86
2
⇒ 𝑆 = 183.1 mm
Let us keep the channels at a spacing of 184 mm

ISMC 300

S=184 mm
LACING SYSTEM
 Laced Column (Clause 7.6 IS 800 :2007)
Lacings are the most commonly used lateral system in built–up
compression members. Apart from flat bars other common
sections used are angles, channels and tubular sections. Lacing
may be of two types:-
(a) Single Lacing
(b) Double Lacing

Single Lacing Double Lacing

Failure Modes of Latticed Compression Members

1. Buckling of built-up member as a whole

2. Buckling of main component
3. Distortion of the section
4. Failure of Lattice member

1. Failure as a whole 2. Failure of main component

 Failure Modes of Latticed Compression Members

3. Distortion of Cross section 4. Failure of Lacing

 General requirements
Clause 7.6 of IS: 800-2007
Compression members comprising of two main components
laced & tied should where practicable, have a radius of gyration
about the axis perpendicular to the plane of lacing not less than
the radius of gyration about the axis in the plane of lacing.

Ref: IS 800 :2007

As far as practicable lacing system shall not be varied
throughout the length of the strut.
Single laced system on opposite sides of the components shall
preferably be in the same direction so that one be the shadow of
the other, instead of being mutually opposed in direction.

Face A Face B
Face A Face B
Preferred Not Preferred
Ref: IS 800 :2007
Double lacing system & single lacing system on opposite sides
of the main components shall not be combined with cross
members perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the strut
unless all forces resulting from deformation of the strut
members are calculated & provided for in the lacing &
fastenings.

Ref: IS 800 :2007

 Design Specifications
1. Force in lacing:
The lacing of compression members shall be proportioned to
resist a total transverse shear V at any point in the length of the
member equal to at least 2.5% of the axial force in the member,
which shear shall be considered as divided equally among all
transverse lacing systems in parallel planes.

2.5
Thus the total transverse shear force, 𝑉 = ×𝑃
100
Where, P is the axial force in the members
For single lacing system of
two parallel faces the force
on each bar:
𝑉 𝑉
𝐹= =
𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
n = No. of transverse
system in parallel plane

For double lacing:

𝑉
𝐹=
4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Single lacing Double lacing
This force will be tensile in
one lacing bar &
compressive in the other
The slenderness ratio 𝑙𝑒 /𝑟 of the lacing bars should not exceed
145. The effective length of lacing bars should be taken as
follows:-

Types of welding Effective length

Single lacing (bolted at Length between inner end bolts on

ends) lacing bar i.e. (le =l)

Double lacing, (bolted

0.7 times the length between inner end
at ends & at
bolts on lacing bars i.e. (le =0.7l)
intersections)

0.7 time the distance between inner

Welded lacing ends of lengths of welds at ends i.e.
(le =0.7l)
For flat bars of thickness t and width b:
The slenderness ratio will be:
𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒 12
𝜆= = = =
𝑟 𝐼/𝐴 3
𝑏𝑡 /12 𝑡
𝑏𝑡

𝑙𝑒 12
∴ 𝜆𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = < 145
𝑡

2. Width of Lacing Bars

In riveted/bolted connection, the minimum width of lacing bars

should be more than three times the nominal diameter of the
end connector.
3. Thickness of Lacing Bars
The minimum thickness of the flat lacing bars should be as
follows:
𝑙
𝑡> for single lacing
40
𝑙
𝑡> for double lacing
60
Where, l is the length between the inner end bolts or welds

4. Angle of Inclination
Lacing bars, whether in double or single systems, shall be
inclined at an angle not less than 400 nor more than 700 to the
axis of the member.
5. Spacing: The maximum spacing of lacing bars should be
such that minimum slenderness ratio will be,

𝐿
𝑐 = 0.7𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
which ever is minimum
= 50
Where, 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum slenderness ratio of the
compression member as a whole
L = Distance between centers of connections of the
lattice bars to each component
𝑐
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Minimum radius of gyration of the component
of compression members
6. Attachment to the main members:

The riveting, bolting or welding of the lacing bars to the main

member should be sufficient to transmit the load in the bar.

Welded Connection:
Where welded lacing bars overlap the main members, the
amount of lap measured along either edge of the lacing bar
shall be not less than four times the thickness of the bar or the
members, whichever is less.

The welding should be sufficient to transmit the load in the bar

and shall, in any case, be provided along each side of the bar
for the full length of lap.
Where lacing bars are fitted between the main members, they
shall be connected to each member by fillet welds on each side
of the bar or by full penetration butt welds. The lacing bars shall
be so placed as to be generally opposite the flange or stiffening
elements of the main member.

Bolted connection:
𝐹
For first case, the numbers of bolt, 𝑛 =
𝑅
For second case, the numbers of bolt,
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 2𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑛= =
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑅
Where, F = Force in lacing bar
𝜃 = Inclination
DESIGN OF LACING
SYSTEM
 Design Steps

Step 1: -
Choose the lacing system i.e. either single lacing or double
lacing. Choose the angle of inclination with the axis of the
compression member.

Step 2: -
For a given shape, find out gauge distance g on each side
& find the distance a between the bolt center. Then
compute the spacing
Thus according to the figure,
a = 2g + S
S = Clear spacing

2𝑎
𝐿= For single lacing
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑎
= For double lacing
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑎
𝑙= For both single and double lacing
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Step 3: -
Find the slenderness ratio of each component & check for
slenderness ratio
𝐿
𝑐 = 0.7𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 50
Step 4: -
Find the length l of each lacing between the inner end bolts
and then find the effective length, le.

For single lacing system (bolted ends), le = l

Double lacing system (bolted ends), le = 0.7l
For welded lacing system, le = 0.7l
 Step 5: -
Select thickness t of lacings consisting of flats.
𝑙
𝑡> for single lacing
40
𝑙
𝑡> for double lacing
60
Step 6: -
Calculate maximum slenderness ratio of lacing and check
whether it is less than 145. For flats,
𝑙𝑒 12
∴ 𝜆𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = < 145
𝑡

Step 7: -
Calculate the compressive strength

Step 8: -
Calculate transverse shear, V = 0.025P and then force, F in each
lacing.
Step 9: -
Compute developed compressive and tensile stress in lacing
which should be less than the permissible compressive and
tensile stresses.

Step 10: -
Select bolt diameter and then find minimum width, b of the
flats. The no. of bolt required can be found from equation:
𝐹
𝑛=
𝑅

Step 11: -
Design the end connections for lacing system. Check if the
no. of bolts are sufficient to withstand the load in the
member.
Example: Design a laced column 10.5 m long to carry factored
axial load of 1000 kN. The column is restrained in position but not
in direction at both the ends. Provide single lacing system. Use 2
channel section placed as back to back. Assume steel of grade Fe
410 and bolts of grade 4.6.
a) Design the lacing system with bolted connections
b) Design the lacing system with site welded connections.
Solution: The first part of this example is demonstrated in lecture
no. 35 to find size of the of the channel section and spacing. The
size of the sections was ISMC 300 and are placed back to back
with a spacing of 184 mm as shown in the figure below.

Design of lacing system:

Let use a single lacing system with inclination of lacing bar = 45°
Assume gauge length = 50 mm
Spacing of lacing bar, 𝐿0 = 2 × 184 + 50 + 50 𝑐𝑜𝑡45° = 568 mm
𝐿0 /𝑟𝑦𝑦 should be < 0.7 × 𝐿/𝑟 of whole column [cl. 7.6.5.1 of IS
800 :2007]
𝐿0 568
= = 21.76 < 0.7 × 93.35 = 65.34
𝑟𝑦𝑦 26.1
𝐿/𝑟 = 93.35 has been calculated in lecture no. 35
Hence safe.

2.5
Maximum shear, 𝑉 = × 1000 × 103 (cl. 7.6.6.1 IS 800 :2007)
100
= 25000 N
𝑉 25000
Transverse shear in each panel = = = 12500 N
𝑁 2

Compressive force in lacing bars (F) = 𝑉 /𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐45°

= 12500 × 1.414
= 17675 N = 17.67 kN
Lacing flats:
Let us provide 16 mm diameter bolts
Minimum width of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.2 IS 800 :2007)
= 3 × 16 = 48 mm
Let us provide 50 mm wide flats.
Length of lacing flat (l) = 184 + 50 + 50 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐45° = 401.6=402
mm
Minimum thickness of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.3 IS 800 :2007)
1
= ×length of flat between inner end bolts.
40
1
= × 402
40
= 10.05 mm
Provide 12 mm thick plate with a width of 50 mm.
𝑡 12
Minimum radius of gyration, 𝑟 = = = 3.464 mm
12 12
 402
𝑙/𝑟 of lacing bar = = 116 < 145
3.464
Hence, ok
𝑙
For = 116, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and buckling class c, the design
𝑟

compressive stress from Table 9c of IS 800 :2007

94.6−83.7
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 94.6 − × 6 = 88.06 MPa
10

Design compressive strength, 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

= 12 × 50 × 88.06 × 10−3
= 52.84 kN > 17.67 kN
OK
The tensile strength of flat is minimum of
(cl. 6.2 and 6.3.1 of IS 800: 2007)
𝐵−𝑑ℎ 𝑡𝑓𝑢 (50−18)×12×410
i) 0.9 × = 0.9 × × 10−3 = 113.36 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25
and
𝐴𝑔 𝑓𝑦 (50×12)×250
ii) = × 10−3 = 136.363 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

Hence, the tensile strength of the flat is (minimum of 113.36 kN

and 136.36 kN) 113.36 kN > 17.67 kN

Hence, safe.
CONNECTION DESIGN
OF LACING SYSTEM
Example: Design a laced column 10.5 m long to carry factored
axial load of 1000 kN. The column is restrained in position but not
in direction at both the ends. Provide single lacing system. Use 2
channel section placed as back to back. Assume steel of grade Fe
410 and bolts of grade 4.6.
a) Design the lacing system with bolted connections
b) Design the lacing system with site welded connections.
Solution: The first part of this example is demonstrated in lecture
no. 35 to find size of the of the channel section and spacing. The
size of the sections was ISMC 300 and are placed back to back
with a spacing of 184 mm as shown in the figure below.

Design of lacing system:

Let use a single lacing system with inclination of lacing bar = 45°
Assume gauge length = 50 mm
Spacing of lacing bar, 𝐿0 = 2 × 184 + 50 + 50 𝑐𝑜𝑡45° = 568 mm
𝐿0 /𝑟𝑦𝑦 should be < 0.7 × 𝐿/𝑟 of whole column [cl. 7.6.5.1 of IS
800 :2007]
𝐿0 568
= = 21.76 < 0.7 × 93.35 = 65.34
𝑟𝑦𝑦 26.1
𝐿/𝑟 = 93.35 has been calculated in lecture no. 35
Hence safe.

2.5
Maximum shear, 𝑉 = × 1000 × 103 (cl. 7.6.6.1 IS 800 :2007)
100
= 25000 N
𝑉 25000
Transverse shear in each panel = = = 12500 N
𝑁 2

Compressive force in lacing bars = 𝑉 /𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐45°

= 12500 × 1.414
= 17675 N = 17.67 kN
Lacing flats:
Let us provide 16 mm diameter bolts
Minimum width of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.2 IS 800 :2007)
= 3 × 16 = 48 mm
Let us provide 50 mm wide flats.
Length of lacing flat = 184 + 50 + 50 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐45° = 401.6=402
mm
Minimum thickness of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.3 IS 800 :2007)
1
= ×length of flat between inner end bolts.
40
1
= × 402
40
= 10.05 mm
Provide 12 mm thick plate with a width of 50 mm.
𝑡 12
Minimum radius of gyration, 𝑟 = = = 3.464 mm
12 12
 402
𝑙/𝑟 of lacing bar = = 116 < 145
3.464
Hence, ok
𝑙
For = 116, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and buckling class c, the design
𝑟

compressive stress from Table 9c of IS 800 :2007

94.6−83.7
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 94.6 − × 6 = 88.06 MPa
10

Design compressive strength, 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

= 12 × 50 × 88.06 × 10−3
= 52.84 kN > 17.67 kN
OK
The tensile strength of flat is minimum of
(cl. 6.2 and 6.3.1 of IS 800: 2007)
𝐵−𝑑ℎ 𝑡𝑓𝑢 (50−18)×12×410
i) 0.9 × = 0.9 × × 10−3 = 113.36 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25
and
𝐴𝑔 𝑓𝑦 (50×12)×250
ii) = × 10−3 = 136.363 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

Hence, the tensile strength of the flat is (minimum of 113.36 kN

and 136.36 kN) 113.36 kN > 17.67 kN

Hence, safe.
a) Bolted connection (If lacings are not over lapped each other)
Assuming that the 16 mm bolts of grade 4.6 are connecting both
the lacing flats with the channel at one point and that the shear
plane will not pass through the threaded portion of bolt.
Strength of bolt in single shear = 𝐴𝑠𝑏 𝑓𝑢 / 3 /𝛾𝑚𝑏

𝜋×162 400
= × /1.25
4 3

= 37147 N
Minimum pitch, p  2.5 d  2.5  16  40
Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d0 =1.5×18=27 mm
Provide p=50 mm and e= 30 mm
kb is smaller of 30/(3×18), 50/(3×18)-0.25, 400/410, 1

Kb = 0.56
Strength in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏
410
= 2.5 × 0.56 × 16 × 12 × = 88167 N
1.25
Hence, strength of bolt = 37147 N = 37 kN

No of bolts required = 17.67/37 = 0.5 ≈ 1

Hence, provide one bolt at each end.
b) Bolted connection (If lacings are over lapped each other)
Assuming that the 16 mm bolts of grade 4.6 are connecting both
the lacing flats with the channel at one point and that the shear
plane will not pass through the threaded portion of bolt.
Strength of bolt in double shear = 2 × 𝐴𝑠𝑏 𝑓𝑢 / 3 /𝛾𝑚𝑏
= 74294N
Strength in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏 (let 𝑘𝑏 as 0.49)
410
= 2.5 × 0.56 × 16 × 12 × = 88167N
1.25
Hence, strength of bolt = 74294 N = 74 kN

No of bolts required = 2 × 𝑉 /𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑡45° =2 × 12500 ×cot45°

=25/37 = 0.7 ≈ 1
Hence, provide one bolt at each end.
Tie plate(cl. 7.7.2.2 IS 800 :2007):
Tie plates are provided at the ends of the laced column.
Effective depth = 184 + 2 × 𝐶𝑦𝑦 > 2𝑏
= 184 + 2 × 23.6 = 231.2 mm > 2 × 90 = 180
Which is all right.
Minimum edge distance for 16 mm diameter bolt
= 1.5 × 16 + 2 = 27 mm, say 30 mm
Overall depth of tie plate = 231.2 + 2 × 30 = 291.2 mm
Provide a tie plate of 300 mm depth.
Length of the tie plate = 𝑠 + 2𝑏 = 184 + 2 × 90 = 364 mm
1
Thickness of the tie plate = 184 + 2 × 50 = 5.68 mm
50
Hence, provide a tie plate of 6 mm thickness.
Provide a tie plate of size 364×300×6 mm at both ends with 16
mm diameter bolts as shown in the figure.
 568 mm
50 ISF 12 mm

ISMC 300

300 mm

184 mm

364 mm

300 mm

Lacing flats and tie plates are connected by bolts (overlapped each other)
b) Welded connection:
Flange thickness of ISMC 300 = 13.6 mm
Minimum size of weld for 13.6 mm thick member = 5 mm [Table
21 IS 800 :2007]
410
Strength of weld/unit length = 0.7 × 5 × = 552.33 N/mm
3×1.5

17670
Required length of weld = = 32 mm
552.33

Adding extra length for ends, the weld length to be provided

= 32 + 2 × 2 × 5 = 52 mm
Provide 100 mm weld length at both ends.
Tie plate:
Overall depth = 184 + 2 × 23.6 = 231.2 mm
Depth provided = 240 mm
Let length of the tie plate = 184 + 2 × 50 = 284 mm
1
Thickness of tie plate = × 284 = 5.68 mm
50

Provide a 8 mm plate to accommodate a 5 mm weld.

Provide a tie plate of size 283×240×8 mm size and connect it
with 5 mm welds as shown in the figure.
 50 ISF 12 mm

ISMC 300

184 mm

283 mm

300 mm

Lacing flats and tie plates are connected by welding

DESIGN OF DOUBLE
LACING SYSTEM
Example: Design a built-up double laced column with four
angles to support an axial load of 800 kN. The column is 14 m
long and both ends are fixed. Assume Fe 410 grade of steel.
Solution:
𝑃 = 800 × 103 N
𝐿𝑒 = 0.65𝐿 = 0.65 × 14 = 9.1 m
Assume a design stress of 150 MPa,
800×103
Required area = = 5333.33 mm2
150
Provide four angles ISA 90×90×8 mm.
The relevant properties of ISA 90×90×8 are (Table III, SP 6-1)
𝐴 = 1379 mm2 𝐶𝑧𝑧 = 𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 25.1 mm
𝑟𝑧𝑧 = 𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 27.5 mm 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 104.2 × 104 mm4
Area provided = 4 × 1379 = 5516 mm2
800×103
For 5516 mm2, the required 𝑓𝑐𝑑 = = 145.03 MPa
5516

From Table 9c of IS 800 :2007, (for 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa)

𝐿
allowable = 74.36
𝑟
Effective length of the laced column = 1.05 × 9.1 = 9.5 m
9.5×103
Required 𝑟 = = 127.76 mm
74.36

Moment of inertia of required section,

𝐼 = 𝐴𝑟 2 = 5516 × 127.762 = 90.03 × 106 mm4
Equating required and provided moment of inertia,
90.03 × 106 = 4 × 104.2 × 104 + 5516 𝑧 2
𝑧 = 124.76 mm
Spacing of angles 𝑆 = 2 × 𝑧 + 𝐶𝑧𝑧
= 2 × 124.76 + 25.1 = 299.72 mm
Therefore, provide 𝑆 = 300 mm
300 2
Now, 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 4 × 104.2 × 104 + 5516 − 25.1
2
= 90.22 × 106 mm4
90.22×106
𝑟= = 127.9 mm
5516

𝐿 9.5×103
= = 74.28
𝑟 127.9
 𝐿
From Table 9c of IS 800:2007, for = 74.28 and 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa
𝑟
152−136
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 152 − × 4.28 = 145.15 MPa
10
Capacity of the built-up column = 5516 × 145.15 × 10−3
= 800.65 kN > 800 kN
Hence, the column is safe.

Connecting system:
Let us provide a double lacing system with the lacing flats
inclined at 45° . Both are provided at the centre of the leg of
angle.
Spacing of lacing bar, 𝐿0 = 300 − 45 − 45 𝑐𝑜𝑡45°
= 210 mm
 𝐿0 210
= = 7.64 < 50
𝑟𝑦𝑦 27.5
It should also be less than 0.7 × 𝐿/𝑟 = 0.7 × 74.28
= 52 > 7.64

2.5
Shear force, 𝑉 = × 800 × 103 = 20000 N
100
𝑉 20000
Transverse shear in each panel = = = 10000 N
𝑁 2

As double lacing is provided,

𝑉
Compressive force in lacing bar = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
2𝑁
20000
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐45°
2×2

= 7071.1 N
Section of lacing flat:
Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.
Minimum width of flat = 3 × 20 = 60 mm (cl. 7.6.2, IS 800:2007)
Length of lacing flat = 300 − 45 − 45 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐45° = 297 mm

1
Minimum thickness of the lacing flat = × 297 = 4.95 mm
60
Provide a flat of size 60×6 mm.
𝑡 6
Minimum radius of gyration, 𝑟 = = = 1.73 mm
12 12

𝐿1 0.7×297
Slenderness ratio, = = 120.2 < 145
𝑟 1.73

Hence the flat is safe.

 𝐿1
For = 120.2 and 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa (Table 9c, IS 800:2007)
𝑟
83.7−74.3
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 83.7 − × 0.2 = 83.5 MPa
10

Capacity of lacing bar = 83.5 × 60 × 6 = 30060 N > 7071.1 N

Hence the lacing bar is safe.

The tensile strength of flat is minimum of (cl. 6.2 and 6.3.1 of IS 800:
2007)
𝐵−𝑑𝑕 𝑡𝑓𝑢 (60−22)×6×410
i) 0.9 × = 0.9 × × 10−3 = 67.3 kN
𝛾𝑚1 1.25
and
𝐴𝑔 𝑓𝑦 (60×6)×250
ii) = × 10−3 = 81.82 kN
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

Hence, tensile strength of lacing flat = 67.3 kN > 7.07 kN

Connections:
Strength of 20 mm diameter bolt in double shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS
800:2007)
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
𝐴𝑛𝑏
3 3
=2× = 2 × 245 × = 90528 N
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25

Strength in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏 (cl. 10.3.4, IS 800:2007)

𝑘𝑏 is smaller of
𝑒 35
= = 0.53 ,
3𝑑0 3 × 22
𝑝 50
− 0.25 = − 0.25 = 0.51
3𝑑0 3 × 22
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
= = 0.98
𝑓𝑢 410

and 1.0
Hence 𝑘𝑏 = 0.51
410
∴ Strength in bearing = 2.5 × 0.51 × 20 × 6 × = 50184 N
1.25

Hence, the strength of bolt = 50184 𝑁 = 50.18 kN

2×7071.1×𝑐𝑜𝑡45°
Number of bolts = = 0.28
50184

Provide one 20 mm diameter bolt.

Tie plate:
Tie plates are to be provided at each end of the built-up column.
Effective depth of tie plate = 300 − 2 × 25.1
= 249.8 mm > 2×90 mm
Overall depth of tie plate = 249.8 + 2 × 𝑒
= 249.8 + 2 × 35 = 319.8 mm
Length of tie plate = 300 mm
1
Thickness of tie plate = × 300 − 45 − 45
50

= 4.2 mm
Provide 300×320×6 mm tie plate and connect it with bolts as
shown in figure.
BATTEN PLATES
 Batten

Batten plates are generally

used for axial load only. It
consists of flats or plates.
Angles, channels & I-sections
are also sometimes used as
battens. It connects the
components of the built-up
columns in two parallel
planes.
 General requirements
Clause 7.7 of IS: 800-2007

Clause 7.7.1.1
Compression members composed of two main
components battened should preferably have their two
main components of the same cross section and
symmetrically disposed about their major axis. Where
practicable, the compression members should have a
radius of gyration about the axis perpendicular to the
plane of the batten not less than the radius of gyration
about the axis in the plane of batten.
Clause 7.7.1.3
The battens shall be placed opposite each other at each end of
the member and points where the member is stayed in its
length and shall, as far as practicable, be spaced and
proportioned uniformly throughout. Number of battens shall
be such that the member is divided into not less than three
bays within its actual length from center to center of
connection.

Effective Slenderness ratio (7.7.1.4)

The effective slenderness ratio of the column is increased by
10% of the actual one.
 Design requirements
Clause 7.7.2 of IS: 800-2007

Forces in batten(Clause 7.7.2.1):

Battens shall be designed to carry bending moment &
shears arising from transverse shear force ‘V’ of 2.5% of
the total axial force on the whole compression member.

2.5
Therefore, the traverse shear, 𝑉 = ×𝑃
100

P is the axial force on the compression member.

Battens shall be of plates, angles, channels, or I-sections and at
their ends shall be bolted or welded to the main components so
as to resist simultaneously
𝑉 𝐶
a longitudinal shear 𝑉𝑏 = along the column axis and
𝑁𝑆

𝑉 𝐶
a moment 𝑀 = at each connection,
2𝑁

Where,
C = Center to center distance of battens longitudinally
N = No of parallel planes of battens
S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid
of the bolt group/welding connecting the batten to
the main member
𝑉 = The traverse shear force
 Batten plates are provided symmetrically.

 Batten plates should be provided at both the ends. They

should be provided at points where the member is
stayed in its length.

 The number of battens should be such that the member

is divided into not less than three bays. They should be
spaced and proportioned uniformly throughout.
Size: (Clause 7.7.2.3 IS 800 :2007)

Batten thickness:
The thickness of the batten (t) or the tie plates should not
be less than 1/50th (one fiftieth) of the distance between
the innermost connecting rivets/bolts or welds.

𝑎𝑖
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 >
50
Where, 𝑎𝑖 = Distance between the innermost
connecting lines of rivets/bolts
or welds perpendicular to main
member
Batten depth:
The effective depth of battens d shall be taken as
distance between end rivets or end welds.

• d > 0.75a for intermediate battens

• d > a for end battens
• d > 2b for any battens

where d = effective depth of the batten

a = centroid distance of members
b = width of member in the plane of batten
Spacing of the batten (Clause 7.7.3 IS 800:2007)

The spacing of the battens (C) be such that the

slenderness ratio of the lesser main component over the
distance is not greater than 50 or 0.7 times the
slenderness ratio of the main member as a whole, about
the axis parallel to the batten

𝐶
𝑐 < 50 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝜆
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
End connections (Clause 7.7.4 ):
Design the end connections to resist the longitudinal shear
force V1 and the moment M as calculated in earlier step.

• For welded connection: Lap > 4t

• Total length of weld at edge of batten >D/2

• Length of weld at each edge of batten < 1/3 total length

of weld required.

• Return weld along transverse axis of column < 4t.

 Design Steps
Step 1: -
2.5
Find the transverse shear 𝑉 = ×𝑃
100
Calculate longitudinal shear along the column axis as
𝑉 𝐶
𝑉𝑙 = and
𝑁𝑆

𝑉 𝐶
Calculate moment at each connection as 𝑀 = ,
2𝑁
Step 2: -
Calculate effective slenderness ratio (λe) as 1.1× λ

Step 3: -
For a given shape, find out gauge distance g on each side
& find the distance a between the bolt center.
Step 4: -
Calculate spacing of the batten plates (C) from the following
conditions:
𝐶
𝑐 < 50 𝑜𝑟 0.7𝜆
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛
Minimum 3 nos of batten should be provided along column length.
Step 5: -
Size of end battens:
Effective depth 𝑑 = s + 2 × Cyy and d >2b,
[b is width of member in the plane of batten]
Overall depth (D) = d+2e, e being edge distance
Length of batten = 𝑆 + 2𝑏
Thickness of batten = a/50 where a is the distance between inner
bolt/rivet/weld
Step 6: -
Size of intermediate battens:
3
Effective depth 𝑑 = (s + 2 × Cyy ) and d >2b,
4

[b is width of member in the plane of batten]

Overall depth (D) = d+2e, e being edge distance
Length of batten = 𝑆 + 2𝑏
Thickness of batten = a/50 where a is the distance between inner
bolt/rivet/weld

Step 7: -
Design the end connections for batten system to resist
calculated 𝑉𝑙 and M.
DESIGN OF BATTEN
PLATES USING BOLT
CONNECTION
Example: A batten column of 10-m long is carrying a factored
load of 1150 kN. The column is restrained in position but not in
direction at both ends. Design a built up column using channel
sections placed back to back.
Design batten plates using bolt connection.
Solution:
Design of column:
𝑃 = 1150 kN = 1150 × 103 N
L = 1.0 × 10 × 103 = 10000 mm
Let design axial compressive stress for the column be 125 MPa
1150×103
Required area = = 9200 mm2
125

Let us try two ISMC 350 @ 413 N/m

Relevant properties of ISMC 350 [ Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]
𝐴 = 5366 mm2, 𝑟𝑧𝑧 = 136.6 mm,
𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 28.3 mm 𝑡𝑓 = 13.5 mm
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 10008 × 104 mm4 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 430.6 × 104 mm4
𝑐𝑦𝑦 = 24.4 mm 𝑏 = 100 mm
Area provided = 2 × 5366 = 10732 mm2
𝐿 10000
= = 73.21
𝑟𝑧𝑧 136.6
𝐾𝐿
The effective slenderness ratio, = 1.1 × 73.21
𝑟 𝑒
= 80.53 < 180; ok

𝐾𝐿
For = 80.53, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and buckling class c, the
𝑟 𝑒
design compressive stress from Table 9c of IS 800 :2007
136−121
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 136 − × 0.53 = 135.2 MPa
10

Therefore load carrying capacity = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

= 10732 × 135.2 × 10−3
= 1451 kN > 1200 kN, OK
Spacing of channels:
𝑆 2
2𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝐴 + 𝐶𝑦𝑦
2
𝑆 2
or 2 × 10008 × 104 = 2 × 430.6 × 104 + 5366 + 24.4
2
⇒ 𝑆 = 218.4 mm
Let us keep the channels at a spacing of 220 mm
Spacing of battens:
As per clause 7.7.3 of IS 800: 2007,
𝐶
< 0.7𝜆
𝑟𝑦𝑦

𝑜𝑟 𝐶 < 0.7 × 𝜆 × 𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 0.7 × 80.53 × 28.3 = 1595.3 mm

𝐶
Also < 50 or 𝐶 < 50 × 28.3 = 1415 mm
𝑟𝑦𝑦

Hence, provide battens at a spacing of 1400 mm.

Size of end battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800 :2007):
Provide 20 mm bolts.
Edge distance = 1.5 × ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 [Cl. 10.2.4.2 IS 800:2007]
= 1.5 × 20 + 2 = 33 mm
Effective depth = 𝑠 + 𝐶𝑦𝑦
= 220 + 2 × 24.4 = 268.8 mm > 2 × 100 mm
Hence, chosen effective depth is safe.
Overall depth = 268.8 + 2 × 33 = 334.8 mm
1
Required thickness of batten = × 220 + 2 × 50 = 6.4 mm
50

Length of batten = 220 + 2 × 100 = 420 mm

Provide 420×340×8 mm end batten plates.
Size of intermediate battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800 :2007):
3
Effective depth = × (220 + 2 × 𝐶𝑦𝑦 )
4
3
= × (220 + 2 × 24.4) = 201.6 mm
4

> 2 × 100 = 200 mm

Hence adopt an effective depth of 210 mm
Overall depth = 210 + 2 × 33 = 276 mm
Therefore, provide a 420×300×8 mm batten plates @1400 mm
c/c.
Design forces:
2.5 2.5
Transverse shear, 𝑉= ×𝑃 = × 1150 × 103
100 100
= 28750 N
𝑉𝐶
Longitudinal shear 𝑉𝑙 =
𝑁𝑆
Spacing of battens, C = 1400 mm
N = No of parallel planes of battens = 2
S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the
bolt/weld group = 220 + 2 × 50 = 320 mm
28750×1400
∴ 𝑉𝑙 = = 62891 N
2×320

𝑉𝐶 28750×1400
Moment, 𝑀 = = = 10.06 × 106 N-mm
2𝑁 2×2
Check
i) For end battens
62891 250
Shear stress = = 23.12 MPa < = 131.22 MPa
340×8 3×1.1
6𝑀 6×10.06×106
Bending stress = =
𝑡𝑑 2 8×3402
250
= 65.27 MPa < = 227.27 MPa
1.1
Hence safe.

b) For intermediate battens

62891
Shear stress = = 26.2 MPa < 131.22 MPa
300×8
6×10.06×106
Bending stress = = 83.83 MPa < 227.27 MPa
8×3002
Hence safe.
 Connection:
The connection should be designed to transmit both shear and
bending moment.
Assuming 20 mm diameter bolts.
Strength of bolt in single shear
𝜋×202
𝐴𝑛𝑏 ×𝑓𝑢𝑏 0.78× ×400
4
= = × 10−3 = 45.27 kN
3×𝛾𝑚𝑏 3×1.25

Minimum pitch, p = 2.5d=2.5×20=50 mm

Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d0 =1.5×22=33 mm

Provide p = 60 mm and e = 35 mm
kb is smaller of 35/(3×22), 60/(3×22)-0.25, 400/410, 1

Kb = 0.53
Strength of bolt in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏
410
= 2.5 × 0.53 × 20 × 8 × × 10−3 = 69.5 kN
1.25
Hence, strength of bolt = 45.27 kN
62891
Number of bolts required = = 1.39
45.27×103
Let us provide four bolts to take account the stresses due to
bending moments as well.
Check for combined action: For end battens
62891
Force in each bolt due to shear = = 15723 N
4
Pitch provided = (D-2e)/3= (340-2×35)/3 = 90 mm.
𝑟 2 = 2[(90/2)2+(90+90/2)2) = 2[452+1352] = 40500 mm2
 𝑀𝑟 10.06×106 ×135
Force due to moment = = = 33533 N
𝑟2 40500

Resultant force = 157232 + 335332

= 37036 N = 37 kN < 45.26 kN
Hence safe.
Check for combined action: For intermediate battens
62891
Force in each bolt due to shear = = 15723 N
4
Pitch provided = (D-2e)/3= (300-2×35)/3 = 77 mm.
𝑟 2 = 2[(77/2)2+(77+77/2)2) = 2[38.52+115.52] = 29645 mm2

𝑀𝑟 10.06×106 ×115.5
Force due to moment = = = 39195 N
𝑟2 29645

Resultant force = 157232 + 391952

= 42231N = 42.23 kN < 45.26 kN
Hence safe.
Channels back-to-back connected by bolts:

20 mm bolt

Intermediate batten
1400 mm
420 mm×300 mm×8 mm

ISMC 350

End batten
420 mm×340 mm×8 mm
220 mm

220 mm 350 mm
 DESIGN OF BATTEN
PLATES USING WELD
CONNECTION
Example: A batten column of 10-m long is carrying a factored
load of 1150 kN. The column is restrained in position but not in
direction at both ends. Design a built up column using channel
sections placed back to back.
Design batten plates using weld connection.
Solution:
Design of column:
𝑃 = 1150 kN = 1150 × 103 N
L = 1.0 × 10 × 103 = 10000 mm
Let design axial compressive stress for the column be 125 MPa
1150×103
Required area = = 9200 mm2
125

Let us try two ISMC 350 @ 413 N/m

Relevant properties of ISMC 350 [ Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]
𝐴 = 5366 mm2, 𝑟𝑧𝑧 = 136.6 mm,
𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 28.3 mm 𝑡𝑓 = 13.5 mm
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 10008 × 104 mm4 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 430.6 × 104 mm4
𝑐𝑦𝑦 = 24.4 mm 𝑏 = 100 mm
Area provided = 2 × 5366 = 10732 mm2
𝐿 10000
= = 73.21
𝑟𝑧𝑧 136.6
𝐾𝐿
The effective slenderness ratio, = 1.1 × 73.21
𝑟 𝑒
= 80.53 < 180; ok

𝐾𝐿
For = 80.53, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa and buckling class c, the
𝑟 𝑒
design compressive stress from Table 9c of IS 800 :2007
136;121
𝑓𝑐𝑑 = 136 − × 0.53 = 135.2 MPa
10

Therefore load carrying capacity = 𝐴𝑒 𝑓𝑐𝑑

= 10732 × 135.2 × 10;3
= 1451 kN > 1200 kN, OK
Spacing of channels:
𝑆 2
2𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 2 𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝐴 + 𝐶𝑦𝑦
2
𝑆 2
or 2 × 10008 × 104 = 2 × 430.6 × 104 + 5366 + 24.4
2
⇒ 𝑆 = 218.4 mm
Let us keep the channels at a spacing of 220 mm
Spacing of battens:
As per clause 7.7.3 of IS 800: 2007,
𝐶
< 0.7𝜆
𝑟𝑦𝑦

𝑜𝑟 𝐶 < 0.7 × 𝜆 × 𝑟𝑦𝑦 = 0.7 × 80.53 × 28.3 = 1595.3 mm

𝐶
Also < 50 or 𝐶 < 50 × 28.3 = 1415 mm
𝑟𝑦𝑦

Hence, provide battens at a spacing of 1400 mm.

Size of end battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800 :2007):
Overall depth of batten = 220 + 2 × 𝐶𝑦𝑦
= 220 + 2 × 24.4 = 268.8 ≈ 270 mm
1
Required thickness of batten = × 220 = 4.4 mm
50

Adopt battens with the thickness of 6-mm

Let provide a 70 mm overlap of battens on channel flange for
welding.
[Overlap > 4 t = 4 × 6 = 24 mm] OK
Length of batten = 220 + 2 × 70 = 360 mm
Provide 360×270×6 mm end batten plates.
Size of intermediate battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800 :2007):
3
Overall depth = × (220 + 2 × 𝐶𝑦𝑦 )
4
3
= × (220 + 2 × 24.4) = 201.6 mm
4

> 2 × 100 = 200 mm

Hence adopt overall depth of 220 mm
Therefore, provide a 360×220×6 mm batten plates.
Design forces:
2.5 2.5
Transverse shear, 𝑉= ×𝑃 = × 1150 × 103
100 100
= 28750 N
𝑉𝐶
Longitudinal shear 𝑉𝑙 =
𝑁𝑆
Spacing of battens, C = 1400 mm
N = No of parallel planes of battens = 2
S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the
bolt/weld group = 220 + 2 × 50 = 320 mm
28750×1400
∴ 𝑉𝑙 = = 62891 N
2×320

𝑉𝐶 28750×1400
Moment, 𝑀 = = = 10.06 × 106 N-mm
2𝑁 2×2
Check
i) For end battens.
62891 250
Shear stress = = 38.82 MPa < = 131.22 MPa
270×6 3×1.1
6𝑀 6×10.06×106
Bending stress = =
𝑡𝑑 2 6×2702
250
= 138 MPa < = 227.27 MPa
1.1
Hence safe.

b) For intermediate battens.

62891
Shear stress = = 47.64 MPa < 131.22 MPa
220×6
6×10.06×106
Bending stress = = 207.85 MPa < 227.27 MPa
6×2202
Hence safe.
Design of weld:
Welding is done on all the four sides as shown in the figure.
Let 𝑡 = throat thickness of weld.
2
70 × 𝑡 3 220 2 × 𝑡 × 2203
𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 2 × + 70 × 𝑡 × +
12 2 12
70×𝑡 3
Neglecting the term 2 × being insignificant.
12
Therefore, 𝐼𝑧𝑧 = 346.87 × 104 𝑡 mm4
2
𝑡 × 703 220 × 𝑡 3 70
𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 2 × +2× + 2 × 220 × 𝑡 ×
12 12 2
220×𝑡 3
Neglecting the term 2 × being insignificant.
12
Therefore, 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 59.62 × 104 𝑡 mm4
 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑧𝑧 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 346.87 × 104 𝑡 + 59.62 × 104 𝑡
= 406.49 × 104 𝑡 mm4
220 2 70 2
𝑟= + = 115.43 mm
2 2
35
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = 0.30
115.43

Direct shear stress (cl. 10.5.9 of IS 800:2007)

62891 108.43
= = N/mm2
2×70:2×220 𝑡 𝑡

10.06×106 ×115.43
Shear stress due to bending moment =
406.49×104 𝑡
285.67
= N/mm2
𝑡
Combined stress due to shear and bending
2 2
108.43 285.67 108.43 285.67
= + +2× × × 0.3
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
334.59 410
= < = 189.4
𝑡 3 × 1.25
or 𝑡 = 1.77 mm
Size of weld = 1.77/0.7 = 2.5 mm
The size of weld should not be less than 5 mm for 13.5 mm
flange.
Hence provide a 5 mm weld to make the connection.
Channels back-to-back connected by welding:

5 mm weld

Intermediate batten

1400 mm
360 mm×220 mm×6 mm

ISMC 350

End batten
360 mm×270 mm×6 mm
220 mm

220 mm 350 mm
Design of Column Splices
 Splices

• A joint when provided in the length of a member is called

splices.
• If a compression member is loaded concentrically,
theoretically no splice is required.
• However, the load is never truly axial and the real column has
to resist bending due to this eccentrically applied load.

Column sections can be spliced in the following cases:

1. When the length of the column is more than the length of
the column section available.
2. In case of multistorey buildings, the section of the column
required for the various storey may be different, as the
load goes on increasing for columns of the lower storeys.
 Specifications for the design of splices

• Where the ends of the compression members are faced

for complete bearing over the whole area, these should be
spliced to hold the connected members accurately in
position, and to resist any tension when bending is
present.
• Where such members are not faced for complete bearing,
splices should be design to transmit all the forces to
which these are subjected.
• Splices are designed as short columns.
Various type of splices used in compression member
 Steps for the design of splice

1. For axial compressive load the splice plates are provided

on the flanges of the two column sections to be spliced.

If the column has machined ends, the splice is designed only

to keep the columns in position and to carry tension due to the
bending moment to which it may be subjected. The splice
plate and the connection should be design to carry 50% of the
axial load and tension.

If the ends are not machined, the splice and connections are
design to resist the total axial load and any tension, if present
due to the bending moment.
 Steps for the design of splice

• The load for the design of splice and connection due to axial
load,
𝑃𝑢
𝑃𝑢1 = (for machined ends)
4
𝑃𝑢
𝑃𝑢1 = (for non machined ends)
2
Where, 𝑃𝑢 is the axial factored load.

• The load for the design of splice and connection due

bending moment,
𝑀𝑢
𝑃𝑢2 =
𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚

Where, lever arm is the c/c distance of the two splice plates and
𝑀𝑢 is the factored bending moment.
 Steps for the design of splice
2. Splice plates are assumed to act as short columns (with zero
slenderness ratio). So these plates will be subjected to yield
stress (𝑓𝑦 ).

3. The cross-sectional area of the splice plate is calculated by

dividing the appropriate portion of the factored load coming
over the splice by the yield stress.
𝑃𝑢1 +𝑃𝑢2
c/s area required =
𝑓𝑦
4. The width of splice plate is usually kept equal to the width of
the column flange.
Width of splice = 𝑏𝑓 (width of flange)
The thickness of the splice plate can be found by dividing the
c/s area of the plates with its width.
 Steps for the design of splice

5. Nominal diameter of bolts for connection is assumed and the

strength of the bolt is computed.

6. In case of bearing plate is to be designed between two

column sections, the length and width of the plate are kept
equal to the size of lower-storey column and the thickness is
computed by equating the ultimate moment due to the factored
load to the moment of resistance of plate section.
Example: A column ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m is to support a
factored axial load of 500 kN, shear force of 120 kN and
bending moment of 40 kNm. Design the splice plate and
connection using 4.6 grade bolts. Use steel of grade Fe 410.
Solution:
For steel of grade Fe 410: 𝑓𝑢 = 410 MPa, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 Mpa
For bolts of grade 4.6: 𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 400 MPa
Partial safety factors for material:(Table 5 IS 800:2007)
𝛾𝑚0 = 1.10 𝛾𝑚𝑏 = 1.25
The relevant properties of ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m are (Table I,
SP 6-1)
𝐴 = 7485 mm2 𝑏𝑓 = 250 mm,
𝑡𝑓 = 10.6 mm 𝑡𝑤 = 7.6 mm
Assume the ends of the column sections to be machined for
complete bearing. As the column ends are flush, it is assumed that
50% of the load is transferred directly and 50% is transferred
through the splice and fastenings. Therefore,
500
The direct load on each splice plate = 50% 𝑜𝑓 = 125 kN
2

𝑀𝑢 40×103
Load on splice due to moment = = = 130.72 kN
𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 300+6

(Assuming 6 mm thick splice plate, the lever arm = 300 + 6 mm)

Total design load for splice, 𝑃𝑠 = 125 + 130.72 = 255.72 kN

𝑃𝑠 255.72×103
Sectional area of splice plate required = =
𝑓𝑦 250

= 1022.9 mm2
Width of the splice plate should be kept equal to the width of
the flange.
Here, the width of the splice plate = 250 mm
1022.9
Hence, thickness of splice plate = = 4.09 mm ≮ 6 mm
250
Provide a 250×6 mm splice plate.

The length of the splice plate depends upon the number of

bolts in vertical row.
Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.
Strength of 20 mm diameter bolt in single shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS
800:2007)
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
𝐴𝑛𝑏 245×
= 3
= 3
× 10−3 = 45.26 kN
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25
Strength of bolt in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏 (cl. 10.3.4, IS
800:2007)

For 20 mm diameter bolts the minimum edge distance,

𝑒 = 1.5 × 𝑑0 = 1.5 × 20 + 2 = 33 mm
The minimum pitch, p = 2.5 × 20 = 50 mm
Let us provide an edge distance (e) of 35 mm and pitch (p) of
60 mm.

𝑘𝑏 is smaller of
𝑒 35 𝑝 60
= = 0.53 , − 0.25 = − 0.25 = 0.66 ,
3𝑑0 3×22 3𝑑0 3×22
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
= = 0.98 and 1.0
𝑓𝑢 410

Hence 𝑘𝑏 = 0.53
 410
∴ Strength in bearing = 2.5 × 0.53 × 20 × 6 × × 10−3
1.25
= 52.15 kN
Hence, the strength of bolt (Bv) = 45.26 kN
𝑃𝑠 255.72
Number of bolts required, n = = = 5.65 ≈ 6
𝐵𝑣 45.26

Provide 6 bolts for each splice.

Length of the splice plate = 2 × (2 × 60 + 2 × 35) = 380 mm
Provide a splice plate 380×250×6 mm on column flanges as
shown in the figure.
 Design of Column
Splices due to Shear
Example: A column ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m is to support a
factored axial load of 500 kN, shear force of 120 kN and
bending moment of 40 kNm. Design the splice plate and
connection using 4.6 grade bolts. Use steel of grade Fe 410.
Solution:
For steel of grade Fe 410: 𝑓𝑢 = 410 MPa, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 Mpa
For bolts of grade 4.6: 𝑓𝑢𝑏 = 400MPa
Partial safety factors for material:(Table 5 IS 800:2007)
𝛾𝑚0 = 1.10𝛾𝑚𝑏 = 1.25
The relevant properties of ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m are (Table I,
SP 6-1)
𝐴 = 7485 mm2𝑏𝑓 = 250 mm,
𝑡𝑓 = 10.6mm 𝑡𝑤 = 7.6 mm
Assume the ends of the column sections to be machined for
complete bearing. As the column ends are flush, it is assumed that
50% of the load is transferred directly and 50% is transferred
through the splice and fastenings. Therefore,
500
The direct load on each splice plate = 50% 𝑜𝑓 = 125 kN
2

𝑀𝑢 40×103
Load on splice due to moment = = = 130.72 kN
𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 300+6

(Assuming 6 mm thick splice plate, the lever arm = 300 + 6 mm)

Total design load for splice, 𝑃𝑠 = 125 + 130.72 = 255.72 kN

𝑃𝑠 255.72×103
Sectional area of splice plate required = =
𝑓𝑦 250

= 1022.9mm2
Width of the splice plate should be kept equal to the width of
the flange.
Here, the width of the splice plate = 250 mm
1022.9
Hence, thickness of splice plate = = 4.09 mm ≮ 6 mm
250
Provide a 250×6 mm splice plate.

The length of the splice plate depends upon the number of

bolts in vertical row.
Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.
Strength of 20 mm diameter bolt in single shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS
800:2007)
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
𝐴𝑛𝑏 245 ×
3 3
= = × 10−3 = 45.26 kN
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25
Strength of bolt in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏 (cl. 10.3.4, IS
800:2007)

For 20 mm diameter bolts the minimum edge distance,

𝑒 = 1.5 × 𝑑0 = 1.5 × 20 + 2 = 33 mm
The minimum pitch, p = 2.5 × 20 = 50 mm
Let us provide an edge distance (e) of 35 mm and pitch (p) of
60 mm.

𝑘𝑏 is smaller of
𝑒 35 𝑝 60
= = 0.53 , − 0.25 = − 0.25 = 0.66 ,
3𝑑0 3×22 3𝑑0 3×22
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
= = 0.98 and 1.0
𝑓𝑢 410

Hence 𝑘𝑏 = 0.53
 410
∴ Strength in bearing = 2.5 × 0.53 × 20 × 6 × × 10−3
1.25
= 52.15kN
Hence, the strength of bolt (Bv) = 45.26 kN
𝑃𝑠 255.72
Number of bolts required, n = = = 5.65 ≈ 6
𝐵𝑣 45.26

Provide 6 bolts for each splice.

Length of the splice plate = 2 × (2 × 60 + 2 × 35) = 380 mm
Provide a splice plate 380×250×6 mm on column flanges as
shown in the figure.
Splice plates for shear:
The splice plate for the shear force is provided on the web. A pair
of splice plate (one on each side of web) are provided.
Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.
Strength of bolt in double shear = 45.26 × 2 = 90.52 kN
Strength in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏
Where, 𝑘𝑏 = 0.53 (taking 𝑒 = 35 mm and p = 60 mm),
𝑡 = 7.6 mm (web thickness)
410
∴ Strength in bearing = 2.5 × 0.53 × 20 × 7.6 × × 10−3 =
1.25

66.06 kN
Hence, strength of 20 mm bolt = 66.06kN
Shear force in the web, 𝑉 = 120 kN
120
Number of bolts required = = 1.8 ≈ 2
66.06

Provide 2, 20 mm diameter bolts on each side of the splice.

Length of the splice plate = 4 × 35 = 140 mm
Width of the splice plate = 60 + 2 × 35 = 130 mm
Design shear strength of splice plate (cl. 8.4, IS 800:2007),

𝑓𝑦
𝑉𝑑 = ×ℎ×𝑡
3 × 𝛾𝑚0
250
= × 130 × 2𝑡𝑠 × 10−3
3 × 1.1
= 34.12 𝑡𝑠 kN
Now, 𝑉𝑑 > 𝑉
or 34.12 𝑡𝑠 > 120
Thickness of the splice plate required,
120
𝑡𝑠 = = 3.52 mm ≮ 6mm
34.12
So provide a pair of 140×130×6 mm shear splice plates on each
side of the web as shown in the figure.
35
35 60 35
60
60 20 mm
35 140
35 bolts
60
60
35

ISHB
300
Front view Side view
INTRODUCTION TO FLEXURAL
MEMBERS: BEAMS
 INTRODUCTION
• Flexural members or bending members are commonly called
BEAMS.

• A beam is a structural member subjected to transverse loads

i.e., loads perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

• The load produce Bending moment & Shear forces.

http://wasatchsteel.blogspot.in/

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEAMS
• JOIST: A closely spaced beams supporting floors or roofs of
building but not supporting the other beams.

• GIRDER: A large beam, used for supporting a number of

joists.

• PURLIN: Purlins are used to carry roof loads in trusses.

• STRINGER: In building, beams supporting stair steps; in

bridges a longitudinal beam supporting deck floor & supported
by floor beam.

• FLOOR BEAM: A major beam supporting other beams in a

building; also the transverse beam in bridge floors.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEAMS
• SPANDREL BEAM: In a building, a beam on the outside
perimeter of a floor, supporting the exterior walls and outside
edge of the floor

• GIRT: A horizontal beam spanning the wall columns of

industrial buildings used to support wall coverings is called a
GIRT.

• RAFTER: A roof beam usually supported by purlins.

• LINTELS: This type of beams are used to support the loads

from the masonry over the openings .
 NATURE OF FORCES ACTING ON BEAMS
• It is assumed that the beam is subjected to only transverse
loading.

• All the loads and sections lie in the plane of symmetry.

• It follows that such a beam will be primarily subjected to

bending accompanied by shear in the loading plane with no
external torsion and axial force.
 NATURE OF FORCES ACTING ON BEAMS

• The problem of torsion can not completely be avoided in a

beam even if the beam shape is symmetrical and loads are in
the plane of symmetry.

• The reason is the instability caused by compressive stresses.

Such instability is defined as LATERAL BUCKLING .
When it is involving only local components of a beam it is
called LOCAL BUCKLING.

• Local buckling is a function of width-thickness ratio.

 MODES OF FAILURE
Primary modes of failure of beams are as follows:
1. Bending failure
2. Shear failure
3. Deflection failure

1. Bending failure: Bending failure generally occurs due to

crushing of compression flange or fracture of tension flange of
the beam.
2. Shear failure: This occurs due to buckling of web of the beam
near location of high shear forces. The beam can fail locally
due to crushing or buckling of the web near the reaction of
concentrated loads.
3. Deflection failure: A beam designed to have adequate strength
may become unsuitable if it is not able to support its load
without excessive deflections.
TYPES OF STEEL SECTIONS
CASTELLATED BEAMS
 CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN OF BEAMS

• Beams should be proportioned for strength in bending

keeping in view of the lateral and local stability of the
compression flange.

• The selected shape should have capacity to withstand

essential strength in shear and local bearing .

• The beam dimension should be suitably proportioned for

stiffness, keeping in mind their deflections and deformations
under service conditions .
 LIMITATIONS OF ANGLES , T-SECTIONS AND
CHANNELS

• Angles and T-sections are weak in bending.

• Channels only be used for light loads.

• The rolled steel channels and angle sections are used in those
cases where they can be designed and executed satisfactory.

• This is because the load is not likely to be in the plane, which

removes torsional eccentricities .

• Also, it is complicated to calculate the lateral buckling

characteristics of these sections .
 FAILURE MODES OF
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
 MAIN FAILURE MODES OF HOT-
ROLLED BEAMS
Category –I:
Excessive bending triggering collapse
Category –II:
Lateral torsional buckling of long beams
Category –III:
Failure by local buckling of
(i) flange in compression
(ii) Web due to shear
(iii) Web under compression
Category –IV:
Local failure by
(i) shear yield of web
(ii) Local crushing of web
(iii) Buckling of thin flanges
 SELECTION OF SUITABLE SECTION

I-sections is the most efficient and economical and therefore,

most commonly used section as a beam member.
𝑴
σ= 𝒚
𝑰
𝟏
𝑰= 𝒃𝒅𝟑
𝟏𝟐
CONVENTIONAL USES OF VARIOUS SECTIONS

• Rolled steel channels and angle sections are generally used as

PURLINS.
• For higher loads I-sections are preferred .
• Double angles , T-sections or ISJB sections are used as
LINTELS.
• For beams with large spans and light loads , CASTELLATED
BEAMS are chosen.
CRITERION OF SELECTING A BEAM SECTION

• The usual method of selecting a beam section is by using a

section modulus .

• The criterion of economy is weight rather than the section

modulus .

• Sometimes deflection and occasionally shear may be the

necessary criterion for selection of section.

• It is desirable to choose a light beam furnishing the

required modulus of section .
 DESIGN CRITERIA

1. Based on deflection
2. Based on stress due to bending
3. Based on Shear

DEFLECTION CRITERIA

The amount of maximum deflection

depends on:
1. Span
2. Moment of inertia of the section
3. Distribution of load
4. Modulus of elasticity &
5. Support condition
In general the maximum deflection in beam is given by

𝑾𝑳𝟑
𝜹= 𝑲
𝑬𝑰

Where,
W Total load on the span
L Effective span length
E Modulus of elasticity
I Moment of inertia of the section
K a coefficient depends upon the distribution of
loading & end support of the beam
Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

Total load W

5
384
L
Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

Total load W

1
8

L
 Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

W
1
48

L/2 L/2
Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

W
1
3
L
 Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

W W
23
384
L/3 L/3 L/3
Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

Total load W

1
384

L
 Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

W W W
19
384

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

Total load W

7
1920

L/2 L/2
 Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum
deflection

Total load W

1
192

L/2 L/2
Beam Loading Coefficient of
maximum deflection

W 3
𝑎 𝑎2 2
1−
9 3𝐿 𝐿2
 LIMITING DEFLECTION

The deflection of a member shall not be such that as to

impair the strength or efficiency of the structure & lead to
damage to finishing. Generally, the maximum deflection
should not exceed the limit recommended by IS 800-2007
in Table 6.

EFFECTIVE LENGTH FOR LATERAL

TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Effective length LLT for lateral torsional buckling shall be
calculated as given in Table 15
 EFFECTIVE LENGTH FOR
BEAMS BETWEEN SUPPORTS
(Table 15, Clause 8.3.1, IS 800: 2007)
Support Conditions Effective Length KL
Compression flange at the ends L
unrestrained against lateral bending
(free to rotate in plan)
Compression flange partially 0.85L
restrained against lateral bending
(partially free to rotate in plane at the
bearings)
Compression flange fully restrained 0.7L
against lateral bending
(rotation fully restrained in plan)
 DESIGN PROCEDURE

The design procedure can be divided into three parts and they are :-

• Structural :Bending moment, shear force, deflection and stability.

• Secondary effects : Local buckling, and secondary forces and

connections.

• Practical limitations : Durability , fabrication tolerances , erection.

LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
 Laterally Supported Beam (Cl. 8.2.1, IS 800: 2007)

Design Bending Strength

 If V < 0.6 Vd

Where,
V is the factored design shear force and Vd is the design shear
strength of the cross-section
The design bending strength, Md shall be taken as:

Md = βbZpfy / ϒm0
To avoid irreversible deformation under serviceability loads,
following conditions are to be satisfied.
Md ≤ 1.2Zefy/ϒm0 for simply supported beams
Md ≤ 1.5Zefy/ϒm0 for cantilever beams;
Where,
βb = 1.0 for plastic and compact sections;
βb = Ze / Zp for semi-compact sections;
Zp , Ze = plastic and elastic section moduli of the
cross-section, respectively;
fy = yield stress of the material; and
ϒm0 = partial safety factor
 If V > 0.6 Vd
The design bending strength Md will be taken as,
Md = Mdv
Where, Mdv is the design bending strength under high shear and it is
calculated as,
(a) Plastic or compact section
𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑀𝑑 − 𝛽 𝑀𝑑 − 𝑀𝑓𝑑 ≤ 1.2
𝛾𝑚0
Where,
2
𝑉
𝛽 = 2 −1
𝑉𝑑
Vd = design shear strength as governed by web yielding or web
buckling = 𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑣
fv = design shear strength
Av = shear area = Dtw for rolled sections
= dtw for welded/built up sections
V = factored shear force
Md = plastic design moment of the whole section disregarding high
shear force effect and considering web buckling effects.

Mfd = plastic design strength of the area of the cross section excluding
the shear area
𝑑 2 𝑡𝑤
𝑀𝑓𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦 for built up sections
4
𝐷 2 𝑡𝑤
𝑀𝑓𝑑 = 𝑓𝑦for rolled sections
4
𝑑 = 𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑓
(b) Semi-compact section
𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑍𝑒
𝛾𝑚0
Design for Shear (Cl. 8.4, IS 800: 2007)

The factored design shear force V in a beam should satisfy,

𝑉𝑛
𝑉≤
𝛾𝑚0

Where Vn = nominal shear strength of a section

𝐴𝑣 𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝑉𝑛 =
3

Where Av = shear area

fyw = yield strength of the web
Shear Areas of different Sections (Cl. 8.4.1.1, IS 800: 2007):

Section Shear Area Av

Hot rolled (major axis Dtw
bending)
Welded (major axis bending) dtw
Hot rolled or Welded 2btf
(minor axis bending)
Rectangular hollow Sections AD/(b+D)
(loaded parallel to height)
Rectangular hollow Sections Ab/(b+D)
(loaded parallel to width)
Circular hollow tubes 2A/π
Plates & solid bars A
 Web Buckling
• The web behaves like a column if placed under concentrated
load.

• The Web is quite thin and therefore is subjected to buckling.

• Web buckling occurs when the intensity of vertical compressive

stress near the center of section becomes greater than the critical
buckling stress for the web acting as column.
 Web Buckling
For all cases, bottom flange is assumed to be restrained against
lateral deflection and rotation. For the top flanges, the end
restraints and the effective depth of the web to be considered are
as follows:

1. Restrained against lateral deflection and rotation, the effective

depth = d1/2

2. Restrained against lateral deflection but not against rotation, the

effective depth= (2/3) d1
3. Retrained against rotation but not against lateral deflection,
effective depth = d1

4. Not restrained against rotation and lateral deflection, the

effective depth = 2d1
Web buckling strength

𝐹𝑤𝑏 = 𝐵𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑐𝑑

(below concentrated load)

𝐹𝑤𝑏 = 𝐵1 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑐𝑑
(at support)

Where,
Fwb = web buckling strength at the support
B = b+ 2n1 , B1= b+n1
n1 = length from dispersion at 45° to the level of neutral axis
tw = thickness of the web
fcd = allowable compressive stress corresponding to assumed web strut
according to buckling curve c.
Here, the effective length of strut will be le = 0.7d
𝑙𝑒 0.7𝑑
Thus, the slenderness ratio λ = =
𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑦
𝐼𝑦 𝑏𝑡 3 𝑡
The radius of gyration, 𝑟𝑦 = = =
𝐴 12×𝑏×𝑡 12

0.7𝑑 0.7𝑑× 12 2.5𝑑

Hence, λ = = ≈
𝑟𝑦 𝑡 𝑡
Thus, the slenderness ratio of the idealized web-strut is taken as
2.5𝑑
λ=
𝑡
Bearing length
An empirical dispersion is assumed through the flange to the
flange-to-web connection at a slope of 1:2.5
Web Crippling:
𝑏1 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝐹𝑤𝑐 =
𝛾𝑚0
Where
Fwc = web crippling strength
b1 = bearing length
= b+2n1 under concentrated load
= b+n1 under reactions at support
Minimum bearing length = 100 mm
n1 = dispersion through the flange to the
flange-to-web connection at a slope of 1:2.5
to the plane of the flange i.e. 𝑛1 = 2.5 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑅1

tw = thickness of the web

fyw = design yield strength of the web
DESIGN OF LATERALLY
SUPPORTED BEAMS
 DESIGN STEPS FOR
LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
1) The loads acting on the beam are calculated by multiplying the
appropriate partial load factors.

2) The distribution of B.M. & S.F. along the length of the beam is
determined. The maximum B.M. & S.F. is calculated

3) A trial plastic section for the beam is worked out from the
following equation:
𝑀𝑑
𝑍𝑝 =
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0
4) A suitable section is selected which has plastic section modulus
greater than the calculated value. ISMB, ISLB, ISWB sections are
in general preferred.
5) The section is classified as plastic, compact or semi compact
depending upon the specified limits of b/tf and d/tw as specified
in Table 2, IS 800: 2007.

6) Calculate the design shear strength (Vd) from the relation:

𝑓𝑦
𝑉𝑑 = ℎ𝑡𝑤
3𝛾𝑚0

7) The beam is checked for high/low shear. If V < 0.6 Vd , the beam
will be low shear and if V > 0.6 Vd , the beam will be high shear.

8) The trial section is checked for design bending strength

For low shear:
Md = βbZpfy / ϒm0
≤ 1.2Zefy/ϒm0 (for simply supported beams)
≤ 1.5Zefy/ϒm0 (for cantilever beams)
For high shear:
𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑀𝑑 − 𝛽 𝑀𝑑 − 𝑀𝑓𝑑 ≤ 1.2
𝛾𝑚0
(for plastic and compact section)
𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑍𝑒
𝛾𝑚0
(For semi-compact section)

8) If M > Md , increase the section size and repeat from step 5.

9) The design shear strength (Vd) should be greater than the maximum
factored shear force developed due to external load. If V > Vd, redesign
the section by increasing the section size.
10) The beam is checked for deflection as per Table 6, IS 800: 2007.
11) The beam is checked for web buckling:
𝑑
If, ≤ 67𝜖 (for web without stiffeners) the web is assumed to be
𝑡𝑤
safe in web buckling and the shear strength of the web is governed
by plastic shear resistance.
The web should be checked for buckling in case of high shear even
if this limit is satisfied. The web buckling strength of the section,
fwb= Ab × fcd
Here, Ab = area of the web at the neutral axis of the beam = Btw
and fcd = design compressive stress
The web buckling strength should be greater than the design shear
force.

12) The beam is checked for web crippling,

Fwc > V
𝑏1 𝑡𝑤 𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝐹𝑤𝑐 =
𝛾𝑚0
Example:
A cantilever beam of length 4.5 m supports a dead load
(including self weight) of 18 kN/m and a live load of 12
kN/m. Assume a bearing length of 100 mm. Design the
beam.
Solution:

Step 1: Calculation of load

Dead load = 18 kN/m
Live load = 12 kN/m
Total load = (18 + 12) = 30 kN/m
Total factored load =1.5 (18 + 12) = 45 kN/m

Step 2: Calculation of BM and SF

𝑤𝑙 2 45×4.52
BM = = = 456 kN-m
2 2
SF = w×l = 45×4.5 = 202.5 kN

Step 3: Choosing a trial section

𝑀×𝛾𝑚0 456×106 ×1.1
𝑍𝑝,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = = = 2006.4×103 mm3
𝑓𝑦 250
Let us select the section ISLB 550 @ 0.846 kN/m
Zpz = 2228.16 × 103 mm3

Zez = 1933.2 × 103 mm3

h = 550 mm, bf = 190 mm, tf = 15 mm, tw = 9.9 mm, R = 18

d = 550 – 2×(15 + 18)
= 484 mm

Izz = 53161.6 × 104 mm4

Section classification

𝑏𝑓
2 95 𝑑 484
= = 6.33 < 9.4 = = 48.9< 84
𝑡𝑓 15 𝑡𝑤 9.9
Hence, the section is plastic
Step 4: Calculation of shear capacity of the section

𝑓𝑦 250
𝑉𝑑 = × ℎ × 𝑡𝑤 = × 550 × 9.9
𝛾𝑚0 × 3 1.1 × 3
= 714.47 kN
0.6𝑉𝑑 = 0.6 × 714.47 = 428.68 kN > 202.5 kN
Hence, Low shear

Step 5: Design capacity of the section

𝑍𝑝 × 𝑓𝑦 2228.16 × 103
𝑀𝑑 = = × 250
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
= 506.4 kNm

1.5×𝑍𝑒 ×𝑓𝑦 1.5×1933.2×103 ×250

≤ =
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
= 659.04 kNm
Step 6: Check for deflection

𝑤𝑙 4 30×45004
𝛿= = = 14.5 mm
8𝐸𝐼 8×2×105 ×53161.6×104

Allowable deflection = L/150 = 4500/150 = 30 mm

OK
Step 7: Web buckling
Cross sectional area of web for buckling 𝐴𝑏 = 𝑏1 + 𝑛1 𝑡𝑤
b1 = 100 mm
n1 = D/2=550/2 = 275 mm
Ab = (100 + 275) × 9.9
= 3712.5 mm2
Effective length of the web = 0.7 × d = 0.7 × 484= 338.8 mm
3
𝑏×𝑡𝑤 100×9.93
𝐼= = = 8085.8 mm3
12 12
A = 100 × 9.9 = 990 mm2
 8085.8
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 2.86 mm
990
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 338.8
λ= = = 119
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 2.85

Allowable stress fcd = 84.8 N/mm2

Capacity of the section = 84.8× 3712.5 = 314.8 kN > 202.5 kN
Hence, the section is safe against web buckling.

Step 8 : Check for web crippling

𝑏1 + 𝑛2 × 𝑡𝑤 × 𝑓𝑦
𝐹𝑤 =
𝛾𝑚0

n2 = 2.5 (R + tf) = 2.5(18 + 15) = 82.5 mm

100:82.5 ×9.9×250
𝐹𝑤 = = 410.6 kN > 202.5 kN
1.1
So the section is safe against web crippling
LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
WITH HIGH SHEAR
Example: Design a laterally supported beam of effective span 5 m
for the following data.
Grade of steel: Fe 410
Factored maximum B.M. = 180 kN-m
Factored maximum S. F. = 220 kN
Check for deflection is not required
Solution:
For Fe 410 grade of steel: fy = 250 MPa
Partial safety factor: m0 =1.1
Factored Max. B.M. = 180 kNm
Factored Max. S.F. = 220 kN
Plastic section modulus required,
𝑀𝛾𝑚0 180×106 ×1.1
𝑍𝑝,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = = = 792 × 103 mm3
𝑓𝑦 250

Let us select a section, ISLB 350 @ 0.485 kN/m

Zpz = 851.11 × 103 mm3 Ixx = 13158 × 104
Zez = 751.9 × 103 mm3
h = 350 mm, bf = 165 mm, tw = 7.4 mm, tf = 11.4 mm
R1= 16 mm
d = D - 2(tf + R1) = 350 - 2(11.4 + 16) = 295.2 mm
Section classification:
𝑏𝑓
2 165/2
= = 7.23 < 9.4
𝑡𝑓 11.4
𝑑 295.2
= = 39.9 < 84
𝑡𝑤 7.4
Hence, the section is plastic.

Check for shear capacity:

Design shear strength of the section,
𝑓𝑦 250
𝑉𝑑 = 𝐷𝑡𝑤 = × 350 × 7.4 × 10−3 = 339.8 kN >
3𝛾𝑚0 3×1.1
V=220 kN
0.6Vd = 0.6 × 339.8 = 203.9 kN < V=220 kN
So, it is the case of high shear.
Check for design bending strength:
𝑓𝑦 250
𝑀𝑑 = 𝑍𝑝𝑧 = 851.11 × 103 × × 10−6 = 193.43 kN-m
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
2 2
𝑉 220
𝛽 = 2 −1 = 2 −1 = 0.087
𝑉𝑑 339.8
350
𝑍𝑓𝑑 = 𝑍𝑝𝑍 − 𝐴𝑤 𝑌𝑤 = 851.11 × 103 − (350 × 7.4) ×
4
= 624.49 × 103 mm3
250
𝑀𝑓𝑑 = 624.49 × 103 × = 141.93 kNm
1.1
𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 𝑀𝑑 − 𝛽 𝑀𝑑 − 𝑀𝑓𝑑 ≤ 1.2𝑍𝑒
𝛾𝑚0
𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 193.43 − 0.087 × 193.43 − 141.93 = 188.95 kNm
𝑓𝑦 250
≤ 1.2𝑍𝑒 = 1.2 × 751.9 × 103 × × 10−6 = 205.06 kNm
𝛾𝑚0 1.1

Hence, 𝑀𝑑𝑣 = 188.95 kNm > Mu=180 kNm, OK

Check for web buckling (at support)
Web buckling check is not required in general as
𝑑 295.2
= = 39.9 < 67ϵ
𝑡𝑤 7.4

However, it is a case of high shear, web buckling check should be

applied.
Assume a stiff bearing length, b = 100 mm
𝐴𝑏 = 𝐵1 𝑡𝑤 = 𝑏 + 𝑛 𝑡𝑤 = 100 + 350/2 × 7.4 = 2035 mm2
Effective length of web, KL = 0.7d = 0.7×295.2 = 206.64 mm
3
𝑏𝑡𝑤 100×7.43
Ieff of web = = = 3376.87 mm4
12 12
Aeff of web = btw = 100 × 7.4 = 740 mm2
3376.86
𝑟= =2.136 mm
740
𝐾𝐿 206.64
Slenderness ratio, λ = = = 96.74
𝑟 2.136
For λ= 96.74, fyw = 250 N/mm2 , and buckling curve c , the design
compressive stress from Table 9(c), IS 800: 2007.
fcd = 111.56 N/mm2
Capacity of web section Fwb = Abfcd = 2035 × 111.56 × 10-3 = 227 kN
> 220 kN
Which is alright.
Check for web crippling:
𝑓𝑦𝑤
𝐹𝑤 = (𝑏 + 𝑛1 )𝑡𝑤
𝛾𝑚0
𝑛1 = 2.5 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑅1
= 2.5 ×(11.4 + 16) = 68.5 mm
Stiff bearing length has been assumed, b = 100 mm
Fw = (100 + 68.5)×7.4×250/1.1×10-3 = 283.4 kN
> 220 kN, OK
LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAMS
Laterally Unsupported Beam (Cl. 8.2.2, IS 800: 2007)

FACTORS AFFECTING LATERAL STABILITY

• Cross sectional shape

• Support conditions
• Effective length
 DESIGN STRENGTH

The design bending strength for laterally unsupported beams is

𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑏𝑑
Where,
Zp = Plastic section modulus of the cross-section
βb = 1.0 for compact & plastic sections
= Ze/Zp for semi-compact sections
fbd = design bending compressive stress given by
Χ𝐿𝑇 𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑏𝑑 =
𝛾𝑚0
ΧLT = bending stress reduction factor to account for lateral
torsion buckling
 1
Χ𝐿𝑇 = ≤ 1.0
∅𝐿𝑇 + ∅2𝐿𝑇 − λ2𝐿𝑇

Where, ∅𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 λ𝐿𝑇 − 0.2 + λ2𝐿𝑇

𝛼LT = imperfection factor for lateral torsional
buckling of beams
= 0.21 for rolled steel sections
= 0.49 for welded steel sections
λLT = non-dimensional slenderness ratio given by,
𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦
λ𝐿𝑇 = ≤ 1.2
𝑀𝑐𝑟 𝑀𝑐𝑟
𝑓𝑦
=
𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏
Where,
Mcr = elastic lateral buckling moment (Cl. 8.2.2.1) is given by,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑤
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐺𝐼𝑡 + = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏
𝐿𝐿𝑇 2 𝐿𝐿𝑇 2

𝐼𝑡 = torsional constant = 𝑏𝑖 𝑡𝑖3 /3 for open section

𝐼𝑤 = warping constant
𝐼𝑦 = moment of inertia about weaker axis
𝑟𝑦 = radius of gyration about weaker axis
𝐿𝐿𝑇 =effective length for lateral torsional buckling (Clause 8.3)
ℎ𝑓 = centre-to-centre distance between flanges
𝑡𝑓 = thickness of flange
G = shear modulus
fcr,b = extreme fiber bending compressive stress corresponding to
elastic lateral buckling moment and is given by
2
𝐿𝐿𝑇
1.1𝜋 2 𝐸 1 𝑟𝑦
𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 = 1+
𝐿𝐿𝑇 2 20 ℎ𝑓
𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑓

For different values of KL/ry & ℎ𝑓 /tf corresponding values of fcr,b

is given in Table 14, IS 800:2007

Values of fbd can also be found from Table 13(a) and 13(b), IS
800: 2007 corresponds to different values of fcr,b and fy
The following simplified equation may be used in case of
prismatic members made of standard rolled I-sections and
welded doubly symmetric I-sections, for calculating the elastic
lateral buckling moment, 𝑀𝑐𝑟
2
𝐿𝐿𝑇
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 ℎ𝑓 1 𝑟𝑦
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1+
2𝐿𝐿𝑇 2 20 ℎ𝑓
𝑡𝑓
However, 𝑀𝑐𝑟 for different beam sections, considering
loading, support condition and non-symmetric section, shall
be more accurately calculated using the method given in
Annex E of IS:800-2007.
 STRENGTH CALCULATION OF
LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAMS
 DESIGN STRENGTH

The design bending strength for laterally unsupported beams is

𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑏𝑑
Where,
Zp = Plastic section modulus of the cross-section
βb = 1.0 for compact & plastic sections
= Ze/Zp for semi-compact sections
fbd = design bending compressive stress given by
Χ𝐿𝑇 𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑏𝑑 =
𝛾𝑚0
ΧLT = bending stress reduction factor to account for lateral
torsion buckling
 1
Χ𝐿𝑇 = ≤ 1.0
∅𝐿𝑇 + ∅2𝐿𝑇 − λ2𝐿𝑇

Where, ∅𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 λ𝐿𝑇 − 0.2 + λ2𝐿𝑇

𝛼LT = imperfection factor for lateral torsional
buckling of beams
= 0.21 for rolled steel sections
= 0.49 for welded steel sections
λLT = non-dimensional slenderness ratio given by,
𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑦 𝑍𝑒 𝑓𝑦
λ𝐿𝑇 = ≤ 1.2
𝑀𝑐𝑟 𝑀𝑐𝑟
𝑓𝑦
=
𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏
Where,
Mcr = elastic lateral buckling moment (Cl. 8.2.2.1) is given by,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑤
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐺𝐼𝑡 + = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏
𝐿𝐿𝑇 2 𝐿𝐿𝑇 2

𝐼𝑡 = torsional constant = 𝑏𝑖 𝑡𝑖3 /3 for open section

𝐼𝑤 = warping constant
𝐼𝑦 = moment of inertia about weaker axis
𝑟𝑦 = radius of gyration about weaker axis
𝐿𝐿𝑇 =effective length for lateral torsional buckling (Clause 8.3)
ℎ𝑓 = centre-to-centre distance between flanges
𝑡𝑓 = thickness of flange
G = shear modulus
fcr,b = extreme fiber bending compressive stress corresponding to
elastic lateral buckling moment and is given by
2
𝐿𝐿𝑇
1.1𝜋 2 𝐸 1 𝑟𝑦
𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 = 1+
𝐿𝐿𝑇 2 20 ℎ𝑓
𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑓

For different values of KL/ry & ℎ𝑓 /tf corresponding values of fcr,b

is given in Table 14, IS 800:2007

Values of fbd can also be found from Table 13(a) and 13(b), IS
800: 2007 corresponds to different values of fcr,b and fy
Example: Calculate the design bending strength of ISLB 300
@ 0.369 kN/m considering the beam to be
(a) Laterally supported
(b) Laterally unsupported

Assume the design force is less the design shear strength and
is of low shear. The effective length of the beam (LLT) is 4 m.
Assume Fe410 grade of steel.
The relevant properties of ISLB 300

D = 300 mm, bf = 150 mm, tw = 6.7 mm, tf = 9.4 mm,

R1 = 15.0 mm
rx = 124 mm, ry = 28 mm
Zpz = 554.32 × 103 mm3, Zez = 488.9 × 103 mm3,
Iz = 7333 × 104 mm4, Iy = 376 × 104 mm4

d = D – 2(tf + R1) = 300 – 2(9.4 + 15) = 251.2 mm

For rolled section: αLT = 0.21

For Fe 410 grade of steel: fy = 250 MPa

Partial safety factor: m0 = 1.10
𝑏 150/2
= = 7.98 < 9.4
𝑡𝑓 9.4
𝑑 251.2
= = 37.49 < 84
𝑡𝑤 6.7
Hence, the section is plastic.
𝑑 251.2
Since, = = 37.49 < 67ϵ
𝑡𝑤 6.7
Shear buckling check of web will not be required.

(a) Laterally supported beam

For low shear,
𝑓𝑦 250
𝑀𝑑 = 𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝 = 1.0 × 554.32 × 103 × = 125.98 kN-m
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
𝑓𝑦 250
≤ 1.2𝑍𝑒 = 1.2 × 488.9 × 103 × = 133.34 kN-m
𝑦𝑚0 1.1
Hence, design bending strength = 125.98 kN
(b) Laterally unsupported beam
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑤
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐺𝐼𝑡 +
𝐿𝐿𝑇 2 𝐿𝐿𝑇 2
LLT = 4000 mm
𝐸 2 × 105
𝐺= = = 76.92 × 103
2(1 + 𝜇) 2 × (1 + 0.3)

𝑏𝑖 𝑡𝑖3
Torsional constant, 𝐼𝑡 =
3
150×9.43 (300−2×9.4)×6.73
= 2× +
3 3
= 4
11.12 × 10 mm4

Warping constant, 𝐼𝑤 = 1 − 𝛽𝑓 𝛽𝑓 𝐼𝑦 ℎ𝑓2

Here, ℎ𝑓 = c/c distance between flanges =D - 𝑡𝑓 =300-9.4 = 290.6
 𝐼𝑓𝑐
𝛽𝑓 = =0.5 [Since 𝐼𝑓𝑐 = 𝐼𝑓𝑡 ]
𝐼𝑓𝑐 +𝐼𝑓𝑡

Thus, 𝐼𝑤 = (1 − 0.5) × 0.5 × 376 × 104 × 290.62

= 7.94 × 1010 mm6

𝜋 2 × 2 × 105 × 376 × 104

40002
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 2 × 2 × 105 × 7.94 × 1010
𝜋
76.92 × 103 × 11.22 × 104 +
40002

= 92.45 kNm
Or,
2 0.5
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑦 ℎ𝑓 1 𝐿𝐿𝑇 /𝑟𝑦
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 1+
2𝐿2𝐿𝑇 20 ℎ𝑓 /𝑡𝑓
2 5 4 2 0.5
𝜋 × 2 × 10 × 376 × 10 × 290.6 1 4000/28
= 2
1+
2 × 4000 20 290.6/9.4
= 96.92 kNm

𝛽𝑏 𝑍𝑝𝑧 𝑓𝑦 1×554.32×103 ×250

λ𝐿𝑇 = = = 1.22 > 0.4
𝑀𝑐𝑟 92.45×106
So, the effect of lateral torsional buckling has to be considered.

∅𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 λ𝐿𝑇 − 0.2 + λ2𝐿𝑇

∅𝐿𝑇 = 0.5 1 + 0.21 1.22 − 0.2 + 1.222

= 1.35
 1
Χ𝐿𝑇 = ≤ 1.0
∅𝐿𝑇 + ∅2𝐿𝑇 − λ2𝐿𝑇

1
=
1.35 + 1.352 − 1.222
= 0.52

Χ𝐿𝑇 𝑓𝑦
𝑓𝑏𝑑 =
𝛾𝑚0
0.52 × 250
=
1.1
= 118.2 N/mm2

𝑀𝑑 = 1 × 554.32 × 103 × 118.2 × 10−6 = 65.52 kN-m

Using Table
ℎ𝑓 290.6
1. KL/ry = 4000/28 = 142.86, = = 30.9
𝑡𝑓 9.4
For fy = 250 N/mm2, from Table 14, fcr,b = 155 N/mm2

2
𝐿𝐿𝑇
1.1𝜋2 𝐸 1 𝑟𝑦
Using equations: 𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 = 2 1+ ℎ𝑓
𝐿𝐿𝑇 20
𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑓

2
1.1𝜋2 ×2×105 1 4000 28
𝑓𝑐𝑟,𝑏 = 4000 1+ = 153 N/mm2
28
2 20 290.6 9.4

For, fcr,b = 155 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2 and αLT = 0.21 , from
Table 13(a), IS 800: 2007, fbd = 109.53 N/mm2
Md = 1 × 554.32 × 103 × 107.59 = 60.71 kN-m
𝑀𝑑 = 65.52 kN-m (Using expressions)
DESIGN OF LATERALLY
UNSUPPORTED BEAMS
Design Steps of Laterally Unsupported Beams:
1) The service load and factored loads are calculated. The
Maximum factored bending moment and shear force is
determined.

2) A trial plastic section for the beam is calculated from the

following equation:
𝑀𝑑
𝑍𝑝 =
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0
Since a higher plastic section modulus is necessary to account
for lateral torsional buckling, the 𝑍𝑝 may be increased by 40%
to 60% for steel rolled section.

3) A suitable section is selected based on the increased plastic

section modulus.
4) The beam is checked for shear: 𝑉 ≤ 𝑉𝑑
5) The beam is checked for deflection as per Table 6 of
the code

6) The beam is checked for web buckling

7) The beam is checked for web buckling

Example: Design a simply supported steel joist of 5 m effective
span, carrying a uniformly distributed load 12 kN/m if
compression flange of the joist is laterally unrestrained.
Solution
Step-1: BM & SF on beam
Load on the beam = 12 kN/m
Factored load = 12 × 1.5 = 18 kN/m
Max. B. M. = 18 × 52/8 kN-m
= 56.25 kN-m
Max S. F. = 18 × 5/2
= 45 kN

Step-2: Selection of initial section,

𝑀 56.25 × 106
𝑍𝑝 = = = 247.5 × 103 𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝑓𝑦 /𝛾𝑚0 250/1.1
Increasing 50%, the required 𝑍𝑝 will be 1.5× 247.5 × 103
= 371.25 × 103 𝑘𝑁𝑚
Step-3 : Calculate bending strength of section,
Select ISHB 200 @ 40 kg/m
D = 200 mm ry = 44.2 mm Zpz = 414.23 × 103 mm3
bf = 200 mm R1 = 9 mm Zez = 372.2 × 103 mm3
tf = 9.0 mm
tw = 7.8 mm
d = 200 – 2×(9+9) = 164 mm

After calculation it is seen that the section is not adequate and need to
increase the section size to ISLB 325…

Select ISLB 325

D = 325 mm ry = 30.5 mm Zpz = 687.76 × 103 mm3
bf = 165 mm R1 = 16 mm Zez = 607.7 × 103 mm3
tf = 9.8 mm Ixx = 9870 × 104 mm4
tw = 7.0 mm Iyy = 510.8 × 104 mm4
d = 325 – 2×(9.8+16) = 273.4 mm
Section classification:
b/tf = 82.5/9.8 = 8.41 < 9.4
d/tw = 273.4/7.0 = 39 < 84
Hence, section is plastic.

Calculation of bending strength:

KL/ry = 5000/30.5 hf/tf = (325 – 9.8 )/9.8
= 164 = 32.16
From Table 14, IS 800: 2007
fcr,b = 122.82 N/mm2
From Table 13(a), IS 800: 2007,
fbd = 93.17 N/mm2

So, Md = 1×687.76×103×93.17
= 58.57 kN-m > 56.25 kN-m
OK.
Step-4: Check for shear:
Design shear strength of the section,
𝑓𝑦 250
𝑉𝑑 = 𝐷𝑡𝑤 = × 325 × 7 × 10;3 = 299 kN > V=45 kN
3𝛾𝑚0 3×1.1

Step-5: Check for deflection:

5𝑤𝑙 4 5×12×50004
𝛿= = = 4.9 mm
384𝐸𝐼 384×2×105 ×9870×104
Allowable maximum deflection, L/300 = 5000/300 = 16.67 mm.
Hence, safe against deflection.

Step-6: Check for web buckling:

Assuming stiff bearing length 100 mm
n1 = D/2 = 325/2 = 162.5 mm
C/S area for web buckling Ab = (b + n1) × tw
= (100 + 162.5) × 7.0 = 1837.5 mm
Effective length of web, leff = 0.7 × 273.4 = 191.38 mm
I = 100 × 73/12 = 2858.33 mm3
A = b × tw = 100 × 7 = 700 mm2
2858.33
rmin = = 2.02
700
λ = leff/rmin = 191.38/2.02 = 94.742
From Table 9(c), IS 800: 2007, fcd = 114.364 N/mm2
Capacity of the section, Ab × fcd = 1837.5 × 114.364 = 210 kN
> 45 kN
Hence, the section is safe against web buckling.

Step-7: Check for web crippling:

𝑏1 + 𝑛2 × 𝑡𝑤 × 𝑓𝑦
𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝 =
𝛾𝑚0
𝑛2 = 2.5 16 + 9.8 = 64.5 mm
100:64.5 ×7×250
𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝 = =261.70 kN > 45 kN
1.1
Hence, the section is safe against web crippling
DESIGN OF BEAM WITH GUI BASED
MATLAB ALGORITHM
CALCULATION OF PLASTIC
SECTION MODULUS
Example: Determine the plastic section modulus of ISLB 300 @
0.369 kN/m about the strong and weak axis (neglecting the
fillets)

For symmetrical I-section the equal area axis zz and yy will pass
through the centroid of the section.
 𝐷 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑍𝑝𝑧 = 2 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 ×
2
𝐷
𝐷 − 𝑡𝑓
+ 2 𝑡𝑤 × − 𝑡𝑓 × 2
2 2
𝑡𝑤 (𝐷−2𝑡𝑓 )2
= 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 𝐷 − 𝑡𝑓 +
4

𝑏𝑓 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑤 𝑡𝑤
𝑍𝑝𝑦 = 4 × × 𝑡𝑓 × + 2 × (𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑓 ) × ×
2 4 2 4
𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓2 2
(𝐷−2𝑡𝑓 )𝑡𝑤
= +
2 4
The relevant properties of ISLB 300 @ 0.369 kN/m.
D = 300 mm, bf = 150 mm, tw = 6.7 mm, tf = 9.4 mm,
𝑡𝑤 (𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑓 )2
𝑍𝑝𝑧 = 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 𝐷 − 𝑡𝑓 +
4
6.7 × (300 − 2 × 9.4)2
= 150 × 9.4 × 300 − 9.4 +
4
= 542.2 × 103 mm3

𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓2 (𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑓 )𝑡𝑤

2
𝑍𝑝𝑦 = +
2 4
9.4×1502 (300−2×9.4)×6.72
= +
2 4
= 108.9 × 103 mm3
Example: Steel beams having a clear span of 8 m are resting on
200 mm wide end bearings. The beams spacing is 3 m and the
beams carry a dead load of 4.5 kN/m2 including the weight of
the section. The imposed load on the beam is 13.25 kN/m2. The
beam depth is restricted to 500 mm and the yield strength of the
steel is 250 N/mm2 and is laterally supported.
Solution:
Factored loads:
Total (Dead Load + Imposed load) = (4.5+ 13.25)=17.75 kN/m2
The beams are spaced at 3 m intervals, therefore the load per meter
= 17.75 × 3 = 53.25 kN/m2
Total factored load = 1.5× 53.25 = 80 kN/m
Eff. Span = 8 + 2×0.1 = 8.2 m

Mid span moment = 80 × 8.22/8 = 672.8 kN-m

Reactions at support = 8.2 × 80/2 = 328 kN
Selection of section:
Plastic section modulus required
𝑀×𝛾𝑚0 672.8×106 ×1.1
𝑍𝑝 = = = 2960.32 × 103 mm3
𝑓𝑦 250
The section with largest plastic modulus under 500 mm depth
restriction is ISHB 450 @ 0.907 kN/m with plastic section modulus
2030.95 × 103 mm3 which is less than required value. The section
must be strengthened with additional plates to provide the required
plastic section modulus.

The stiffness required to be provided can be calculated as follows:

Max. deflection = Eff. span/360 = 8200/360 = 22.78 mm
So, required moment of inertia of the beam due to un-factored
imposed load,
5 53.25×82004 4
𝐼𝑍 = × 5 = 68807 × 10 mm 4
384 2×10 ×22.78

Additional plastic section modulus to be provided by the plate =

(2960.32×103 – 2030.95×103) = 929.37×103 mm3
Assume thickness of the plate is 14 mm
Thus, the total depth of the beam = 478 mm.
Distance between the c/c of the plates = 464 mm.

So, required area of plate = 929.37×103 /464 = 2003 mm2

So provide area of plate = 2200 mm2.
Thus the width of plate = 2200/14 = 158 mm
Thus let provide plate of size 200×14
Thus plastic section modulus of the built up section =
2030.95×103 +200×14×464/2×2 = 3330×103 mm3
This is greater than required plastic section modulus 2960.32 ×
103 . OK

Check for deflection:

Maximum Iz required is 68807 × 104 mm4
Iz provided by ISHB 450, 40349.9×104 mm4
Iz provided by plate = 2×200×14×(225+7)2 = 30141× 104 mm4
Total Iz provided = (40349.9×104 + 30141× 104 ) = 70490.9×104
mm4 greater than Iz required (= 68807 × 104 ) OK

Moment capacity of the beam ISHB 450,

M = 2030.95 × 103 × 250/1.1 = 461.58 kN-m
At any point distance x from the support,
461.58×106 = 328×103x – 80x2/2
or, x = 6396.5 , 1803.05
Hence the theoretical cut off point is 1800 mm from either side.

Check for Shear:

Shear capacity of section,
𝑓𝑦 250
𝑉𝑑 = × 𝐷 × 𝑡𝑤 = × 450 × 11.3 = 667.23 kN
𝛾𝑚0 × 3 1.1× 3

0.6Vd = 0.6×667.23 = 400.33 kN > 328 kN. Low shear OK

PURLINS
PURLINS
 DESIGN OF PURLINS

𝑀𝑢 = 𝑃′𝐿/10 and 𝑀𝑣 = 𝐻′𝐿/10

Mu = maximum bending moment about u-u axis.

Mv = maximum bending moment about v-v axis.

P’ = gravity loads acting along v-v axis, including sheeting, self

weight of purlins, LL & snow loads = H + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠θ.

H’ = loads acting along u-u axis, including wind loads= 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛θ

L = span of the purlin, i.e. c/c distance of adjacent trusses

Muu = H + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 𝐿/10 Mvv = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝐿/10

For biaxial moment of channel and I-sections the
interaction formula is given by

𝑀𝑢 𝑀𝑣
+ ≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑑𝑢 𝑀𝑑𝑣

Where,
Mdu = design bending moment about u-u axis

Mdv = design bending moment about v-v axis

 BIAXIAL BENDING
Purlins are subjected to bi-axial bending. A trial section may be
obtained arbitrarily or the expression given by Gaylord et al.
(1992) as follows:
𝑀𝑍 𝛾𝑚0 𝑀𝑦 𝛾𝑚0 𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑍 = + × 2.5 ×
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓
Where,
Zpz = required plastic section modulus
My = factored bending moment about y-y axis
Mz = factored bending moment about z-z axis
fy = Yield stress of the material
d = depth of the section
bf = width of the section
 Design procedure for channel/I section purlins

1. The span of the purlin is taken as c/c distance of adjacent

trusses

2. The gravity loads P and wind loads H are computed. The

component of these loads in the direction parallel &
perpendicular to the sheeting are determined. These loads
are multiplied with partial safety factor for loads as per Table
4 of the code for various load combinations

3. The maximum B.M. (Mz or Muu and My or Mvv) and S.F. (Fz
and Fy) using the factored loads are determined
4. The required value of plastic section modulus of the section
may be determined by using the following equation
𝑀𝑍 𝛾𝑚0 𝑀𝑦 𝛾𝑚0 𝑑
𝑍𝑝,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = + × 2.5 ×
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓
where
My = Factored bending moment about y-y axis
Mz = Factored bending moment about z-z axis
fy = Yield stress of steel
γm0 = Partial safety factor = 1.10
d = Depth of the trial section
bf = Width of the trial section

Since the above equation uses both width & depth of a section, we
must use a trial section & check for its adequacy.
5. Check for the section classification as per Table 2: IS 800:
2007 .
6. Check for shear capacity of the section for both z and y axes
taken as (Moris & Plum 1996)
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑉𝑑𝑦 = 𝐴𝑣𝑦 and 𝑉𝑑𝑧 = 𝐴𝑣𝑧
3𝛾𝑚0 3𝛾𝑚0

𝐴𝑣𝑧 = 𝐷𝑡𝑤 and 𝐴𝑣𝑦 = 2𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓

where
D = height of the section
tw = thickness of the web
bf = breadth of the flange
tf = thickness of the flange
7. Compute the design capacity of the section in both the axes
using
𝑍𝑝𝑧 𝑓𝑦 𝑍𝑒𝑧 𝑓𝑦 𝑍𝑝𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑍𝑒𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑧 = ≤ 1.2 𝑀𝑑𝑦 = ≤ 1.2
𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0

8. Check for local capacity using the interaction formula

𝑀𝑍 𝑀𝑦
+ ≤ 1.0
𝑀𝑑𝑧 𝑀𝑑𝑦

9. Check whether deflection is under permissible limits (l/180) as

per Table 6, IS 800: 2007.
The following procedure is adopted for the design :

1. The vertical and the wind loads are determined. These loads
are assumed to be normal to roof truss.
2. The maximum bending moment is computed.

𝑤𝐿2 𝑊𝐿
𝑀𝑢 = 𝑜𝑟
10 10

where L = span of purlin

w = uniformly distributed load
W = concentrated load at centroid
3. The required section modulus is calculated by
𝑀
𝑍𝑝,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 =
1.33 × 0.66 × 𝑓𝑦

4. Assuming the depth = 1/45 of the span and width = 1/60

of the span, a trial section of angle purlins is arrived by.

The depth and width must not be less than the specified
values to ensure the deflection criteria.

5. A suitable section is then selected for the calculated value

of leg lengths of angle section. The modulus of section
provided should be more than modulus of section
calculated.
DESIGN OF PURLINS
Example: Design an I-section purlin, for an industrial building
situated in the outskirt of Kolkata, to support a galvanized iron
sheet roof for the following data:
Slope of truss = 30o
Spacing of truss c/c = 5.0 m
Span of truss = 12.0 m
spacing of purlins c/c = 2 m
wind speed = 50 m/s
Weight of galvanized sheets = 120 N/m2
Grade of steel = Fe 410
Solution:
For steel of grade Fe 410: fy = 250 MPa
Weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets = 120 × 2 = 240 N/m
Assume dead load of purlin = 100 N/m
Total dead load = 240 + 100 = 340 N/m
The dead load acts vertically downwards.
The component of dead load parallel to roof = 340sin30° = 170 N/m
The component of dead load normal to roof = 340cos30° = 294.5 N/m
Wind pressure = 𝑝𝑧 = 0.6𝑉2𝑧 = 0.6 × 502 = 1500 𝑁/𝑚2
Wind load is assumed to act normal to the roof.
Wind load = 1500×2×1 = 3000 N/m
Total load on purlin normal to roof = 3000+294.5 = 3294.5 N/m
Factored load normal to roof,
P = 1.5×3294.5 = 4941.75 N/m
Factored load parallel to roof,
H = 1.5×170 = 255 N/m
Maximum moment,
Muu = Mz = PL/10 = (4941.75×5)×5×10-3 /10 =12.35 kNm
Mvv = My = HL/10 = (255×5)×5×10-3 /10 =0.6375 kNm
Let us try a section with flange width bf = 75 mm and depth, d = 125
mm.
Plastic section modulus required,
𝛾𝑚0 𝑑 𝛾𝑚0
𝑍𝑝𝑧, 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 𝑀𝑧 + 2.5 𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑦 𝑏 𝑓𝑦
𝑍𝑝𝑧, 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑
6
1.1 125 6
1.1
= 12.35 × 10 × + 2.5 0.6375 × 10 ×
250 75 250
= 66 × 103 mm3
Select a section ISLB 150 with Zpz = 104.5 × 103 mm3
A= 1808 mm2, D = 150 mm, bf = 80 mm, tf = 6.8 mm, tw = 4.8 mm
R1 = 9.5 mm,
d = 150 – 2(6.8+9.5) = 117.4 mm
Iz = 688.2 × 104 mm4 , Iy = 55.2× 104 mm4
Zez = 91.8 × 103 mm3, Zey = 13.8 × 103 mm3

Section classification
250 250
𝜖= = =1
𝑓𝑦 250
b/tf = 40/6.8 = 5.88 < 9.4
d/tw = 117.4/4.8 = 24.5 < 84
Hence the section is plastic.

Check for bending strength

𝑓𝑦 250
𝑀𝑑𝑧 = 𝑍𝑝𝑧 = 104.5 × 103 × × 10−6 = 23.75 kN-m
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
𝑓𝑦 250
< 1.2𝑍𝑒𝑧 = 1.2 × 91.8 × 103 × × 10−6 = 25.04 kN-m
𝛾𝑚0 1.1
Which is alright.
𝑀𝑑𝑧 = 23.75 kN-m > 𝑀𝑑 = 12.35 kNm; OK
 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑𝑦 = 𝑍𝑝𝑦 × ≤ 𝛾𝑓 𝑍𝑒𝑦
𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚0

𝑏𝑓 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑤 𝑡𝑤
𝑍𝑝𝑦 = 4 × × 𝑡𝑓 × + 2 × (𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑓 ) × ×
2 4 2 4
𝑡𝑓 𝑏𝑓2 (𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑓 )𝑡𝑤
2
6.8 × 802 (150 − 2 × 6.8)4.82
𝑍𝑝𝑦 = + = +
2 4 2 4
=22546 mm3

Mdy = 22546 × 250/1.1 × 10-6 = 5.12 kN-m

< 1.5 × 13.8 × 103 × 250/1.1 × 10-6 = 4.7 kN-m
(1.2 is replaced by 𝛾𝑓 =1.5 since Zpy/Zey (=1.6)> 1.2)

Hence, Mdy = 4.7 kN-m > Md = 0.6375 kN-m; OK

Check for overall member strength (local capacity)
𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑦
+ ≤1
𝑀𝑑𝑧 𝑀𝑑𝑦
12.35 0.6375
+ = 0.66 < 1; OK
23.75 4.7

Check for deflection

δall = 5000/180 = 27.78 mm

Δ = 1/384 × wl4/EI
= (3294.5 × 10-3 × 50004)/ (384 × 2 × 105 × 688.2 × 104)
= 4 mm < δall ; OK.
INTRODUCTION TO
GANTRY GIRDERS
 Gantry girders are examples of laterally unsupported beams in
industrial buildings.

 In mills and heavy industrial buildings such as factories and

workshops, gantry girders are supported by columns and
carrying cranes. These are used to handle and transport heavy
goods, equipment etc.

 The overhead travelling crane runway system consists of the

following components:
(i) The crane, comprising the crane girder, crab or trolley, hoist,
power transmitting devices, and a cab which houses the
control and operator.
(ii) The crane rails and their attachments.
(iii) The gantry girder
(iv) Colum with brackets supporting gantry girder
 LOADS
The following imposed loads should be considered in the design.
1. Vertical loads from the cranes.
2. Impact loads from crane.
3. Longitudinal horizontal force along the crane rail.
4. Lateral thrust across the crane rail

In calculating the above forces crane should be positioned such

that it gives maximum design forces in the girder.
ADDITIONAL IMPACT LOADS

Type of load Additional load

Vertical loads
(i) For electric overhead cranes 25% of the maximum static wheel load
10% of the maximum static wheel load
(ii) For hand operated cranes
Horizontal forces transverse to
rails 10% of the wt of crab & the wt
(i) For electric overhead cranes lifted on the crane
5% of the wt of crab & the wt
(ii) For hand operated cranes lifted on the crane
Horizontal forces along rail 5% of the static wheel load
 LATERAL LOAD
 As the crane moves with the load, a lateral load (transverse
to the rail) is developed due to application of brakes or
sudden acceleration of trolley.

 IS 875 recommends 10% of W for EOT cranes as horizontal

loads, where W is the total weight including lifted weight
and the trolley weight.

LONGITUDINAL LOAD
 As the crane moves longitudinally, loads parallel to the rails are
caused due to the braking (stopping) or acceleration and swing
(starting of the crane). This load is called the longitudinal load
and is transferred at the rail level.

 The longitudinal load per wheel = 5% of the wheel load,

i.e., Wg = 5W/100
Permissible Deflection (Table 6, IS 800:2007)
Category Max.
Deflection
a. Where manually operated cranes are operated L/500
and for similar loads.
b. Where electric overhead traveling cranes L/750
operate, up to 50t.
c. Where electric overhead traveling cranes L/1000
operate, over 50t
d. Other moving loads such as charging cars, etc. L/600
e. Lateral deflection 10 mm or
Relative between rails L/400
MAXIMUM LOAD EFFECTS
Position of Crane Hook for Maximum Vertical Load on Gantry
Girder
The maximum vertical load on gantry girder is the maximum reaction of crane
girder. To get this, crab should be placed as close to gantry girder as possible.
If , LC = Span of crane girder
L1 = Minimum approach of crane hook (distance between c.g. of gantry girder and
trolley).
W = weight of trolley plus the weight lifted
w = weight of crane girder per unit length
𝑤𝐿𝑐 𝑊𝑡 (𝐿𝑐 − 𝐿1 )
𝑅𝐴 = +
2 𝐿𝑐
Position of Crane Wheels for Maximum Effects on
Gantry Girder

Positions of wheels for maximum moment on gantry girder

Positions of wheels for maximum shear on gantry girder
FATIGUE EFFECTS

Gantry girders cause moving loads that cause fatigue. Fatigue effects
for light and medium duty cranes need not to be checked, if normal
and shear stress ranges,
𝟐𝟕
𝒇≤
𝜸𝒎𝒇𝒕
Or, if actual number of stress cycle,
𝟑
𝟔
𝟐𝟕/𝜸 𝒎𝒇𝒕
𝑵𝑺𝑪 < 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝜸𝒎 𝒇
For heavy duty crane, the gantry girder must be checked for fatigue.

𝜸𝒎𝒇𝒕 = partial safety factor for strength (Table 25 of IS 800-2007)

f = actual fatigue stress range
𝜸𝒎 = partial safety factor for materail = 1.10
Normal stress range
𝟑
𝒇𝒇 = 𝒇𝒇𝒏 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 /𝑵𝒔𝒄 for 𝑵𝒔𝒄 ≤ 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔

and,
𝟓
𝒇𝒇 = 𝒇𝒇𝒏 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 /𝑵𝒔𝒄 for 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 ≤ 𝑵𝒔𝒄 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟖

Shear stress range

𝟓
𝝉𝒇 = 𝝉𝒇𝒏 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 /𝑵𝒔𝒄

Where, 𝑓𝑓 , 𝜏𝑓 =design normal and shear fatigue stress range of the

details , respectively for life cycle of NSC
𝑓𝑓𝑛 , 𝜏𝑓𝑛 = normal and shear fatigue strength of the details for 5 ×
106 cycles for the detail category.
DESIGN OF GANTRY GIRDER
DESIGN PROCEDURE
1. Maximum wheel load is calculated. Maximum vertical load
will be when one wheel is closest to the gantry girder.

2. With suitable positioning of crane, determine the maximum

moment and shear force on gantry girder. Add impact load
contribution to it. Though the maximum moment due to
wheel load is slightly away from the centre of the girder
(under the wheel), it is just added to maximum moment due
to udl on girder for simplification and design moment is
found.

3. Calculate maximum shear forces due to vertical load.

4. The lateral forces on girder are calculated. The maximum

bending moment and shear force are obtained when the
position of the wheel is considered as per Steps 2 and 3.
5. Generally an I-section with channel section is chosen, though
an I-section with a plate at the top flange may be used for
𝑴𝒖
light cranes. 𝒁𝒑 = ,
𝒇𝒚
When the gantry is not laterally supported, the following may
be used to select a trial section:
𝒁𝒑 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 𝒌𝒁𝒑 (k = 1.30 – 1.60)
Generally, the economic depth of a gantry girder is about
(1/12)th of the span. The width of the flange is chosen to be
between (1/40)th and (1/30)th of the span to prevent excessive
lateral deflection.

6. Choose a suitable section and find properties of the section

such as IZZ , IYY and Zez , Zey, Zpy ,Zpz.

7. Classify the section from b/tf and d/tw ratios.

9. When lateral support is provided at the compression flange,
the chosen section should be checked for the moment capacity of
the whole section:
𝑴𝒅𝒛 = 𝜷𝒃 𝒁𝒑𝒛 𝒇𝒚 /𝜸𝒎𝟎 < 𝟏. 𝟐𝒁𝒆𝒛 𝒇𝒚 /𝜸𝒎𝟎
However, for laterally unsupported compression flange, the
buckling resistance is to be checked with design bending
compressive stress fbd .

10. Bending strength about yy axis is calculated because of later

loading:
𝑴𝒅𝒚 = 𝜷𝒃 𝒁𝒑𝒚 𝒇𝒚 /𝜸𝒎𝟎 < 𝟏. 𝟐𝒁𝒆𝒛 𝒇𝒚 /𝜸𝒎𝟎
11. Combined local capacity of the flange is checked using the
interaction equation
𝑴𝒚 𝑴𝒛
+ ≤𝟏
𝑴𝒅𝒚 𝑴𝒅𝒛
12. The section is to be checked against shear.

13. Local buckling will be checked under wheel load.

14. The girder needs to be checked for bearing. Bearing stiffness

will be provided if necessary.

15. The maximum deflection under working load must be checked.

16. The girder is checked for fatigue strength.

Example:
Design a simply supported gantry girder to carry electric overhead
travelling crane, given:
Span of gantry girder = 6 m
Span of crane girder = 15 m
Crane capacity = 200 kN
Self weight of trolley, hook, electric motor etc. = 40 kN
Self weight of crane girder excluding trolley = 200 kN
Minimum hook approach = 1.0 m
Distance between wheels = 3 m
Self weight of rails = 0.2 kN/m
WORKED OUT EXAMPLE FOR
GANTRY GIRDER
Example:
Design a simply supported gantry girder to carry electric overhead
travelling crane, given:
Span of gantry girder = 6 m
Span of crane girder = 15 m
Crane capacity = 200 kN
Self weight of trolley, hook, electric motor etc. = 40 kN
Self weight of crane girder excluding trolley = 200 kN
Minimum hook approach = 1.0 m
Distance between wheels = 3 m
Self weight of rails = 0.2 kN/m
Solution:

Maximum moment due to vertical force

Weight of trolley + lifted load = 40 + 200 = 240 kN
Self weight of crane girder = 200 kN
For maximum reaction on gantry girder, the moving load should be
as close the gantry as possible.
Figure below shows the load position
 240×14 200
𝑅𝐴 = + = 324 kN
15 2

This load is transferred to gantry girder, through two wheels, the

wheel base being 3 m.

So load on gantry girder from each wheel = 324/2 = 162 kN

Factored wheel load = 162 × 1.5 = 243 kN

Maximum moments due to moving loads occur under a wheel

when the c.g. of wheel load and the wheel are equidistant from
the centre of girder. This is shown in figure:
 243×(3−1.5−0.75)+243×(3+0.75)
𝑅𝐷 = = 182.25 kN
6

Max. moment ME = 182.25 × 2.25 = 410 kN-m

Moment due to impact = 0.25 × 410 = 102.5 kN-m

Assume self weight of girder = 2 kN/m

Dead load due to self weight + rails = 2 + 0.2 = 2.2 kN/m

Factored DL = 2.2 × 1.5 = 3.3 kN/m

Moment due to DL = 3.3 × 62/8 = 14.85 kN-m

Factored moment due to all vertical loads,

Mz = 410 + 102.5 + 14.85 = 527.35 kN-m
Maximum moment due to lateral force
Horizontal force transferred to rails = 10% of weight of
trolley plus load lifted = (10/100) × (200 + 40) = 24 kN

This is distributed over 4 wheels.

So, horizontal force on each wheel = 24/4 = 6 kN

Factored horizontal force on each wheel = 1.5 × 6 = 9 kN

For maximum moment in gantry girder the position of loads is

same as earlier except that it is horizontal. Hence by
proportioning we get,

My = (9/243) × 410 = 15.18 kN-m

 Shear force

For maximum shear force on the girder, the trailing wheel

should be just on the girder as shown in figure below

Vertical shear due to wheel loads = 243 + (243 × 3)/6 = 364.5 kN

Vertical shear due to impact = 0.25 × 364.5 = 91.125 kN

Vertical shear due to self weight = (3.3 × 6)/2 = 9.9 kN

Total vertical shear = 364.5 + 91.125 + 9.9 = 465.52 kN

By proportioning lateral shear due to surge = (9/243) × 465.52

= 17.24 kN
Preliminary Section

Minimum economic depth, L/12 = 6000/12 = 500 mm

Width of the compression flange may be taken as (1/40) to

(1/30)th of the span

So, flange width can be taken, L/40 = 6000/40 = 150 mm to L/30

= 6000/30 = 200 mm

Required Zp = 1.4 × M/fy = 1.4 × 527.35 × 106/250 = 2953.16 ×

103 mm3

Let us try a ISMB 550 with ISMC 250 on compression flange.

SLAB BASE
 Column Base
• A column base consist of a column, a base plate and an
anchoring assembly.

• The column base is usually supported by either a concrete slab

or a sub-structure (e.g. a piled foundation)

• The main function of column base is to transfer the loads from

column to its foundation blocks.

• The column base spreads the load on wider area so that the
intensity of bearing pressure on the foundation block is within
the bearing strength.
 Types of column bases

1. Slab base
2. Gusseted base
 Slab base
• A slab base consists of a thick steel base plate placed
over a concrete base & connected to it through bolts.

• The base plate may either be welded to the stanchion or

else may be joined to the column through cleat angle.

• Slab bases are most suitable and economical for lightly

loaded column only.

• The design of column base plates requires consideration

of bearing pressure on the supporting material and
bending of the plate.
 Theoretical Considerations

It is assumed that the maximum bending moment occurs at

the edge of the column. As the slab base tends to bend
simultaneously about its two principal axes, the stress caused
by bending about one axis is influenced by the stress due to
bending about the other axis.
 Theoretical Considerations
Taking 1 unit length strip of slab
projection along xx-axis
𝑎
Maximum B.M. = 𝑤 × 1 × 𝑎 ×
2
𝑤𝑎2
= …..(1)
2
w is the intensity of bearing pressure
from concrete below the base plate.

Taking 1 unit length strip of slab projection along yy-axis

𝑏
Maximum B.M. = 𝑤 × 1 × 𝑏 ×
2
𝑤𝑏2
= ..……(2)
2
 Theoretical Considerations
If poison ratio (μ) is adopted as 0.3
𝑤𝑎2 𝑤𝑏2
The effective moment along xx-axis = − 0.3
2 2
𝑤
= 𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2 ….. (3)
2
The moment capacity of plate is,
𝑀𝑝 = 1.2𝑓𝑦 𝑍𝑒
Where 𝑍𝑒 = elastic section modulus of the base plate.
𝑡2
=1×
6
𝑡 = thickness of the base plate.
𝑡2 𝑡2
∴ 𝑀𝑝 = 1.2 × 𝑓𝑦 × 1 × = 1.2𝑓𝑦 ……(4)
6 6
 Theoretical Considerations
From Eqs. (3) and (4) we get,
𝑡2 𝑤 2
1.2𝑓𝑦 = 𝑎 − 0.3𝑏 2
6 2
Applying partial safety factor,
𝑓𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑤 2
1.2 = 𝑎 − 0.3𝑏 2
𝛾𝑚0 6 2
2 2 2 𝛾𝑚0
or 𝑡 = 2.5𝑤 𝑎 − 0.3𝑏
𝑓𝑦

𝛾𝑚0
Or 𝑡= 2.5𝑤 𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2
𝑓𝑦
 Steps for the design of slab base
Step-1: Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Considering
uniform stress at the bottom of plate, the bearing strength of
concrete is determined as 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 .

Step-2: The area of a slab base may be computed by

𝑃
𝐴=
0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘

Where P is the factored axial load on column.

Step-3: Select the size of base plate. For economy as far as
possible keep the projections a and b equal.
 Design procedure of slab base

Step-4: The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal

is determined by
𝑃
𝑤=
Area of base plate provided
Step-5: The minimum thickness required as per cl. 7.4.3.1 IS
800:2007
𝛾𝑚0
𝑡= 2.5𝑤 𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2 > 𝑡𝑓
𝑓𝑦
Where, 𝑡𝑓 = flange thickness of compression member
 Design procedure of slab base

Step-6: Provide nominal two or four 20-mm holding down

bolts.
Step-7: Check the weld length connecting the base plate with
the column (this check is required only for fillet welds)
DESIGN OF SLAB BASE
 Steps for the design of slab base
Step-1: Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Considering
uniform stress at the bottom of plate, the bearing strength of
concrete is determined as 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 .

Step-2: The area of a slab base may be computed by

𝑃
𝐴=
0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘

Where P is the factored axial load on column.

Step-3: Select the size of base plate. For economy as far as
possible keep the projections a and b equal.
 Design procedure of slab base

Step-4: The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal

is determined by
𝑃
𝑤=
Area of base plate provided
Step-5: The minimum thickness required as per cl. 7.4.3.1 IS
800:2007
𝛾𝑚0
𝑡= 2.5𝑤 𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2 > 𝑡𝑓
𝑓𝑦
Where, 𝑡𝑓 = flange thickness of compression member
 Design procedure of slab base

Step-6: Provide nominal two or four 20-mm holding down

bolts.
Step-7: Check the weld length connecting the base plate with
the column (this check is required only for fillet welds)
Examples: Design a slab base for a column ISHB 300 @ 618
N/m subjected to an factored axial compressive load of 1200 kN
for the following condition:
a) Load is transferred to the base plate by direct bearing of
column flanges.
b) Load is transferred to the base plate by welded connections;
the column end and the base plate are not machined for
bearing.
The base rests on concrete pedestal of grade M20.
Solution:
Assume Fe 410 grade of steel: 𝑓𝑢 = 410 MPa, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa
For M20 grade of concrete:
Bearing strength of concrete= 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 0.45 × 20 = 9 N/mm2
Partial safety factor: (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)
𝛾𝑚0 = 1.1
𝛾𝑚𝑤 = 1.25 (for shop welding)
Properties of ISHB 300 @ 618 N/m: [Table 1, SP-6(1)-1964]
Thickness of flange, 𝑡𝑓 = 10.6 mm
Thickness of web, 𝑡𝑤 = 9.4 mm
Depth of section, 𝐷 = 300 mm
Width of flange, 𝑏𝑓 = 250 mm
 1200×103
Required area of slab base, 𝐴 = = 133333.3 mm2
9

Let us provide a rectangular base plate.

Let the sides of the base plate be L and B.
Assuming the overhangs of the base plate beyond column
flanges to be a and b.
Let 𝑎 = 𝑏
Area of the base plate = 𝐷 + 2𝑎 × 𝑏𝑓 + 2𝑏 = 133333.3
⇒ 300 + 2𝑎 × 250 + 2𝑎 = 133333.3
⇒ 𝑎 = 45.5 mm ≃ 50 mm
Length of the base plate, 𝐿 = 300 + 2 × 50 = 400 mm
Width of the base plate, B = 250 + 2 × 50 = 350 mm
 𝑃
The bearing pressure of concrete, 𝑤 =
𝐿×𝐵
1200×103
=
400×350
= 8.57 N/mm2 < 9 N/mm2
Hence ok.
Thickness of slab base, (cl. 7.4.3.1 IS 800:2007)
𝛾𝑚0
𝑡= 2.5𝑤 𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2
𝑓𝑦

1.1
= 2.5 × 8.57 × 502 − 0.3 × 502 ×
250

=12.84 mm > 10.6 mm

Hence, provide a base plate 400×350×14 mm in size.

a) The load is transferred to the base plate by direct bearing. This
implies that the column end and base plate have been machined
for perfect bearing. Also, there is no bending moment. Therefore,
connection of column with base plate need not be designed.
However, to keep the column in position, two cleat angles of
nominal size 55×55×8 mm may be provided connecting the
column flanges with the base plate.
b) Column end and base plate have not been machined for
perfect bearing. Therefore, the load from the column will be
transferred to the base plate through welded connection.
Length available for welding around column profile,

𝐿𝑎 = 2 × 250 + 2 × 250 − 9.4 + 2 × 300 − 2 × 10.6

= 1539 mm
Let us provide 8 mm fillet weld.
Number of total end returns = 12
Effective length of weld = 1539 − 12 × 2 × 8 = 1347 mm
Throat thickness, 𝑡𝑡 = 0.7 × 8 = 5.6 mm
 𝑓𝑢
Strength of weld/ mm length = 1 × 𝑡𝑡 ×
3×𝛾𝑚𝑤
410
=1× 5.6 ×
3×1.25
= 1060.48 N/mm
1200×103
Required length of weld= = 1131.56 mm < 1347 mm
1060.48
Hence ok.
Since the base is subjected to only axial compressive load and
there is no bending moment, the base is not subjected to tension
in any of its part. Therefore, provide nominal 2, 20 mm
diameter bolts to keep the base in position.
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED
BASE PLATE
 Eccentrically loaded base plate
When the base plates are loaded eccentrically or are subjected
to axial loads as well as bending moment the pressure
distribution from the concrete does not remain uniform.
Let the column be subjected to a load P, at an eccentricity of e.
Therefore moment, 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑒
Due to axial load P, the pressure distribution is uniform and
stress diagram is rectangular.
𝑃 𝑃
The direct stress = =
𝐴1 𝐿𝐵

Where, 𝐴1 = area of base plate provided.

𝐿 = length of the base plate
𝐵 = width of the base plate
 Design of Eccentrically loaded base plate
Due to the bending moment the bending stress developed is
𝑀
= ± 𝑦
𝐼
𝑀 𝐿 6𝑀 6𝑃𝑒
=± 1 × = ± 2 = ± 2
𝐵𝐿3 2 𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿
12

The combined stress due to axial load and bending moment

𝑃 6𝑃𝑒 𝑃 6𝑒
𝑓= ± = 1±
𝐿𝐵 𝐵𝐿2 𝐿𝐵 𝐿

Depending upon the eccentricity and length of the base plate

three cases are possible.
6𝑒 𝐿
Case I When there is no tension, 1 − =0⇒ 𝑒=
𝐿 6
𝐿 𝐿
Case II When the tension developed is small 𝑒 = to
6 3
𝐿
Case III When the tension developed is substantial 𝑒 >
3
 𝐿 Design Procedure
Case I 𝑒 <
6
The entire base plate is under compression. The maximum
pressure from concrete must not exceed the bearing strength of
concrete (0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ).
𝑃 6𝑒
1. Combined stresses, f = 1±
𝐿𝐵 𝐿
𝐿 2𝑃
When 𝑒 = , 𝑓= , 0 respectively.
6 𝐿𝐵

2. The combined stress should be less than or equal to 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 .

2𝑃 2𝑃
≤ 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ⇒ 𝐵 =
𝐿𝐵 0.45𝐿𝑓𝑐𝑘

3. The thickness of base plate is computed by equating the

moment capacity of the base plate to the moment at the critical
section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column
flange.
 Design Procedure
𝐿 𝐿
Case II 𝑒 = to
6 3

Most part of the base plate is in under compression, with little

or negligible tension on the remaining part.
1. Calculation of the length of the plate under compression (x):
𝑥 𝐿
+𝑒 =
3 2
𝐿
⇒ 𝑥=3 − 𝑒
2
 Design Procedure

2. Calculation of the width of the base plate:

Compressive force(C) in concrete = area of stress triangle × width
0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥
𝐶= ×𝐵 =𝑃
2
2𝑃
⇒ 𝐵=
0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥
2𝑃
⇒ 𝐵= 𝐿
0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 ×3 2−𝑒

3. The thickness of base plate is computed by equating the

moment capacity of the base plate to the moment at the critical
section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column
flange.
 Design Procedure
𝐿
Case III 𝑒 >
3

Part of the base will be in compression with substantial tension

in the remaining part and will be taken up by anchor bolts.
1. The size of the base plate (L×B) is determined as before or
assumed.
2. From the equilibrium of forces,
𝑃 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥 𝐵 − 𝐹𝑏
𝐿 𝑥
and 𝑀 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥 𝐵 − − 𝐹𝑏 𝑎
2 2
Where, 𝑃 = axial compressive force
𝐹𝑏 = tensile force in the bolt
𝑎 = distance of line of anchor bolts from c.g.
of the column.
 Design Procedure

The value of x may be determined from the above force and

moment equations,
2 0.5
𝐿 𝐿 𝑀+𝑃𝑎
𝑥 = +𝑎− + 𝑎 − 2×
2 2 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝐵

The maximum moment is determined at the critical section.

𝑥
𝑀 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥 𝐵 𝑐2 −
2
Where, 𝑐2 = outstand of base plate from the column flange.
3. The thickness of base plate is computed by equating the
moment capacity of the base plate to the moment at the critical
section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column
flange.
 Design Procedure

4. Calculation of design tensile force in the bolt:

𝑃 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥 𝐵 − 𝐹𝑏
⇒ 𝐹𝑏 = 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑥𝐵 + 𝑃
5. Welded connection is designed to join the column section
with the base for the maximum tension in the column flange
due to the applied moment.
GUSSET BASE
 Gusset Base
• In gusset base, the column is connected to base plate through
gusset plates.
• Gusseted bases are used for column carrying heavy loads
(including moment).
• The load is transferred to the base partly through bearing and
partly through gusset plate.
• The gussets and stiffeners bear the base slab against bending
and therefore, a thinner base plate can be provided.
 Gusseted base

Clause 7.4.2, IS 800 - 2007: For stanchion with gusseted

bases, the gusset plates, cleat angles, fastenings etc. in
combination with the bearing area of the shaft shall be
sufficient to take the loads, bending moments & reactions to
the base plate without exceeding specified stress. All the
bearing surfaces shall be machined to ensure perfect contact.

Clause 7.4.2.1, IS 800 - 2007: Where the ends of the column

shaft and the gusset plates are not faced for complete bearing,
the welding, fastenings connecting them to the base plate shall
be sufficient to transmit all the forces to which the base is
subjected.
 Theoretical Considerations

The critical section is assumed to

lie at the root of the fillet of the
angle section for bolted
connections as the load from the
flanges of the column is transferred
to the base plate through the gusset
material.

For unit width of plate, bending moment at the critical section

𝑤𝑐 2
𝑀=
2
Where, w = intensity of pressure from concrete under the slab
base.
𝑐 = the portion of the base plate acting as a cantilever
 Theoretical Considerations

The design bending strength at the critical section

𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑 = 1.2 𝑍𝑒
𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑦 1×𝑡 2 𝑓𝑦 𝑡 2
= 1.2 × × = 0.2
𝛾𝑚0 6 𝛾𝑚0
Now, 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑑
𝑤𝑐 2 𝑓𝑦 𝑡 2
⇒ = 0.2
2 𝛾𝑚0
𝑤𝛾
⇒ 𝑡=𝑐 2.5 𝑚0
𝑓𝑦
Where, 𝑡 is the aggregate thickness of base plate and cleat angle
for bolted gusset base and thickness of the base plate for welded
gusset base, at the critical section.
 Steps for the design of gusseted base
Step-1: Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Depending
upon the grade of concrete used, the bearing strength of
concrete is determined by 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 .

Step-2: The area of a slab base may be computed by

𝑃
𝐴=
0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘

Where P is the factored load on column.

 Steps for the design of gusseted base

Step-3: The size of the gusset material is assumed.

• The gusset plate should not be less than 16 mm in thickness
for bolted gusset base.
• The gusset/cleat angle is chosen so as to accommodate two
rows of bolts in the vertical leg and one row of bolts in the
horizontal leg. Therefore, an unequal angle section is
provided.
• The thickness of cleat angle is kept approximately equal to
the thickness of gusset plate.
• The length of the gusset material is normally kept equal to
the length of the base plate, parallel to the flange of the
column.
• For welded gusset plate, cleat angles will not be required.
 Steps for the design of gusseted base

Step-4: The dimension of base plate parallel to the web

For bolted connection:
𝐿 = depth of section + 2 (thickness of gusset plate + leg
length of angle + overhang)
For welded connection:
𝐿 = depth of section + 2×(thickness of gusset plate +
overhang)
• The dimension of base plate parallel to flange,
𝐴
𝐵=
𝐿
 Steps for the design of gusseted base

Step-5: The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal

is determined by
𝑃
𝑤=
Area of base plate provided

Step-6: The thickness of the base plate is computed by flexural

strength at the critical section.
Step-7: Holding down bolts 2 or 4 in numbers and of 20-mm
diameter are usually provided.
Example. A column section ISHB 350 @ 710.2 N/m carries a
factor axial compressive load of 1700 kN and factored bending
moment of 85 kN-m. Design the base plate and its connections.
Assume concrete pedestal of M-20 grade.
DESIGN OF GUSSET BASE
Example. A column section ISHB 350 @ 710.2 N/m carries a
factor axial compressive load of 1700 kN and factored bending
moment of 85 kN-m. Design the base plate and its connections.
Assume concrete pedestal of M-20 grade.
Solution:
Assume Fe 410 grade of steel: 𝑓𝑢 = 410 MPa, 𝑓𝑦 = 250 MPa
For M20 grade of concrete:
Bearing strength of concrete= 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 = 0.45 × 20 = 9 N/mm2
Partial safety factor: (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)
𝛾𝑚0 = 1.1 𝛾𝑚𝑏 = 1.25
Properties of ISHB 350 @ 710.2 N/m: [table 1, SP-6(1)-1964]
𝑡𝑓 = 11.6 mm 𝑡𝑤 = 10.1 mm
𝐷 = 350 mm 𝑏𝑓 = 250 mm
𝐴 = 9221 mm2

Design compressive load, 𝑃 = 1700 kN

Design bending moment, 𝑀 = 85 kN-m
𝑀 85×106
Eccentricity, 𝑒= = = 50 mm
𝑃 1700×103
Let us provide 16 mm thick gusset plate, one on each side of the
column flanges and two cleat angles ISA 200×150×15 mm.
Provide a length of base plate, 𝐿 = 550 mm.
𝑒 50 1 1
Now, = = <
𝐿 550 11 6

Hence, the base plate is in compression throughout.

To limit the bearing pressure from concrete to 0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 , the width
required,
2𝑃 2×1700×103
𝐵= = = 686.87 mm ≃ 690 mm
𝐿×0.45𝑓𝑐𝑘 550×0.45×20
Projection of base plate beyond leg angle toe
690; 350:2×16:2×150
= = 4 mm
2

Let us provide a base plate 690×550 mm in size.

Area provided, 𝐴 = 690 × 550 = 379.5 × 103 mm2
Section modulus of the base plate,
550×6902
𝑍𝑒 = = 43.64 × 106 mm3
6

Maximum pressure,
𝑃 𝑀 1700×103 85×106
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = +
𝐴 𝑍𝑒 379.5×103 43.64×106

= 6.43 N/mm2 < 9 N/mm2

Minimum pressure,
𝑃 𝑀 1700×103 85×106
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − = −
𝐴 𝑍𝑒 379.5×103 43.64×106

= 2.53 N/mm2 < 9 N/mm2

350
x

551 139
x

2.53
5.64 6.43

690
Calculation for the thickness of base plate:
Base pressure at section x-x,
551
= 2.53 + 6.43 − 2.53 × = 5.64 N/mm2
690
Moment at critical section x-x,
139 1 2
= 5.64 × 139 × + × 139 × 6.43 − 5.64 × × 139
2 2 3
= 59573.1 N-mm
Moment capacity of base plate,
𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑑 = 1.2 𝑍
𝛾𝑚0 𝑒
250 1
= 1.2 × × × 1 × 𝑡𝑎2 = 45.45 𝑡𝑎2 N-mm
1.1 6

45.45 𝑡𝑎2 = 59573.1

⇒ 𝑡𝑎 = 36.2 mm (aggregate thickness of base plate
and cleat angle)
Therefore, thickness of base plate,
𝑡𝑏 = 36.2 − 15 = 21.2 mm ≃ 22 mm > 11.6 mm
Provide a base plate 690×550×22 mm in size.
Bolted connection:
Provide 24-mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.
The bolts will be in single shear.
Strength bolt in single shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS 800:2007)
𝑓 𝜋×242 400
𝐴𝑛𝑏 𝑢𝑏 0.78× 4 ×
3
= 3
= × 10;3 = 65.2 kN
𝛾𝑚𝑏 1.25

Strength of bolt in bearing = 2.5𝑘𝑏 𝑑𝑡𝑓𝑢 /𝛾𝑚𝑏 (cl. 10.3.4, IS

800:2007)
For 24 mm diameter bolts the minimum edge distance,
𝑒 = 1.5 × 𝑑0 = 1.5 × 24 + 2 = 39 mm
The minimum pitch, p = 2.5 × 24 = 60 mm
Let us provide an edge distance of 40 mm and pitch of 65 mm.
𝑘𝑏 is smaller of
𝑒 40 𝑝 65
= = 0.51 , − 0.25 = − 0.25 = 0.58 ,
3𝑑0 3×26 3𝑑0 3×26
𝑓𝑢𝑏 400
= = 0.98 and 1.0
𝑓𝑢 410

Hence 𝑘𝑏 = 0.51
410
∴ Strength in bearing = 2.5 × 0.51 × 24 × 11.6 × × 10;3
1.25
= 116.43 kN
Hence, the strength of bolt = 65.2 kN
Assuming column end and gusset material to have complete
bearing, 50% of the load will be assumed to pass directly and
50% of the load will pass through the connections.
Number of bolts required to connect column flanges with gusset
0.5×1700
plates, 𝑛1 = = 13.03 ≃ 16
65.2
Provide 8, 24 mm diameter bolts on each flange in two rows as
shown in the figure.
The number of bolts required to connect the cleat angle with
gusset plate will be the same.
Dimension of gusset plate:
Height of gusset plate = 200 + 2 × 40 + 65 = 345 mm
Length of gusset plate = length of base plate = 550 mm
Provide gusset plate 550×345×16 mm in size.
 250

Gusset plate
550×345×16 mm

Cleat angle
200×150×15 mm

550

Fig. Gusseted base with bolted connections

 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod01 lecture 01
Introduction to Limit State Design of Steel Structures

I welcome to the limit state design of steel structure class. The limit state design of steel
structure has been introduced in our Indian code in 2007. Before that, we used to design the
steel structure by the use of Working Stress Method and from 2007 onwards, the codel
provision has been changed and in 2007, the IS 800-2007 has been published where the entire
code has been discussed based on Limit State Design method.

Now coming to this course, today I will discuss about the probable content of the course,
which I am going to cover in next 60 lectures. I will inform what are the books you can
follow and what are the codes required for learning this course, and I will show you some
steel rolled section. What are their properties, how the parameters vary, how the parameters
are considered? Which parameters are considered? Which are given in the IS handbook SP-
6, I will just give you touch on that.

Now coming to the Limit State Design of steel structure, one thing we can say that now a
days, in every city or every country, wherever you see some skyscrapers, these are mostly
built with the steel. Steel has lot of advantages, which I will come later, and because of its
advantageous properties, we, the designer prefer for designing the structure with the steel.
Steel sections are massively used particularly in bridge structure and in transmission tower,
refinery well structure. Sometimes some water tanks, some high rise buildings, many
industrial buildings, sheds are made of steels. Steel is much stronger than the conventional
construction material like concrete, its strength to weight ratio is very high i.e. its weight is
very less and strength is very high. It is much ductile compared to concrete and, because of
its advantages designer prefers steel structure, though it is costly.

So if we design properly in a cost effective way, the cost can be minimized without
compromising the safety. Therefore, we need to know the design procedure properly and
may be in later, by knowing the design procedure we can make a computer code, we can
generate some computer algorithm, by the use of matlab or any other standard language like
C language, C++, java or we can use excel sheet also. In steel design, we need to iterate the
design process. We will assume certain member with certain dimensions and we will check
from limit state point of view, from ultimate strength point of view, from serviceability
criteria point of view. We will check certain steps and if we see these are not satisfied then we
have to increase the size and if we see it is satisfied then we can go for this particular section.
In case of limit state design, there are lot of procedures and calculations. Hence, it is very
difficult to perform manual calculation. Therefore, if you can develop a computer algorithm
of if you can develop an excel sheet then just by putting the value you can check, whether it
is okay or not. In some cases we have seen that when the designer is saying that the assumed
section is okay then they simply go with that section, but that is not economic, because may
be with some lesser section under the same loading, it may be safe.

Therefore, we must go for the lesser section, though sometime designers do not go for it,
because lot of calculations have to be done. It is a tedious process. But I will suggest you that
if you know the design algorithm, if you understand the design process of a particular
member then you make a customized program at your own requirement and then go for this
program for the design of the section and in that way you can make that design optimized,
economic and cost effective.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:44)

Now coming to the anatomy of the structure we will see that any steel structures are having
these types of members, as one is beam. Beam is a flexural member where the flexural action
come into picture. Therefore, we need to know the design of a flexural member of the beam,
and then the load will come to the column. Column takes basically the compressive load
along with certain eccentric load, so sometimes moment also come into picture, therefore
column has to be designed accordingly. Floor carries the load and that load is transferred to
the beam and column. Bracing system is an important system in case of steel structure.
Bracings has been provided just to increase the load carrying capacity in terms of horizontal
load. Now the entire super structural load are going to the foundation, so we need to know the
foundation design also. Therefore, in foundation we will see the slab base, gusset base, base
plate and how the load from the super structure has been transferred to the sub-structure by
the use of base plate and other members. An important part, which we do not generally come
across in case of RCC structure, is connection.

These connections are very important in the sense, that we know the rolled steel sections are
available or some other type of sections also can be made available in terms of built up
section etc., but it required to be joined properly. Therefore, beam and column need to be
joined properly by the use of bolt, rivet or weld connection.

So, when I will be going to teach this subject, I will discuss about the connection at first,
because if we know connection then we can go for further in design. In steel design as a
whole, connection plays a very important role. We do not give much importance to the
connection, though, I will recommend that when we are going to design a entire system we
have to specially look for the connections and we have to design connections properly, so that
load is transferred from one system to another system, one member to another member
properly. Sometimes moment also has to be transferred, sometimes only axial force.
Therefore, based on the requirement we have to decide what type of connections we will be
going for.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:08)

Therefore, I am briefly discussing the syllabus, which I am going to cover, but it is tentative,
because I do not know how much time I will get to finish. So first module will be
introduction, we will discuss about steel as a structural material and we will discuss its
advantages and disadvantages, because unless we know the disadvantages of steel we will not
make use of it properly. Then we will go for different types of sections, I. S. rolled sections,
which are available in the market, and their properties are given in the code. Then we will go
for some material overview, means how the steel behaves with the increase of load, how
stress strain varies in case of steel and how the mechanical properties are dependent on
chemical properties of the steel that we will discuss. Then basis for structural design will be
discussed means what type of structural design we are going for in this course.

Then we will come to the module 2, which comprises of connections. So different types of
connections will be discussed and in that connection we will discuss about the bolted
connections, its advantages and disadvantages, then design of bolted connections, its
efficiency and design of joints, then welded connections, advantages and disadvantages of
welded joints, design of weld connections, fillet weld, butt or group weld, plug and slot weld.
So these are the probable topics, I am going to cover.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:38)

Then in next module, we will discuss about the eccentric connections, because sometimes
connections become eccentric in terms of its loading. So, different types of eccentric
connections are observed, so we will discuss about bolted and welded connection with load
lying in plane of joint and load lying perpendicular to the plane of joint.
Then we will discuss about the design of eccentric connection using bolts and weld. In
module 4, we will discuss about the design of tension members. In tension member, we will
first come into different types of failures, we will find out the gross and net sectional area,
then rupture of critical section then strength calculation, block shear failure, then slenderness
ratio of the member and then we will come to design of tension members, considering all this
and then gusset plates, lug angle, tension splices, design of tension members subjected to
axial and bending, those things will be discussed

(Refer Slide Time: 13:24)

In module 5, we will discuss about the compression members. In compression member, first
we will see what are the types of failure occur in case of compression member and
accordingly the strength calculation will be discussed. Then how to calculate slenderness
ratio of the compression member, we will find out and then design of the compression
member and design of eccentrically loaded compression member that means when moment
also will come into picture.

Sometimes the rolled steel section is not sufficient for withstanding the huge amount of load.
So, in that case we will go for built-up compression member, their design procedure will be
discussed. Then in built-up compression member, we need to add the lacing systems. So
design of lacing system and design of batten plates will also be discussed in this module.

In module 6, we will discuss about the flexural member which is called beam. So we will
give you some introduction to flexural member and then design procedure of beam. Beam
will be basically two types, laterally supported beam and laterally un-supported beam, for
both the cases, design procedure will be discussed. Built-up beams and design of purlins also
will be introduced in this module.

Then we will come to column base, design of the gusseted base and slab base along with base
plate will be discussed here. If we get time then we will discuss about the gantry girder,
because in steel structure gantry girder is an important component, which we need to know.
So in last module we will discuss about the design aspects of gantry girder, various type of
loads will be there. Therefore, what are the loads coming into gantry girder and how to design
the gantry girder will be discussed.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:17)

Now I would suggest to follow these two books along with my lectures. These books are very
well written; one book is design of steel structure written by Dr. Subramanian Narayanan
who has directly involved with the development of I. S. 800 2007 code. He has written this
book which is very exhaustively written and well documented. Another book also you can
follow that is written by S. K. Duggal, Tata McGraw Hill publication, limit state design of
steel structure and the first book is published by Oxford publication.

So, other than these two books you can follow some other books also if you want, but I have
seen many books are available in which design calculations are not given properly. However,
in these two books the design calculation and procedures and very well documented in a
simplified manner. You can go for some reference also like design of steel structure by Elias
Abu-Saba, this is CBS publication, you can use this book as a reference book.

Then design of steel structure by E. H. Gaylord et al. by McGraw Hill and structural steel
work by S. S. Ray, Blackwell science. However I will suggest you to at least follow one text
book which has been suggested earlier in earlier slide that is either Dr. Subramananyn’s book
or S. K. Duggals’ book.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)

Now these codes are required while learning the design of steel structure, first is the earlier
code IS: 800, 1984 which was based on working this method. Now the codel provision has
been changed and in IS 800-2007, the code of practice for general construction in steel has
been given, in which the limit state design method has been followed. Therefore, when you
follow my lecture I will suggest you to sit with this code, because lot of codal provisions are
there, which has to be followed while listening my lecture. If you follow the codes at the
same time, it will be easier to understand the lecture. There is a handbook that is SP 6(1)-
1964 for structural engineers where the Indian steel rolled section properties are given.

All the standard rolled section (I section, channel section, T section, angle sections)
properties are given in that IS handbook. So we should follow that and also we can follow the
IS 808-1989 where certain properties are given. You can use steel table of any standard
publication where the properties are given. Other than that, I will suggest you to follow IS
875-part I to part IV for design loads other than earthquake for buildings and structures. I will
come with this code in details later and also IRC code vehicle load in bridge structures may
be useful apart from this for seismic consideration IS 1893-2002 .
(Refer Slide Time: 20:28)

Now coming to rolled steel section, I have told that different type of rolled sections are
available in the market and their properties are given in IS handbook in SP-6, so like here I
have shown that Indian Standard Junior Beam which is termed as JB also. So, Indian
Standard Junior Beam (ISJB), Indian Standard Light Beam (ISLB) and Indian Standard
Medium Weight Beam (ISMB), Indian Standard Wide Flange Beam (ISWB). So different
type of I sections are available in the code. Indian Standard Heavy Weight Beam (ISHB),
Indian standard column section are also available there.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:29)

Now, the overall depth of I section is called D, in the SP-6, the properties of I sections are
given. If you say ISMB 250 that means it will refer to a particular I section of medium beam
ISMB, that 250 means the overall depth of the section will be 250. Therefore, this D will be
250 overall depth.

The width of flange is called B and sometimes we call bf also, and web thickness is called t or
tw. Thickness of flange is measured at (B - t)/4 distance and we mention the thickness of the
flange is T or tf.

So if you see in the SP-6, the properties of I section suppose if it is ISMB 250 then its depth
is 250, its weight, its cross sectional area and the geometrical properties everything is
mentioned there. Not only the geometrical properties, but also Ixx, (moment of inertia about x-
axis), Iyy (moment of inertia about y-axis), Rxx (radius of gyration about x-axis), Ryy (radius of
gyration about y-axis), section modulus Ze, Zp, gauge distance can be found. Therefore, that
gauge distance is also standard for particular section. So all the relevant properties can be
found out from that code.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:10)

This channel section are mainly used for column. Indian standard junior channel (ISJC),
ISLC Indian standard light channel (ISLC) Indian standard medium weight channel ISMC,
different types of channel section are available in code. Here, ISMC 400 means the overall
depth D will be 400. Once depth is known, other properties can be found out from SP-6.

The width of the flange is termed as bf and the thickness of the flange T or t f is defined at a
distance (B-t)/4, tw is the thickness of web, R1 and R2 are the radius of curvature. Then Cxx, Cyy
, flange slop, α are also given in SP-6. In the code, ZZ is written in place of XX, so I xx is
represented by Izz.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:26)

Angle sections are of two types, one is Indian standard equal angle and another is Indian
standard unequal angle. Equal angle means leg length of both of the legs are same, but if leg
lengths are unequal then it is unequal angle. So standard way of writing is ISA 90 × 90 × 6,
that means both of the leg length is 90, thickness of the leg is 6 mm.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:23)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:26)

This is another section, which is called Tee section, Indian standard normal Tee section and in
case of Tee section, the total h is the depth.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:52)

There are rolled steel bars, which is called Indian Standard Round Section (ISRO) and this is
Indian Standard Square Section (ISSQ).
(Refer Slide Time: 30:13)

ISRO100 means it is a round section of diameter 100, again ISSQ50 means it is a square
section of each side 50 mm. So, this is how it is designated.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:42)

Then rolled steel sheet and strips are also used, those are termed as Indian Standards steel
sheet section and Indian Standard steel strip section. 50 F 8 represent a flat of width 50 mm
and thickness of 8 mm are used.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:30)

Square hollow sections and hollow pipe sections are also used in design of steel members. So
in this first lecture it is shown that different Indian rolled sections are available for designing
and their geometrical properties are given in SP-6 which will be frequently used for design of
structural members.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod01 lecture 02
Steel as Structural Material

Hello, today I am going to discuss the different material properties of the steel, because we are
going to use the steel as a structural material. So before going to use that, we must know what
are the behaviour of the steel. We should know the composition of the steel then how the
composition are going to vary along with the structural properties, what are the advantages of
steel and disadvantages of steel so that we can wisely use the steel as a structural material. So
these aspects will be discussed.

Steel is a to some extent ductile material. So how it behaves under stress-strain curve, means, the
stress-strain curve of steel, how the strain is going to vary with stress, those aspects will be
discussed in today’s lecture. So, before going to use the steel as a design material we will try to
understand what are the advantages and disadvantages of the steel.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:50)

So if we look into the different type of advantages, one is the better quality control. The better
quality control means, the steel is basically factory product, so its quality is maintained in a
better way, as compared to concrete material. So therefore, its property will be uniform and its
properties are well defined. So when we are going to design we know with confidence what are
the properties we are going to get, unlike in case of concrete, we are not very sure, what
properties we are going to achieve. There will be gap between the target strength and the design
strength, but in this case that gap is quite less.

This is the advantageous property of the steel another property is , it is lighter with respect to
other building material, it is quiet light, light in the sense the strength to weight ratio is very high.
So with less amount of space we can provide the member and that member can withstand large
amount of load with a small free space unlike in case of concrete structure. Because of this
certain advantages dead load on the structure will be less. So the space in the site will be
comparatively high compared to concrete structures.

Now another aspect we have that it is faster to erect, means unlike concrete RCC structure, this
can be erected at site very quickly, because all steel rolled sections are available. So once it is
transported to the site just we need the connections properly and then we can erect the structure
as we desire. Another thing is the reduction in construction time, so time of construction is
comparatively less which is advantage for construction purpose.

Then large column free space and thus amiable for alteration. In case of steel structures, size of
the column will be comparatively less with respect to the RCC column. So the free space will be
much more as compared to RCC construction.

Then less material handling at site, in case of RCC structure we have to handle, course
aggregate, fine aggregate, cement then water and lot of material handling has to be done and lot
of wastage also occur, lot of hazards come into picture at the site. But in case of steel structure
we will be free from those type of hazards and has less material handling , wastage will be
comparatively less.

Then less percentage of floor area occupied by structural element. the most important thing is
that, steel is ductile and hence, (it is) it can carry the lateral load in a better way and that means it
is earthquake resistant and wind resistance . If the structure become more ductile then
earthquake energy can be absorbed and without failure, it can be transferred to the ground.
So if the structure is ductile we can have better resistant due to seismic excitation, also it will
perform better in case of cyclone. So these are the few of the advantageous property I discussed
and similarly, we need to know the disadvantages of steel material, because unless we know the
disadvantages we cannot make use confidently.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:50)

So one disadvantage is the skilled labor is required. Unlike RCC structure here skilled labor is
required for connections, because connections has to be made properly and that connections may
be weld connection or bolt connection or may be rivet connection, with a higher degree of
accuracy. So that the load is transferred from beam to column, column to foundation and also
from secondary beam to beam, from floor to beam etc.

Another thing is higher cost of construction; actually material cost of steel is quite high as
compared to concrete. So construction cost will be quite high as compared to concrete. So we
have to make use of steel wisely, if it is not required exhaustively then we should not go for steel
construction, otherwise cost will increase. So this is another disadvantage, because it is high cost.

Then another thing is maintenance cost is quite high. After construction due to humidity and
other problem, it get corroded, so because of corrosion steel strength get reduced. So time to time
frequently we need to make painting, we need to make maintenance. so unlike concrete structure
here maintenance cost will be disadvantageous .
Next is poor fire proofing. At 1000 degree Fahrenheit that means 538 degree centigrade, almost
65 percent strength remains. So 35 percent strength vanishes. Similarly, at 1600 degree
Fahrenheit 15 percent strength only remains that means 85 percent strength got reduced. So
therefore it is less fireproofing so we have to be cautious about the fire safety while using the
steel as a structural material.

Then another problem is that electricity, which may may be required if we construct in a remote
area. Where electricity is a problem , we may not be able to go for welded connection properly.
So sometimes we need electric connection, which may not be available at the site, so in that case
we have to face problem. So, these are the few disadvantages of the steel using as a structural
material.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:47)

Now coming to chemical composition of the steel, basically steel is an alloy which mainly
contains iron and carbon, apart from the carbon a small percentage of manganese, silicon,
phosphorus, nickel and copper are also added to modify the specific properties of steel. Here, in
IS 2062-1992 and IS 8500 the chemical composition of structural steel have been given. So some
of the chemical composition of different structural grade of steel has been reported in this table
like Fe410 of grade A,B,C the percentage of carbon has been shown. So different percentage of
carbon, manganese then sulpher, phosphorus, silicon and carbon equivalent has been given in it.
So with the different ratios of this chemical component we can achieve a particular grade of steel
that means a particular strength can be achieved.

Here,

Carbon Equivalent = (C+Mn)/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15

So, this summation is called carbon equivalent, which is given here, right and the terms in
bracket denote the maximum limit of the flat products So if we want to produce a particular
grade of steel then composition that can be found from this table.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:44)

Now coming to types of structural steel we can see that one is carbon steel , basically different
steel have been produced based on necessity by changing chemical composition and
manufacturing process. So in case of carbon steel carbon and manganese are used as extra
element and another type of steel is high strength carbon steel. By increasing the carbon content
this type of steel can be manufactured, which basically produces steel with comparatively higher
strength, but less ductility. So for this type of steel you will get high strength, but less ductility.
This is high strength carbon steel, another steel is stainless steel, in this type of steel mainly
foreign materials like nickel and chromium are used along with small percentage of carbon.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:43)

Now being a structural engineer, we will try to see what is the properties of structural steel.
Being structural engineer or a steel designer, we will be focusing on ultimate strength, yield
strength and the ductility. These three things are very important. These are very important for
using the steel and also weldability, toughness; corrosion resistance and machinability are also
some of the mechanical properties and in this last four properties are important for durability of
material and often associate with fabrication of steel members. So for durability consideration,
this last four properties are very important we have to keep in mind and mechanical properties of
the steel largely depends on this five things, one is the chemical composition.

So we have to know what is a percentage of carbon and other different elements. So depending
on that the mechanical properties of the steel will vary. Then how the treatment is going to be
made for producing steel, then stress history, rolling methods and rolling thickness are important.
So these are the few things, few parameters which we have to keep in mind for getting the
structural properties of the steel, because these structural properties of steel largely depends on
this.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

Now the structural steel whatever we use, should conform the IS 2062-2011 which is hot rolled
medium and high tensile structural steel. So it should conform to this code and we use mostly the
Fe 410 grade of steel. Few physical properties of structural steel are given in IS 800-2007 in
clause 2 .2 .41, because these properties also will be required like unit mass of steel (ρ) is 7850
kg per meter cube. This is required, because when we are going find out the self-weight of the
structure, self-weight of the steel structure, then we need unit mass of steel.

Next is the modulus of elasticity, this is also important to find out the stiffness of the steel
member and this we consider as 2.0 × 105 N/mm2. Poisons ration also is important, which we
consider in general 0.3 and modulus of rigidity G , G we considered as = 0.769 × 105 N/mm2.
Co-efficient of thermal expansion for heat related problem, we have to consider this thermal
expansion that is alpha is equal to 12 × 10-6 /°c. because steel can expand or contract and because
of this stress may develop so that thermal stress whatever is going to be developed that has to be
calculated and that additional forces has to be calculated while analyzing their structure. So in
that case thermal expansion coefficient is important.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:02)

Now coming to mechanical properties as I told, the three things are very important that is one is
yield stress, what is the yield stress of the steel? What is the ultimate stress and the minimum
percentage elongation? o these we can find out, in table 1 of IS 800-2007 mechanical properties
of structural steel like, we use Fe 410 grade of steel. So, in that case, the yield stress is 250 and
ultimate stress is 410 in MPa and elongation percentage is 23.

Another yield stress is given for thickness from 20 mm to 40 mm, we can achieve 250 if
thickness is less than 20 mm, but if t is 20 to 40 then 240 and if thickness is more than 40 mm
then the yield stress is going to be considered as 230 MPa. So for Fe 410 grade of steel what we
use we use yield stress either 250, 240 or 230 and ultimate stress as 410 and elongation
percentage as 23. Similarly, Fe 440 grade of steel we can find out yield stress as 300 and ultimate
tensile stress as 440 and elongation is 22.

So in this way we can find out the important properties like yield stress, ultimate stress and
percentage elongation from the grade of steel, if a particular grade of steel is given then we can
find out what is the yield stress, ultimate tensile stress and grade of steel, right. Now coming to
ductility, a very important parameter in case of steel design is ductility.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:17)

So, I will discuss little more about ductility. Ductility is basically the ability to deform under
tensile force and it undergoes large inelastic. Inelastic deformation means permanent
deformation without loss of strength under the application. So if we see the stress-strain diagram
of the material if this is strain and this is stress then this portion is basically the ductility portion
where stress is not developing as such, but the strain is going to be increase. If we release the
load, it will be coming to its earlier position, of course not in same path, because it is inelastic,
but it will come to its earlier position with deformation. If the material is ductile that means it
will be much more seismic resistance. Therefore, we prefer ductile material so that deformations
are allowed without failure.

Then another property we also come across which is called hardness. Hardness is one of the
mechanical properties of steel by virtue of which, it offers resistance to the indentation and
scratching. So hardness can be measured by different test (the) like rock well test, rock well
hardness test. Another test we make which is called Vickers hardness test and then another test
through which the hardness is measured is called Brinell hardness test. So through this one can
test the hardness of the material and another property also we come across is called toughness.
(Refer Slide Time 21:56)

So I am discussing some property, mechanical properties and other properties of steel, which is
important to know for designing the structure and when we are going to design a member we
must know what is a behavior of the member under load. Say for example, if we make stress-
strain diagram of a material, say stress and strain, so brittle material means it will be like this and
suddenly it will fail brittle material and ductile material means it will not fail, it will undergoes
strain. So, this is ductile material.

Now toughness is the ability to absorb energy up to fracture. This toughness is measured by the
area under the stress-strain curve. So stress-strain curve of this material and stress-strain curve of
this material, the area we can find out and we can measure the toughness. It is a one type of
mechanical property of steel. So basically it offers resistance to fracture under the action of the
impact load. So this is one property another is fatigue. Fatigue means the repeated loading. It
means damage is caused due to repeated loading, repeated fluctuation of stresses and which leads
to progress of cracking of the structural element and due to cyclic loading damage and failure of
the material may happen which is called fatigue.

In addition, another is resistance against corrosion. In presence of moisture, corrosion of steel

happens. So to avoid that what we can do? We can go for painting or metallic coating. So either
of these two can be made to take care the corrosion. So this is one property which we have to
keep in mind and then another property is residual stress.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:48)

Residual stress come into picture, because of uneven heating and cooling, because of uneven
heating and cooling the residual stress is in the member develop. So how the material has been
produced depending on that the residual stress can be calculated, accordingly the design of the
member can be done. Then another is stress concentration when certain changes of geometry
properties are there, say stress concentration. It is basically a highly localized state of stress
where at particular location stress is concentrated and, because abrupt change of the shape. So,
sudden change at the vicinity of notch can make the development of stress concentration and also
during near the hole the stress also generated several times greater than the actual stress. And for
that we have to take care that means when we are going to design there may be chances of failure
at certain localized point, because of concentration of stress. So we have to make the section in
such a way there stress concentration can be avoided.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:47)

Now we will come to the stress-strain curve. So stress-strain curve of the mild steel we will see
first, say this is strain which is called epsilon and this is stress, which is called sigma, right. Now
in case of mild steel an ideal curve is looks like this, right. So this is the origin from where stress-
strain curve develops. So and this is point A, up to point A that means from O to point A is called
limit of proportionality. This portion is called limit of proportionality that means up to this, it is
linear and it obeys the hooks law.

So OA is basically called the limit of proportionality then from A to B, actually after reaching
point A, change in strain is rapid compared to that of stress, but still the material behaves
elastically up to elastic limit of B. So, point B is elastic limit then point C . Point C is the
upper yield point means if we go on increasing the force then we will observe that yield point
means it reaches upper yield point. So after upper yield point again, it will come down to C. So,
C is the lower yield point, right. This observation of C and C point depends on the rate of
loading it means depending on the rate of loading we can observe the point C and C .

Then CD part, so beyond yield point, the material start flowing plastically without any
significant increase in the stress and material goes large deformation. So CD part is basically
plastic part. So it means it flow like plastic and without any increase of the stress, the strain
increases then up to point E, DE means after reaching point D strain hardening occurs in the
material, the requirement of higher load to continue the deformation. This phenomenon is call
strain hardening that means it resist deformation and needs more load to deform.

So after CD means where load was not increasing, but after that point, it is starts resisting
deformation. So strain hardening occurs, so with the increase of stress, strain also is going to
increase up to certain level, which is highest point E and E this E represents the f u the ultimate
stress, right and after that the stress is going to be reduced and at a certain point it breaks. So F is
a breaking stress, right F is the breaking stress, so this is how the material behaves.

So when we are going to design a steel member we have to know what is a properties of steel
under load that means stress-strain diagram how it varies, in case of mild steel, it varies in a way.
In case of tor steel it varies another way, so we have to know and accordingly we have to find out
what is the fu value and what is fy value and what will be the strain at f u and strain at fy. That
means how much ductile this material is, depending on that we can think of designing the
member properly.

So when we go to the design a steel member under certain procedure like working stress method
or limit state method or ultimate stress strain design method we have to know the stress-strain
diagram, stress-strain behavior of the material so that we can understand that up to what level we
are going to allow the deformation and then how we are going to find out the maximum
allowable stress and then according to that design criteria will be decided. So this is all about the
todays lecture about the steel as a structural material, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 03
Module 1
Limit State Design

In today’s lecture, I am going to discuss about the design philosophy of the steel members
and in this course as I have told that we will be designing the members using limit state
method. So the design philosophy of the limit state method will be discussed in today’s
lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:54)

Now different type of Design Philosophy has been followed in last few decades. Earlier one
is called Working Stress Method, this Working Stress Method was used till 2007 in our
country.

Another Design Philosophy we come across the globe is Ultimate Strength Method. Another
design Philosophy which we will be considering in our course is Limit State Design Method.
Limit State method means Limit State of Strength and Limit State of Serviceability. So why
we are not going for Working Stress Method or Ultimate Strength Method and why we are
going for this will also be discussed in today’s lecture little bit and what are the philosophy of
limit state method that also I will discuss in next few slides.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:09)

First let us discuss about the Working Stress Method as I told that Working Stress Method
was used till 2007 in our country and the guidelines are given in IS 800-1984. Basically in
working stress method we consider permissible stress that we divide with some factor of
safety to get the allowable stress.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:45)

So, if we see stress strain diagram in case of steel we consider the structure to withstand load
up to yield strength (fy), that means the characteristic strength of the member. So up to Yield
strength we consider and then we divide it with some factor of safety and then we get the
Permissible stress.
If you see here I have written that Permissible stress is should be less than yield stress by
some factor of safety. So here, we assume the material to behave in linear elastic manner and
stress-strain diagram stress-strain behavior is also considered linear. That means we are not
considering beyond the yield stress though the member can take certain load after reaching
the yield stress.

The factor of safety in different case has been reported in IS 800-1984 the earlier code

Types of stress Notation Permissible stress (Mpa) Factor of safety

Axial tension σat 0.6fy 1.67

Axial compression σac 0.6fy 1.67

Bending tension σbt 0.66fy 1.515

Bending compression σbc 0.66fy 1.515

Average shear stress τva 0.4fy 2.5

Bearing stress σp 0.75fy 1.33

So, this is how the working stress method was used earlier but in this case there are certain
disadvantages or certain drawbacks were there. We do not consider load factor that means we
design based on service load but from the probabilistic point of view, we have to consider
that sometimes it may exceed that load we are considering

Therefore, in that case the structure may fail, so we cannot rely on this Working Stress
Method always. Another thing is that sometimes this Working Stress Method become very
conservative because we are taking upto the linear behavior of the stress-strain diagram, that
means we are considering up to the yield stress, but after yield stress the member can take
certain amount of load with certain deformation. Therefore, the nonlinear part, the inelastic
part we are not going to consider which is not correct. Therefore, if we consider that in our
design, then the construction cost or the size design member will become less and it will be
economic. And also we have to understand that the member we will design in such a way that
it should not be conservative, it should be economic and of course 100 percent safety has to
be considered. We will not compromise with any safety but at the same time we would try to
make it economic. So that is possible if we go Limit State Method what I am coming later.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:37)

Than another method which we considered earlier was Ultimate Strength Method. It is
basically a plastic design method, in this case the Limit State is attained when the members
reach plastic moment. That means in this case we go up to say fu, so up to this we consider
and then we design and of course, we also multiply some load factor factor with the working
load to get the Ultimate Load.

In this method, we do not consider the serviceability condition that means whether the
occupant feel discomfort or not, whether excessive deflection is coming or not that we do not
bother. So from the users point of view it is not advisable, so this method also became
nowadays obsolete.

Nowadays we prefer Limit State Method the structure is designed in such a way that it can
safely withstand all kind of loads that may act under consideration in its entire design life. So
that we have to consider the science of reliability based design with the objective of
providing a rational solution to the problem of adequate safety, that means we are not
compromising with the safety and uncertainty is reflected in loading and material strength. So
what we do here, we consider up to ultimate strength and we make use of some factor of
safety to get the permissible strength or the member.

So here we use some sort of factor of safety to ensure the uncertainty factor also we use the
load factor as we are not sure that what will be the actual load in the site. We try to find out
the maximum means worst possible combination and we multiply with some factor which
was obtained from reliability based method and then we try to design with that factored load
this is Limit State Method but this is Limit State of strength another is Limit State of
Serviceability that also we have to consider.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:43)

So in case of Limit State of Strength we have to consider the stability with Stability against
Overturning and Sway Stability that we have to keep in mind also we have to keep in mind
the Fatigue and Plastic Collapse. Therefore, Limit State of Strength depends on this few
aspects.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:23)

So in IS 800: 2007 the Limit State of Strength includes this few things which we have to keep
in mind like Loss of equilibrium of the structure as a whole or in part, loss of stability of the
structure, then failure due to excess deformation or rupture, fracture due to fatigue and brittle
fracture. So, these are associated with the failure which we have to keep in mind and we have
to design under the worst possible combination.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:07)

So as I told that one is Limit State of Strength, another is Limit State Serviceability. So Limit
State of Serviceability when we check Deflection limit, then Vibration limit, Durability
consideration and also Fire resistance. So these are few aspects from Limit State
Serviceability point of view, so we have to take care we have to keep in mind this limit and
we have to design the structural member keeping all these limits in our mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:42)

So Limit State of Serviceability will be associated with the discomfort faced by the user
while using the structure that is one is excess deflection or deformation of the structure.
Because suppose in structure we are residing in a tall building towards the top floor then due
to vibration means due to cyclone or due to earthquake the building may vibrate considerably.
but we know from Limit State of Strength we know that design has been done in such a way
it will not collapse but if you do not consider the Limit State of Serviceability then we are
allowing large deflection, so if deflection is more than the occupant will be afraid of staying
there because of this large vibration.

So in such case we have to consider the occupants discomfort ability and we have to take
certain measure so that vibration can be reduced, excessive deflection or deformation of the
structure can be reduced. So this has to be taken care.

Then excessive vibration of the structure causing discomfort to the commuters, repairable
damage or crack generated due to fatigue that also we have to keep in mind that we should
take care of damage or crack and of course corrosion and durability that also we have to keep
in mind. So these are the some parameters which are associated with the Limit State
Serviceability.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:18)

Now coming to Partial Safety Factor, so in case of Limit State of Strength we know that
certain safety factor have to be considered, one is Safety Factor for Load, this is given in
clause 5.3.3, table 4 of IS 800: 2007.
Where, Qck is the characteristic load or load effect and Qd the design load or load effect and
gamma is partial safety factor for k-th load or load effect. So this f is going to vary from time
to time depending on the type of loading, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:34)

So in table 4 of IS 800: 2007 this partial safety factors are given.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:23)

Next is what will be the partial safety factor, suppose if we have dead load, live load and
crane load combination what we can do, for dead load we can multiply 1.5 and for live load
we can multiply 1.5. So this will become as this one load combination will be 1.5 into dead
load plus live load. Another load combination we can make that is that dead load plus live
load plus wind load or earthquake load there we are making multiplication of 1.2, so there we
can make like this 1.2 into dead load plus live load plus wind load or earthquake load, either
wind load or earthquake load we are providing, so this is one sort of load combination.

Another load combination is say 1.5 times dead load plus wind load or earthquake load. So
these are different types of load combinations are reported in the code which we have to
consider and we have to find out the worst combination that means which one will be worst
and we have to design the member from that worst combination. In addition, we can see that
for Limit State of Serviceability under dead load and live load we can multiply just unity 1
but when we are going to consider Limit State of Service under dead load live load and wind
load or earthquake load, we will multiply 0.8. That means for that serviceability load
condition we can consider that dead load plus 0.8 live load plus 0.8 earthquake load or wind
load. here it is 1.0, so this is one combination against which we have to check the deflection.

So several load combinations will come into picture one is due to strength point of view,
another is due to serviceability point of view we have to consider. So for each case we will
consider and we will see whether it is exceeding the limiting value or not, limiting value may
be strength, stress, limiting value may be deflection. And when we are going to check the
deflection criteria, we will multiply either 1 or 0.8 as per the codal provisions given and in
case of strength calculation we will multiply either 1.5 or 1.2 as per the type of loading, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:56)

Where, = Partial safety factor for material as given in Table 5.

= Ultimate strength of the material, = Design strength of the material.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:37)

So if you see the table 5, we can see the different Partial Safety Factor has been considered
for different type of material condition, like in case of yielding resistance governed by
yielding so gamma m0 is one safety factor which is considered as 1.10, whereas resistance of
member to buckling that also as 1.10 that also gamma m0 and resistance governed by
ultimate stress that we are making 1.25 partial safety factor that means we are dividing the
partial safety factor with the ultimate strength to get the design strength.

And for connection for bolt, friction type bolt gamma mf we use 1.25 for shop fabrication
also 1.25 for field fabrication, whereas for bearing type also this is 1.25, 1.25, in case of rivet
also we provide 1.25 and in case of weld we provide in shop fabrication 1.25 and for field
fabrication we increase that the factor of safety upto 1.5, so this is how the factor safety has
been decided and reported in the code which we have to consider and we have to divide with
these factor of safety with the ultimate strength of the material to get the design strength of
the material.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:09)

Another is the serviceability criteria, for serviceability criteria deflection limits has been
defined in, table 6 of IS 800: 2007. Different limits have been provided, say for in case of
industrial building, I am just showing few of them one is vertical deflection another is lateral
deflection, and again design load will be due to live load/wind load, due to live load only. So
different type of design load will be considered and =different type of members have different
limiting condition. Therefore, for different type of supporting condition and different type of
members the limiting deflection has been given in the table 6.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:02)

So this is the continuation of the table 6 for other buildings, one is industrial building and
another one is other buildings we have given.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:10)

Now another thing is the Cross Sectional Classification, this is given in clause 3.7 of table 2.
one is class 1 which is plastic, class 2 classification is compact and class 3 semi-compact, we
know in IS code different type of steel rolled sections are given.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:46)

So say for I section we have ISMB, we have ISJB, we have ISLB, ISHB, ISWB like this we
have different type of I sections. Now for different type of I sections, this d the depth of the
web and tw thickness of web, d by tw, which is different. Similarly, this flange width and
flange thickness this is different, so its ratio is also different B by t f, d by tw. So we have to
see what is the ratio and different type of structures has been classified according to the cross
section as plastic, compact or semi-compact.
So for a particular type of member, we have to decide means particular type of cross section
we have to decide means we have to see whether this cross section is under plastic, semi-
compact or compact and accordingly design criteria will be followed. So these things we
have to keep in mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

Then coming to Load and Load Combinations, load is important because under the particular
load we have to design the member and that load may be dead load means due to self-weight,
may be live load, may be wind load or systemic load or may be other type of load like
accidental load or snow load, hydrostatic load, different type of loads are there. So then we
have to know what are the codal provisions, how to calculate the load on a particular member.

Then we have to go for the load combination with certain factor of safety that we have seen.
So here if we see, the different type of loads are given in IS:875 in part 1 to part 5, IS:875
part 1 to part 5, various load and load combinations have been given and now in part 1 the
dead loads of the structures have been given. Mass density of different kind of material like
brick, plaster, concrete are given in detail in IS:875 part 1.

So the dead load calculation or the self-weight of the structure if we want to calculate, then
we have to go through the IS:875 part 1 and then we have to see what is the total dead load or
self-weight coming into this structure.

Next is the live load or imposed load. Live load or imposed load is given in IS:875 part 2, in
part 2 different type of live loads are given like in case of residential building what will be the
live load, in case of industrial building what will be the live load, in case of office building
what will be the live load that has been specified. Again in case of residential building in
balcony, in kitchen, in bedroom what will be the live load, the different live loads are
specified, so that has to be taken care from that code.

Another is the crane load crane load also can be found from this part 2, then coming to wind
load wind load is given in IS:875 (Part-3), so wind load I will be coming details after this
slide. Then snow load in the area, where snow is a factor there we have to consider the snow
load and that has been given in part-4, and in part-5 the temperature load, hydrostatic load,
soil pressure, fatigue, accidental impact, explosions etc and different type of load
combinations are given in part-5. So part-5 consist of temperature load, hydrostatic load, soil
pressure, fatigue, accidental load, impact, explosions etc and different type of load
combinations means dead load plus live load, dead load plus wind load, dead load plus live
load plus wind load, like this different load combinations are recommended in part-5.

And earthquake load you can find out in IS:1893-2002, in case of earthquake load we know
in our country we had 5 zones, now we have 4 number of zones, zone 1 and zone 2 is clubbed
to zone 2, so zone 2, zone 3, zone 4 and zone 5 and zone 5 is the most systematically active
zone. So for different zone what is the systemic coefficient for calculating the load that has
been given in the code in IS:1893-2002, so detail calculation of load due to earthquake can be
found in this code and according to that we have to calculate the load coming to the particular
structure and then we have to apply that load to the structure to design the structural member.

Then erection load is given in IS: 800-2007 in Clause 3.3, the details are there and also other
secondary effects such as temperature change, differential settlement, eccentric connections
those things also has to be taken care in the load and load combinations because due to
differential settlement and temperature, extra load will come into picture, so that has to be
also taken care in the design calculation.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:21)

Now in clause 5.3.1 if we see the structural system has been classified in three groups, one is
the permanent action, permanent action means the load which are permanent in nature these
are basically self-weight of the structure which we call generally dead load, so these are
permanent action. Another is variable action, variable action is basically imposed load and
wind or earthquake load are not permanent these are temporary and variable so these are
under variable actions. Another is accidental actions, action due to accidental load like
explosion or due to sudden impact such type of accidental actions happen, so that has to also
be taken care.

And we have told that while designing the steel structure the load combination have to be
considered with partial safety factor. Partial safety factor I have already discussed that is dead
load plus imposed load, here we will multiply with 1.5 and dead load plus imposed load plus
wind or seismic load that is 1.2, we will multiply dead load plus wind load here also we
multiply 1.5, like this dead load plus erection load, so these are some load combinations
which we have to take into consideration for the design of the member.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:51)

Now very briefly I will go through the wind load calculation because in case of steel structure
wind load is a factor for designing the steel members because the steel structures are light in
weight so it is vulnerable to cyclone and wind. Therefore we need to calculate what are the
wind load coming in to the steel structures and accordingly we have to find out the design
criteria means we have to find out the load coming on a particular member and then
accordingly we have to design, not only we will design we will check the limiting deflection
because serviceability criteria has to be also maintained.

So what is the deflection coming due to wind because steel are ductile in nature so lot of
deflection will come in comparison to concrete structure therefore we have to check the
serviceability criteria as well, right. So thinking that I am going to give a brief review on the
wind calculation and I told that wind calculation is given in the code IS 875 (Part 3). You will
get the detail of wind calculation and here the design wind speed Vz (m/s) is calculated

where Vb is a basic wind speed and these basic wind speed are divided in our country in six
zone, ok in six different zone it has been given like in zone one the basic wind is 55 meter per
second this is the highest speed, then in zone two it is 50, zone three it is 47, zone four 44,
zone five 39 and zone six is 33 m/s

In IS 875, figure 1, the basic wind speed for different zone has been given also at the end of
the IS code in a tabular form it is given for different city what will be the basic wind speed.
Next is the probability factor k1, k2, k3, k1 is the probability factor or risk coefficient this is
given in table 1, I am not going into details if you look through the code you will be able to
understand all the details have been given. Then, k2 depends on the terrain, height and
structure size, so that factor is given as k2 and in table 2 that is given, you will see that
according to height the k2 factor is going to increase like this it is going to increase that
means the wind speed will go on increasing with the increase of height. Another is k 3, k3 is
the topography factor means in what type of topography structure is going to be constructed
whether it is valley or anything else or plain land depending on that what is the slope
depending on that the k3 factor will be calculated these details you can find out in Clause
5.3.3.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:51)

Now Wind Pressure, Wind Pressure we can find out from this formula

The wind pressure at any height of a structure depends on following.

 Velocity and density of the air

 Height above ground level
 Shape and aspect ratio of the building
 Topography of the surrounding ground surface
 Angle of wind attack
 Solidity ratio or openings in the structure
(Refer Slide Time: 37:02)

Once we get the design wind pressure we can find out the wind force

Where,Cf =Force coefficient of the building

Ae =Effective frontal area
pz =design wind pressure

(Refer Slide Time: 38:23)

Another thing is we have to consider that wind force on roof and walls as an individual
means if there is a roof suppose we have a building like this and it has a roof so there we can
find out what is the wind pressure is coming from externally and what is the internal wind
pressure is coming depending on that we have to find out the force and this force can be
calculated from this formula

[cl. 6.2.1 of IS 875 part-3]

Where, Cpe =External pressure coefficient (cl. 6.2.2 of IS 875 part-3)

Cpi=Internal pressure coefficient (cl. 6.2.3 of IS 875 part-3)

A = Surface area of structural element

So if we can find out this value the coefficient external pressure coefficient and internal
pressure coefficient and the surface area then we can find out the wind force on roof or wall
as an individual, right so this is how we can calculate the wind force.

So this is all about today’s lecture and we have seen in todays lecture that why Limit State
Method is important and why it is more accurate, more practical compared to other two
methods that is Ultimate Strength Method and Working Stress Method. Why we have moved
to Limit State Method that is understandable now and tomorrow onwards when we will be
going for design of members or connections, individual members or connections will follow
this criteria that means Limit State Method design criteria, where the load factor and the
partial safety factor for the material will be considered and what will be the load combination
for which we have to design that will be considered and we have seen the what is the ultimate
strength of the member, what is the yield strength of the member for the steel that according
to the different weight we can find out and we can make use of those parameters for design of
the elemental means element or member,.So with this I will have to conclude todays lecture,
thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 04
Module 1
1. Introduction to Connections
1.1 Overview:
This lecture focused on the connections, which are essential to assemble the steel
sections/members to build a complete structure. Various connections are available for joining
members in case of RCC structure. Generally, we used to connect RCC members by casting
them in-situ. But in case of steel members different type of steel roll sections are available in
the market. The steel roll sections are need to join together and that can be done by applying
various types of connections, like rivet connections, bolt connections, weld connections and
combination of those two or three.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:07)

Generally, connection between two members are required at the following joints: beam and
column, main beam and secondary beam, column and column, column and brackets, column
and caps, Purlins and rafters, wind braces and columns, rail and columns. In case of truss
structure, truss members are connected through gussets that means when different members
are connected at a particular point then that can be connected through gussets member. So
when more than two members are joining at a point we need connections.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:15)

Further stiffeners in plate girders, diaphragms in plate girders, flange and web connections in
plate girders, stiffener plates in column joints are also used for connecting different type of
members. Methods of fabrication are basically three types: rivet joints, bolt joints and weld
joints. Also we can make combine of two or three of the above means in a particular joint we
can make use of rivet and bolt, bolt or weld, or bolt and rivet connection. So requirement
wise we have to choose an appropriate connection.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:58)

Now let us come to the requirement of good connection. What is good connection? Basically
good connection mean it should be such that it can easily be installed, inspected and
maintained, it should be such that there is the least possible weakening of the parts to be
joined and it should be rigid enough to avoid fluctuating stresses which may cause fatigue
failure.

1.2 Rivet connection:

(Refer Slide Time: 3:26)

Fig. 1 Rivet Connection

Now coming to rivet connections we know rivets are inserted in the plates to join together.
With different plates and by adding heat we can insert the. A typical rivet joint is shown in
Fig. 1, where different members are connected to plate by riveting and in the parts of rivet,
the upper part is called head and the lower cylindrical part is called shank. Shank has
particular length depending on the thickness of the plates, so it can vary accordingly.
Different type of heads is available and according to that different name of the defects are
given. Now this rivet head has a particular diameter which is called rivet head diameter and
the diameter of shank is called nominal diameter or rivet diameter or shank diameter.
Depending on the size of nominal diameter the strength of rivet can be calculated on the basis
of the type of material used and accordingly we can calculate the rivet strength.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:49)

Advantages of Riveted connections:
i. Ease of riveting process.
ii. Rivet connection is permanent in nature
 iii. Cheaper fabrication cost.
iv. Low maintenance cost.
v. Dissimilar metals can also be joined; even non-metallic joints are possible with
riveted joints.
vi. Rivet connection is possible without electricity in remote area
In case of welded connection, we need electricity otherwise it will be difficult to join the
members but in case of rivet connections, only through application of heat we can joined.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:59)

Disadvantages of Rivet Connection:
i. Necessity of pre-heating the rivets prior to driving
ii. Create high level of noise at the site of construction
iii. Skilled work necessary for inspection of connection
iv. Cost involved in careful inspection and removal of poorly installed rivets
v. High labor cost
So because of certain disadvantages nowadays riveting connections are becoming absolute,
mainly because of noise and because of generation of heat and difficulty to change the
improper insertion of the rivet.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:29)

There are two types of rivets: power driven rivet and hand driven rivet. Power driven rivet is
called hot rivet and hand driven rivet is called cold rivet. Again in power driven rivet we have
two types, one is called power driven shop rivet and another is called power driven field rivet.
Similarly, for hand driven rivets, there are two types, hand driven shop rivet and hand driven
field rivets.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:02)

Now commonly used rivets are like snap head where the head dimensions are represented by
the shank diameter. If diameter of shank is d then we can consider that the diameter of rivet
head is 1.6d and the height of the rivet head is 0.7d. So with different height and diameter
different types of rivet heads are available. Two types of rivet are generally used as shown in
fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Commonly used rivet head

In case of flat head, the head diameter is 2d and head height is 0.25d and where d is the
nominal diameter of the rivet. The length of the shank is called rivet length. In this case we
should remember that there is two type of diameter, one is rivet diameter (nominal diameter)
another is hole diameter (gross diameter). Gross diameter is little higher than the rivet
diameter, and it is sometimes 1.5 or 2 mm more than the nominal diameter.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:33)

Now while designing the rivet joints we have certain assumptions we have to make, which
are as follows:

i. Friction between the plates is neglected.

 ii. The shear stress is uniform on the cross section of the rivet.

iii. The distribution of direct stress on the portion of the plates between the rivet holes is
uniform.

iv. Rivets in group subjected to direct loads share the load equally.

v. Bending stress in the rivet is neglected.

vi. Rivets fill completely the holes in which they are driven

vii. Bearing stress distribution is uniform and contact area is d × t, where d is the nonal
diameter and t is the thickness of the plate.

As rivet connection is becoming absolute nowadays therefore in new code in IS:800-2007

details of rivet design is not given in Limit State Method however in case of bolt and weld
connection it has been described explicitly.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:51)

1.3 Bolt connection:

The design of bolt connection is generally done followed by IS 800-2007, where different
types of failure of bolt connections is consider and design accordingly. In clause 2.4 of IS:
800-2007 it says that bolts, nuts and washers shall conform as appropriate to the following
codes: IS 1363-1967, IS 1364-1967, IS 1367-1967, IS 3640-1967, IS 3757-1972, IS 6623-
1972 and IS 6639-1972. In those codes the bolt properties like their dimension, different
types, strength are given.
 (a) (b)
Fig. 3 A typical bolt connection and bolt

In fig 3a it is shown that different members are connected at a particular point using bolt
connection. Now If we come to the parts of bolts we can see bolt has a head, shank, runout,
thread and nut as shown in fig 3b. Nuts are generally tightened over the plate to connect
different plates at a particular point. The thread length, grip length, nominal length of the bolt
is also illustrated in fig. 3b.

So bolt has different parts like head, nut, shank, thread, thread length, grip length and
nominal length which will be required for our design. When we will be going for design of
different type of bolts we will see these parameters are required, these different dimension
like what is the nominal diameter of bolt, what is the gross diameter or hole diameter of bolt,
what is the type of head whether it is hexagonal or square, like this we will come across.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:34)

Now before going to use bolts we should know the advantages and disadvantages of bolts. As
I discussed earlier, there are three types of joints: bolt joint, rivet joint and weld joint, where
every joint has certain advantages and disadvantages. So we have to look what are the
advantages and disadvantages for a particular case where we are going to joining certain
member. Based on the type of connection design and the advantages and disadvantages, we
choose an appropriate connection.

Advantages of bolt connection:

i. Less manpower unlike rivet connection

ii. High strength bolts are much stronger than rivet. Hence, bolted connections need less
fasteners than rivet joints mean less holes in the plate resulting stronger connection.

iii. Bolting operation is much faster

iv. Bolting operation is very silent in contrast to hammering noise in riveting

v. Bolting is a cold process; no risk of fire

vi. Bolt can be removed, replaced or retightened easily in the event of faulty bolting or
damaged bolts due to accidents/hazards

(Refer Slide Time: 17:50)

Disadvantages of bolt connection:

i. Bolted connections have lesser strength in axial tension as the net area at the root of
the threads is less

ii. Under vibratory loads, the strength is reduced if the connections get loosened

iii. Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because of non-uniform diameter

iv. Architectural look

(Refer Slide Time: 19:41)

There are different types of bolts are available and these types are classified in different way.
According to material and strength we can classify this as ordinary structural bolt and high
strength steel bolt. But according to type of shank we can make three types of bolt:
unfinished or black bolt, turned bolt and high strength friction grip bolt (HSFG). This is very
important that high strength friction grip bolt is generally use in case of high load and if we
need less number of hole, less number of bolt then we have to go for HSFG bolt. According
to pitch and fit of thread three types of bolt can be categorized: standard pitch bolt, fine pitch
bolt and coarse pitch bolt. Then according to shape of head and nut we can make as square
bolt or hexagonal bolt. Square bolt means if the head of the bolt is square and hexagonal bolt
means if the head is hexagonal.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:11)

This is a typical example of hexagonal bolt. If we see here we will see that it has six number
of sides in this case.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:51)

Now we need to know some certain terminology before going to use design procedure of bolt
connections, like in case of rivet and bolt some terms are used like pitch distance, gauge
distance, edge distance, end distance, bolt hole, gross diameter, nominal diameter.

Two plates can be connected either by bolt or rivet connection. Now according to bolt
position there are various types of bolt connection, like regular bolting, zigzag bolting or
plane bolting or chain bolting, diamond bolting etc.
 Fig 4. A typical bolt connection with regular bolting

The overlapping portion of the two plates as shown in the fig. 4, is called lap distance. Now
as you can see in fig. 4 that pitch is the center to center distance of adjacent bolt measure in
the direction of stress means the force direction. Similarly, the perpendicular to the direction
of stress, the center to center distance of adjacent bolt is called gauge distance. Parallel to the
direction of stress, the distance from the center of outermost bolt to the edge of the plate is
called end distance and perpendicular to the stress, the distance if we consider is called edge
distance.

Now the details of pitch distance and edge distance is discussed in clause 10.2.2 of IS 800-
2007 for particular connections. According to the code the minimum pitch distance is 2.5d or
2.5 times nominal diameter of the rivet or bolt. Why this minimum pitch is required because
we need sufficient space between this rivet or bolt to tightened so that it does not overlap. So
minimum pitch is required to tighten the bolts properly and to prevent the bearing failure
between two bolts if it is very closer than a bearing failure may occur, so to prevent this
bearing failure we need to specify a minimum pitch and code has specified this 2.5d.

Let us come to maximum pitch, what is maximum pitch and why that is necessary. Maximum
pitch is desirable to place bolt sufficiently close to reduce the length of connection and if we
have different members connecting at a point, we have more pitch distance than the gusset
plate will be require more. So the amount of material for gusset will be more that we do not
want, that is why we will try to make pitch distance as less as possible but not less than
minimum pitch. So this maximum pitch is defined in code which is written that the pitch
should be 16t or 200 mm in tension and it should be less than 12t or 200 mm in compression.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:32)

So while designing a member, say in case of a lap joint we need to provide bolts in such a
way that it follows the codal provision that means the limit of maximum pitch and minimum
pitch has to be maintained.

So minimum edge distance for rivet that is given 1.5d, where d is the nominal diameter of the
rivet, right and gross diameter as I told rivet has nominal diameter is termed as small d and
gross diameter which is the hole diameter actually in case of rivet that is termed as D and this
D will be d +1.5 for d is less than 25 mm and it will be d + 2 mm for d is greater than or equal
to 25 mm, which is given in IS 800: 1984 in the earlier code, in clause 3.6.1.1. When earlier
codes were available that means 1984 which was based on Working Stress Method at that
time the code has provided the gross diameter as nominal diameter plus 1.5 for nominal
diameter less than 25 and if it is more than 25 mm than it is d + 2, that means clearance has
been taken as 2 mm.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:25)

Now for bolt, in case of bolt the minimum and maximum edge distance and end distance are
given in clause 10.2.4.2 and 10.2.4.3. It is stated that the minimum edge or end distance that
should be greater than 1.7 times the hole diameter (d h) in case of sheared or hand-flame cut
edges and it should be greater than 1.5 times the hole diameter in case of rolled, machine-
flame cut, sawn and planed edges.

So for different cases the minimum edge distance is defined either 1.7 times the d h or 1.5
times dh and maximum edge distance, but it should be less than 12tε, where ε = (250/f y)1/2 and
t is thickness of the thinner part and maximum edge distance should not exceed this 12tε and
ε can be calculated from the steel property.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:39)

Now another term which we have already used that will come into discussion that is bolt
hole, which is required to fascinate the insertion of bolts to make the connection between
steel members and this bolt holes’ details are given in clause 10.2.1, table 19. The bolt holes
given in code depends on the diameter of the shank that means bolt diameter or nominal
diameter. If nominal diameter is 12 to 14 then standard clearance means hole will be 1 mm,
that means bolt hole is bolt diameter plus clearance of holes. You can refer to the code where
very meticulously this table has been described. Now for different cases this hole clearance
will be different, like for standard clearance it is 1 mm, for over size it is 3 mm, for short slot
it is (3 mm) 4 mm and for long slot it is 2.5 times d, where d is the diameter of the bolt.
Similarly, in case of bolt diameter from 16 to 22 this standard clearance is 2 mm, over size is
4 mm, short slot in case of that it is 6 mm and for all the cases it is 2.5d for long slot. Then
for 24 mm diameter of bolt the standard clearance is considered 2, over size is 6 and for short
slot it is 8 and for long slot 2.5d. If the diameter is greater than 24 mm then the standard
clearance is considered as 3 that means the whole diameter for standard is will be 24 + 3 that
is 27. Similarly, for over size it will be 8, for short slot it will be 10 and for long slot it will be
2.5d. So this is how the bolt hole will be calculated.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 05
Module 1
Introduction to Bolt Connection

In the previous lecture various aspects of different connections which includes rivet
connections, bolt connections and welded connections are discussed. As rivet connection is
becoming absolute nowadays, we have not concentrated on rivet that much. We concentrated
only on the bolt connections in details. In case of bolt connections when we are going to
design we need to know certain terminology that we have already discussed. This lecture
focused on the bolt connections in particular where the different pattern of bolt connections is
used. For different pattern of bolt connections, how the strength is going to vary, that will be
discussed.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:20)

In case of bolt connections or in case of weld connections also we have different type of
arrangements and depending upon the arrangement of bolts and plates, we designed the bolt.
Again depending upon the mode of load transmission, nature and location of load, we
designed the bolt connection.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:58)
Now coming to depending upon arrangement of bolts we have two type of joint we can make,
one is lap joint another is butt joint. So in case of lap joint we have seen earlier that we can
make a single bolting, chain bolting and staggered bolting. And in case of butt joint similarly
we can make single bolting, chain bolting and staggered bolting.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:40)

Fig. 1 Chain bolting

So coming to the different bolting pattern first let us come to the chain bolting. In case of lap
joint the two plates are overlapped together and are joined by different ways of connection
like bolt, rivet or welding. Now in case of chain bolting the bolt will be in same line and also
in same row and column as shown in fig. 1. The failure pattern for this type of bolting will be
discussed later.

Fig. 2 Zig-zag bolting

Now in case of zig-zag bolting, the position bolts are in a zig-zag way as shown in fig. 2. For
this type bolting the failure may occur in various direction or path. So we have to calculate
which will be the weakest section and according to that we have to calculate the lowest
strength of the connection and accordingly we will design the connection.
 Fig. 3 Diamond bolting

In case of Diamond bolting, the number of bolts are increased towards the center as shown in
fig. 3. Similar type of failure as zig-zag bolting may occur in this case also. We generally
prefer diamond bolting because it is much more efficient.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:52) 7:44

Single bolted lap joint Triple bolted lap joint

Single bolted single cover butt joint Single bolted double cover butt joint

Double bolted double cover butt joint

Fig. 4 Different types of bolting depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates

Depending upon arrangement of bolts and plates there are various type of bolt connections as
shown in fig. 4. In single bolted lap joint and triple bolted lap joint two plates are jointed
together by one and three bolts respectively without any cover plate. But in case of single
bolted single cover butt joint single bolt per member and one cover plate is used, where in
single bolted double cover butt joint double cover is used. Again in double bolted double
cover joint 2 bolt per member and double cover is used.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:59)

Single shear Double shear Multiple shear

Fig. 5 Bolts with different shear

Now depending upon the mode of load transmission we can define a bolt by single shear,
double shear, or multiple shear as shown in fig. 5. When the two plates are joint together
through bolt then only one shear plane is there that is why this is called single shear and if
three plates are connected through bolt, there will be 2 shear plane, hence it is called double
shear. When the number of shear planes is more than two then it is called multiple shear.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:14) 9:19

Now depending upon nature and location of load we also can find out different type of
connections like direct shear connection, eccentric connection, pure moment connection and
moment shear connection.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:56)

Fig. 6 Direct shear connection

In case of direct shear connection, we can see that two plates are overlapped together and
connected through bolt as shown in fig. 6, where bolts may fail due to shear so we have
design accordingly.

e
P

Fig. 7 Eccentric connection

In fig. 7 a typical eccentric connection is shown where, beam and column are connected
through gusset plate. Now if we have a load P and eccentricity e as shown in the fig. 7 then
such type of connection exerts moment because this is an eccentric connection. So for
eccentric connection here we can see that the bolt will experience stresses due to the direct
load P the moment P×e.

Fig. 8 Pure moment connection

In pure moment connection the loading is symmetric as shown in fig. 8. So here only moment
will be developed in the connection, so this is called pure moment connection.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:05)

Fig. 9 Moment shear connection

In case of moment shear connection, both moment and shear are developed due to the
arrangement of the connection as shown in fig. 9.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:03)

Now we will discuss about the different type of failures because when we are going to design
a bolt, when we are going to find out the strength of a bolt, or strength of the connection as a
whole we have to find out what are the type of failure may occur and to arrange those failures
what are the mathematical equations are developed and how we will calculate the strength.
The failure of bolt connection may occur due to the failure of bolt or the failure of the plate.

 The bolted joint may fail in any of the following seven ways, out of which some
failure can be checked by adherence to the specifications of edge distance. Therefore,
they are not of much importance, whereas the others require due consideration.
 Fig. 10 Possible modes of failure of bolted connections

(Refer Slide Time: 16:16)

As discussed earlier, there are different types of shearing failure which may occur in bolted
joint. In single shear only one shear plane is developed in the shank portion of the bolt
wherein double shear two shear plane are developed in the bolt.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:20)

Now we will see bearing on plate and bolt and how bearing failure happens. So if two plates
are connected with bolt then due to bearing on plate it may fail that means it may fail by
crushing as shown in the above figure. So this is one type of failure which is called bearing
failure.

Another type of failure may come in to picture also which is called shear tear-out of plane
that means this is somewhat it will look like as shown in the above figure which may fail by
crushing due to shear tear-out of plate. So such type of failure may occur when force P is in
the direction as shown in the figure.

Another failure may come which is called tension failure of plate because when two plates
are under tension and we are going to join through bolt by insertion of hole then along that
hole line tension failure of plate may happen. Suppose we have a bolt as shown in the figure,
where the two plates may tear out as shown in the figure due to failure of plate. So this is
another sort of failure, so different modes of failure of bolt joints we are observing.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:43)

And another failure is called block shear failure. When a plate is connected with another plate
say for example a gusset plate and a force P is acting and if bolts are inserted as shown in the
figure then the block shear failure may occur as a hole.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:31)

Now we have to remember certain things for an efficient connection using bolt that is one is
the stress concentration results in a considerable decrement in the tensile strength so we have
to try to avoid the stress concentration. Then loose fit of the joint can reduce the stiffness
which may result in excessive deflections. So that has to be taken care that means we have to
tighten the bolts properly so that the loose fit does not occur and joint does not get reduced
instantly.
Then vibration cause loosening of nuts which can jeopardize the safety of the structure. So
this has to be taken care while designing a joint using bolt.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:29)

And certain criteria we have to remember for designing the joint under axially loaded
members. First of all, the length of joint should be as small as possible to save material on
cover plates and gusset plates.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:51)

Say for example we have a gusset plate connected with truss member as shown in the above
figure. So how do we connect all the members at a particular point? This type of joining is
possible; we have to join in such way that cg of each members pass through a particular point
otherwise eccentricity may develop then the moment due to eccentricity may come into
picture. The length of joint should be as less as possible to reduce the material amount of
material that means we have to join through a gusset plate. Now if we provide more number
of bolts then we will not be able to reduce the length of joint that means we cannot reduce the
amount of material required for gusset plate, that is why we have to keep in mind that as less
as possible the length of joint should be. Another thing is that the center line of all members
meeting at a joint should coincide at one point only otherwise the joint will twist out of
position. The number of bolts should be increased gradually towards the joint for uniform
stress distribution in bolt. For this type of connection, we prefer diamond bolting where the
number of bolts increased towards the center.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:05)

Then the arrangement should satisfy the pitch, gauge and edge distance requirement, that
means what will be the pitch distance, what will be the gauge distance, what is the edge
distance all the things has to be satisfied. Next is the strength of joint reduces due to the bolt
holes. So the reduction in area due to bolt holes can be minimized by arranging a zig-zag
form or diamond form and the arrangement can be made in such a way that the strength can
be increased.

So in short while designing a connection using bolt we have to remember certain criteria one
is the length of the joint should be as less as possible. Now if we increase the diameter of
bolt, we should not require large number of bolts. We have to try to reduce the number of
bolts so that the number of holes become less so the tensile strength of the member becomes
high as well as because of less number of bolt the length of the joint will be less and thereby
the gusset plate require for joining plates will be less. So the amount of gusset plates can be
minimized through this.

Another thing is the members meeting at a point should be designed in such a way that cg of
all the members are coinciding at a particular point, otherwise due to eccentricity the
additional moment may generate that also has to be keep in mind. Another important thing
which have to keep in mind that whether we are satisfying the pitch and edge distance
properly because as per codal provisions we have to consider the minimum pitch and
maximum pitch. So the pitch distance whatever we will provide we have to be in between
maximum and minimum as prescribed in IS 800: 2007.
So with this I would like to conclude todays lecture saying once again that when we are going
to design a bolt connection we have to keep in mind what type of connections we are going to
handle and accordingly what type of load may come and whether we are going for lap joint or
butt joint, whether we are going for eccentric connections or concentric connection we have
to see and accordingly we have to calculate the external forces and then we have to find out
the bolt strength once we get bolt strength we can find out the number of bolt and we can
design accordingly with the use of codal provisions for pitch distance, edge distance and
gauge distance.

In next class we will discuss the bolt strength due to different failure means different aspects
like bearing failure, shearing failure, tearing failure what will be the bolt strength that we will
calculate as per the codal provisions, thank you very much.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 06
Module 2
Design of Ordinary Black Bolts

In this lecture the design procedure of bolts will be discussed. Bolt may be two types which
are commonly used, one is ordinary black bolt and another is high strength friction grip bolt.
Now at first I will discuss about the design procedure of ordinary black bolt.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:41)

As we know that the design procedure of bearing type of bolt and friction type bolt are given
in clause 10.3 and clause 10.4 of IS: 800-2007 respectively. So while we will see the design
procedure I would suggest the participants to follow the codal provisions and open the clause
10.3 while designing the ordinary black bolt. When we are going to design the ordinary black
bolt, we will see the two type of joints will come across openly, one is lap joint where the two
plates are overlapped together at a certain length and another is butt joint where two plates
are in same plane and joint with some cover may be single cover or may be double cover. So
these two types of joints will be covered in this lecture.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:54)

Now for designing of ordinary black bolt we will see that what are the failure criteria and
from that failure criteria what are the strength like it may fail due to shear. We know that
black bolt may fail at shear plane when two plates are connected through bolt/bolts. So while
we will go for design of that bolt first we have to find out what is the strength of the bolt in
shear then we will go for bearing strength of bolt and so on. Bolt connection may fail also
due to bearing of bolt or due to tension in the bolt or due to tension in plate or due the
combined shear and tension. So we have to design the connection against the lowest strength
of bolt/plate. In case of plate failure in tension, we have to find the net strength of the plate
which is reduced due to the presence of hole. So that also we will check and we will see
which one is the least strength, which will be the bolt strength. So we will try to find out the
bolt strength for different failure criteria as discussed above.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:54)

Next let us come to design of ordinary black bolt.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:03)

Now as per clause 10.3 of IS 800: 2007, nominal capacity of bolt is given by

f ub
Vnsb = ( nn Anb + ns Asb ) blj blg bpkg
3

Where, Vnsb = nominal capacity of bolts in shear

fub = ultimate tensile strength of bolts
nn = no. of shear planes with threads intercepting the plane
 ns = no. of shear planes without threads intercepting the plane
βlj = reduction factor which allows for overloading of end bolts that occur in long
connections
βlg = reduction factor for large grip lengths
βpkg = reduction factor for packing plates thicker than 6mm
Anb = net tensile area of bolt to be considered at the root of the threads = 0.78×π×d2/4
Asb = nominal plain shank area of the bolt
So for different type of bolts the ultimate tensile strength of bolt will be different that we can
find out from the code

(Refer Slide Time: 5:34)

Now if you see the above picture, where entire bolt grip is shown, you can identify nn and ns,
means the shear plane with threads and without threads intercepting the plate.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:54)

So now I am going to discuss about the design of ordinary black bolts, this is given in clause
10.3 of IS: 800. Now as I discussed earlier that the design of ordinary black bolts has to be
designed under shear, tension, bearing of bolt and tension of the plate. So we will go through
one by one and we will see what are the codal provisions made and accordingly we will try to
find out the design strength of the bolt under shear, under bearing and under tension.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:08)

So using the above formula given in clause 10.3, we can find the nominal shear capacity of
bolt (Vnsb) where fub is the ultimate tensile strength of bolt which depends on the material
property of the bolt. So what type of material property we are going to use depending on that
we can find out the value of fub.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:44)

As we discussed earlier about the number of shearing plane with and without threads, here
from the above figure we can found the shear planes as ns= 2 and nn=1. Now we have to find
out the Anb and Ans. Ans is the cross sectional area of the plane shank of the bolt and Anb is the
cross sectional area of the threaded portion of the bolt. Now we know the cross sectional area
of the shank portion will be πd2/4, where d is the nominal diameter of the bolt but when we
are going to calculate the net area of the threaded portion we will reduce to a certain extent
which is suggested by the code as 0.78 times the cross sectional area of the shank area, that
means this will be reduced to 0.78× πd2/4.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:59)

Now we will discuss about the reduction factors which will be used to determine the nominal
shear capacity of bolt. βlj is the reduction factor which allows for overloading of end bolts
that occur in long connections. If a connection is quite long, then there will be a factor which
we have to multiply with the capacity whatever is coming this factor is called βlj. Similarly,
βlg is the reduction factor due to large grip length, if the grip length is large that means plate
thickness is high or several plates are given then grip length increases, say suppose I am
increasing the number of plates and joining with a bolt. So if grip length is more then we
have to multiply a factor which is called reduction factor for large grip lengths. Now βpkg is
the reduction factor for packing plates. Suppose we have a butt joint where two plates have
different thickness and we have to join with certain number of bolts. So for this case we may
have to provide packing plates. These packing plates when we are going to consider we are
using a reduction factor for packing plates however if this packing plate is thicker than 6 mm
then we have to multiply a reduction factor of beta βpkg.

Now the design shear force, Vdsb = Vnsb gmb where gmb is the partial safety factor, this gmb is
given in IS code in table 5, in table 5 you will get a different type of partial factor for bolted
connection, for welded connection and for different cases the value of partial safety factor of

the bolt or rivet bolt or welded according to the material it has been given. Now this gmb we
consider here as for bolt we use 1.25, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:03)

Now let us come to the reduction factor how do we calculate βlj which is the reduction factor
due to long joint. So long joint means if the length of joint become more than 15 times of
nominal diameter of the bolt is consider as long joint and the reduction factor βlj can be
calculated as follows:
 lj
bl j = 1.075 – , 0.75 £ blj £ 1.0
( 200d )

Where, lj is length of the joint

(Refer Slide Time: 17:21)

Next we will calculate the value of βlg which is reduction factor due to large grip length
which is consider if the grip length, lg is more than 5d, where d is the nominal diameter of the

8d
bolt. So when lg > 5d than lg 
(3  lg )

Another reduction factor is for packing plates that is βpkg which can be calculate as follows
If thickness of packing plates tpkg > 6mm, then

 pkg  1 – 0.0125t pkg

(Refer Slide Time: 18:59)

We have seen first is that bolt in shear now for bearing as I told that bolt may fail due to
shearing effect and due to bearing effect and bolt may fail due to tension also the joint may
fail due to tension of the plate tension failure of the plate that has also have to be consider.

Now the nominal bearing strength of bolt (Vnpb) can be calculated from the following formula:

Vnpb = 2.5kb dt fu

Where,

Vnpb = nominal bearing strength of bolt

fu = ultimate tensile stress of plate
d = nominal diameter of bolt
t = summation of thickness of connected plates experiencing bearing stress in same
direction
Remember, earlier we have calculated the ultimate tensile stress ultimate stress of bolt in
earlier formula but here it is ultimate tensile strength of plate because it is bearing on plate.
Now another factor is a constant Kb which can be calculated as follows:
 e p
kb = smaller of , - 0.25, fub f u ,1
3d 0 3d 0

Where, fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts

d0 = diameter of bolt hole
p = pitch of fastener along bearing direction
e = edge distance
Now we can find out the design shear force as

Vdpb = Vnpb gmb

Where gmb is the partial safety factor of bolt and this value is 1.25 which we can find out
from table 5 of IS: 800-2007.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:15)

Now considering the failure of bolt due to tension we can calculate the nominal capacity of
bolt in tension as follows:

gmb
Tnb = 0.9 fub Anb < f yb Asb
gm 0

Where, Tnb = nominal capacity of a bolt in tension

fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts
An = net tensile stress area
 Asb = shank area of bolt
fyb = yield stress of bolt
γm0 = partial safety factor = 1.1 (table 5 of IS: 800)
γm1 = partial safety factor = 1.25 (table 5 of IS: 800)

Now the design tensile force, Tdb = Tnb gmb and we know γmb is basically 1.25.

So what we have seen that the strength of bolt due to shearing, due to bearing and due to
tension we have calculated.

Now another aspect is that the joint may fail due to tensile failure of the plate. So if plate fails
then the joint is going to fail. So the tension capacity of the plate also has to be calculated
while calculating the bolt strength of the joint. So we will calculate now the tension capacity
of plate. The tension capacity of plate is given by

0.9 f u An
Tnd =
gm1

Where, Tnd = tension capacity of plate

fu = ultimate tensile stress of plate

An = net effective area of plate

γml = partial safety factor = 1.25

The net effective area of plate is calculated from the following formula:

An = ( b - nd 0 ) t

Where, b = width of plate

n = number of holes along width perpendicular to the direction of load
d0 = hole diameter = nominal diameter of bolt + clearance of the hole
t = thickness of plate

(Refer Slide Time: 27:00) 28:29

Now another failure may come which is 5th one that is bolt with combined shear and tension.
Sometimes bolt are exerted to combined shear and tension. So when we are calculating
individually the shear strength and tensile strength of the bolt we have to also calculate that if
both the shear and tension acts then what will be the combined strength of the bolt and that is
found from this interaction formula that it has to fulfill these criteria and it has to be less than
1.0.

2 2
æV ö
÷ æTe ö
ç ÷ + ç ÷ ÷
ç
ç ÷ ç
÷ ç ÷ £ 1.0
÷
èVsd ø èTnd ø

Where, V = applied shear force

Vsd = design shear capacity
Te = externally applied tension
Tnd = design tension capacity
Here V should be less than Vsd and Te should be less than Tnd but also this check has to be
conducted and the summation of these two will be less than 1.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:33)

Now whatever we have discussed we will go through one example and we will try to
understand that how to calculate the bolt strength.

Example: Calculate the shear strength of 16 mm diameter bolt of grade 4.6. The bolt is under
triple shear as shown in the figure below.

Solution:

fub
Vdsb   nn Anb  ns Asb  lj lg pkg
3mb

nn = no. of shear planes with threads intercepting the plane =1

ns = no. of shear planes without threads intercepting the plane =2

Nominal diameter of bolt, d =16 mm

Diameter of hole, d 0  18mm (Ref. Table 19)

For grade 4.6 bolts; f ub  400MPa

For Fe 410 grade of steel; f u  410 MPa

Partial safety factor for bolt,  mb  1.25

For 16 mm diameter bolt;


Net shear area of bolt at threads is, Anb  0.78   d 2  157 mm 2
4


And Ans   d 2  201 mm 2
4

fub 400
Thus, Vdsb = ( nn Anb + ns Asb ) = ( 1´ 157 + 2´ 201) =103´ 103 N
3gmb 3 ´ 1.25
Therefore, the design shear strength, Vdsb = 103 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 31:05)

So this is a small example we have shown where only shear strength has been calculated due
to multiple shear that means we have tried to understand here that what will be the value of
nn, how we will calculate the value of nn and ns and what will be the Anb and Ans and
accordingly what will be the Vdsb the design shear strength due to shear in the bolt.

So due to multiple shear in this case the triple shear the example has been worked out and has
been shown I hope you have understood this example, thank you very much.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 07
Module 2
Worked Out Examples on Design of Ordinary Black Bolts

In last lecture we have discussed the design philosophy of ordinary black bolt and we have
seen that how to calculate the design shear strength of black bolt, the bearing strength, tensile
strength and tensile strength of plate and combination of shear and tension. So how to
calculate the strength due to different force occurring that has been discussed and we have
gone through a small example in the last lecture.

Now in this lecture I will go through two examples of ordinary black bolt and we will see
how to calculate different type of strength due to shear, due to bearing, due to tension. We
will also go through another example where a plate is connected with different number of
bolts and we will calculate the efficiency of that bolt that means the strength of bolt and the
strength of the solid plate. In first example we will try to calculate the strength of lap joint
and then we will go for butt joint. So this is what we will cover in today’s lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:24)

Example 1: Design the following joints using ordinary black bolts between two plates of
width 200 mm and thicknesses 10 mm and 18 mm respectively to transmit a factored load of
150 kN. Use plates made of Fe 410 grade steel and 16 mm diameter bolt of grade 4.6.

Solution:
Nominal diameter of bolt, d = 16 mm

Diameter of hole, d0 = 18 mm (Ref. Table 19 of IS 800: 2007)

For grade 4.6 bolts; fub = 400 MPa

For Fe 410 grade of steel; fu = 410 MPa

Partial safety factor for bolt, γmb = 1.25

So we will design the connection for the following three cases:

a) Lap joint

b) Single cover butt joint with cover plate of 8 mm.

c) Double cover butt joint with 8 mm covers plates.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:00)

a) Lap joint:

In this case we can assume that shear plane is including in the threads so nn is 1 and ns as 0.
For 16 mm diameter bolt; Net shear area of the bolt at threads is, A nb=157 mm2
Design shear strength per bolt, (excluding reduction factor)
f ub
Vdsb   nn Anb  ns Asb 
3   mb
 400 10 3
  1157  0   29kN
3  1.25

150
form shear point of view the number of bolts required is n= =5.2 ≈ 6
29

(Refer Slide Time: 6:50)

Design bearing strength per bolt,

2.5  kb  d  t  f u
Vdpb 
 mb

e p f
Where, kb = smaller of ,
(
3 d0 3 d0 )
−0.25 , ub , 1
fu

Minimum pitch, p=2.5 d =2.5× 16=40 mm

Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d0 (for rolled edge) =1.5×18=27 mm

= 1.7 d0 (for hand-flame cut edge) = 1.7×18=30.6 mm

Provide p=50 mm and e= 31 mm

So, kb is smaller of
31
[
,
50
( 3 × 18 ) ( 3× 18 ) ]
−0.25 ,
400
410
,1

So k b =0.57

(Refer Slide Time: 8:52)

Design bearing strength per bolt,

2.5  0.57  16 10  410 103

Vdpb 
1.25

¿ 74.78 kN

Where, V dsb =29 kN

So the bolt value will be minimum of bolt value will be minimum of two that is 29 and 74.78
kilonewton.

Therefore, bolt value = 29 kN

150
Number of bolts required ¿ =5.2
29

18mm Direction of load

10mm 150 kN

31mm

138mm 200 mm

31mm

50mm 50mm
So we can provide 6 nos of bolts and arrange them as shown in the above figure.

b) Single cover butt joint with cover plate of 8 mm:

(Refer Slide Time: 12:02)

In this case two plates are joint with a cover right. So we have to provide certain as shown in
the above figure. So for this case also the design shear strength of bolt V dsb will be 29 kN
because this is also in single shear.

Design bearing strength per bolt,

2.5  kb  d  t  f u
Vdpb 
 mb

Where, p = 50 mm, e = 31 mm, Kb = 0.57, t = 8 mm

2.5  0.57 16  8  410  103

Vdpb 
1.25

¿ 59.83 kN

Therefore, the bolt value is 29 kN.

150
Number of bolts required for this connection =5.1
29

Provide 6 bolts and arranging it in three lines as shown in the figure.

 Direction of load
18mm 10mm
150 kN

31mm
69mm
69mm 200 mm
31mm

50mm

(Refer Slide Time: 15:15)

So bolt we are providing in single line in each case here and plates are connected, right so
this is how we can arrange the bolts in three lines and we can find out the arrangement of the
bolts in this way.

c) Double cover butt joint with 8 mm covers plates:

(Refer Slide Time: 17:11)

So what will be the difference from earlier one that in this case as double cover butt joint is
considered, we can assume that it is actually in a double shear.

Therefore, the bolts will be in double shear.

Assuming threads in the shear planes. Therefore nn=2; n s=0

Since the two plates of thicknesses 18 mm and 10 mm are to be jointed, packing plate of
thickness (18-10) = 8 mm will be required and as the packing plate thickness is greater than 6
mm we have to provide the reduction factor ( β pkg ) for the packing plate.

As per clause 10.3.3.3 of IS:800 2007, design shear capacity of bolts will be decreased by
factor β pkg

 pkg  (1  0.0125t pkg )

 (1  0.0125  8)
 0.9
So the design shear strength of bolt in double shear,

fub
Vdsb  (nn Anb  ns Asb )  pkg
3   mb

400 103
  2  157  0.9
3 1.25

¿ 52.21 kN

If packing plates are not given than the shearing strength of the bolt due to double shear will
become 2× 29=58 kN but as we are providing packing plate which is more than 6 mm,
we have to reduce certain amount which was given as a reduction factor of β pkg and that
value is coming 0.9, that is why in place of 58 this is coming 52.21 kilonewton.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:03)

Now design bearing strength per bolt,

2.5  kb  d  t  fu
Vdpb 
 mb

Where, p = 65 mm, e = 31 mm, Kb = 0.57, t = 10 mm

As double cover butt joint has been provided that is why the cover plate thickness will
become 8×2 that is 16 mm and thickness of other plates are 10 mm and 18 mm. So thickness
of the thinner plate will be 10 mm so that is why we are providing 10

2.5  0.57  16 10  410 103

Vdpb 
1.25

¿ 74.78 kN

Therefore, the bolt value is 52.21 kN.

150
Number of bolts required for this connection ¿ =2.87
52.21

(Refer Slide Time: 22:37)

Now atleast we can provide we have to provide a single line of bolt here and we have to
provide a single line of bolt here right. So if we see these we can see that in plan it will look
like this is the two plates are joining here and bolts are connected here four number of bolts
are there. So the detailing can be done in this way either we can consider 31 millimeter or we
can provide 35 may be 130 and 35 to cover this total 200 mm thickness, right and this we can
provide 65 mm or more whatever means suitably we have to provide, so this will be the this
will be the arrangement of the bolts, right.

Using 4 bolts to arrange the joint as single bolted double cover butt joint can be arranged as
shown in the figure.
 8mm cover plates
Direction of load
18mm 10mm
150 kN

31mm

138mm 200 mm
31mm

65mm

(Refer Slide Time: 24:46)

Example 2: Two plates 10 mm thick are joined by 16mm diameter bolts in a triple staggered
lap joint as shown in the figure. Find efficiency of the joint.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:09)
So if we draw the figure we will see this is a triple staggered lap joint. So bolt we can provide
in this way. The bolt lines are marked as 1-1, 2-2, 3-3.

Now the failure may occur in any direction as marked in the above figure. So if we make
section 1-1, 2-2, 3-3 then we have to consider first failure at 1-1 that we will try to find out
then it will be going to fail in section 2-2. So when we are going to find out the strength at 2-
2 that means we have to find out strength at bolt at 1-1 failure strength plus 2-2. So it will be
clear when we will be going through this example.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:46)

So first let us consider section 1-1 means along 1-1 if it fails how it looks. So there first we
have to find out the this is in single shear so the P single shear if I write then due to single
shear Vdsb will be same as earlier and this will be 29 kN which we have already calculated in
earlier case of 16 mm diameter because this is a single shear and diameter is 16 mm diameter
so 29 kN will be the single shear strength shear strength due to single shear.

Now design bearing strength per bolt

Pbearing = Vdpb = 2.5kb d tfu gmb

Here, e = 25 mm, p = 40mm

kb = 25/(3×18), 40/(3×18)-0.25, 400/410, 1

kb = 0.46

(Refer Slide Time: 29:47)

2.5´ 0.46 ´ 16 ´ 10 ´ 410

Pbearing = = 60.35 KN
1.25

So bolt value due to shear it is coming 29 and due to bearing it is coming 60. So smaller of
this two will be the bolt value, so we can consider the bolt value as 29 kN, right.

So the strength of joint based on bolt value will become how much strength of joint because 7
number of bolts are there so this will be 7 ×29=203 kN

Again now we will see if it fails along section 1-1 then what will be the strength of that joint.

Strength of joint along 1-1

 = 0.9 fu ( b - nd h ) t gml

= 10-3 × 0.9×410×(130-2×18)×10/1.25

= 277.49 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 32:29)

Strength of joint along 2-2

= 0.9 fu ( b - nd h ) t gml + 2 Bv

= 10-3 × 0.9×410×(130-3×18)×10/1.25 + 2×29

= 282.35 KN

Strength of joint along 3-3

= 0.9 f u ( b - nd h ) t gml + 5 Bv

= 10-3 × 0.9×410×(130-2×18)×10/1.25 + 5×29

= 422.49 KN

So the strength of the joint will be minimum of 203 kN, 277.49 kN, 282.35 kN, 422.49 kN.
Therefore, Strength of the joint = 203 KN
(Refer Slide Time: 35:49)

Now we have to find out the efficiency of the joint, so efficiency of the joint means the
strength of joint divide by the strength of the solid plate. So strength of solid plate we have to
calculate first.

Strength of the solid plate

= 0.9 f u ´ b ´ t gml

= 0.9×410×130×10/1.25

= 383.75 KN

So the efficiency of the joint

203
h= ´ 100 = 52.9%
383.75

So in this lecture what we have seen we have gone through two examples, one was based on
the lap joint and butt joint and we found what will be the strength of the joint for different
type of lap joint and butt joint that we have calculated in first example and in second example
we have calculated the efficiency of the joint and how the joint fails mean joint can fail as a
hole due to shear of the bolt or it can fail along a particular section.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod 02 lec08
Design of High Strength Friction Grip Bolts

Hello, in last lecture, I have discussed the design methodology of ordinary black bolt. Now
today I will discuss the design principle of high strength friction grip bolt. Now in case of
high strength friction grip bolt, the friction will be coming into picture for calculating the
design strength of the bolt. Now as I told earlier that high strength friction grip bolt is used
when the external force is quite high. To accommodate the bolt in a shorter length of the joint,
we may have to reduce the number of bolt. So in that case, generally we go for high strength
friction grip bolt with laser number of friction grip bolt. Now I will come to the design
philosophy and first we will see how to calculate the shear strength of high strength friction
grip bolt.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:33)

Shear strength of HSFG Bolts:

Now as per the codal provision the formula is given that

Vnsf = mf ne K h F0

Where
Vnsf = nominal shear capacity of bolt
µf = coefficient of friction (Ref. Clause 10.4.3, Table 20)
Kh = 1.0 for fasteners in clearance holes
= 0.85 for fasteners in oversized and short slotted holes and long slotted holes loaded
perpendicular to the slots
= 0.7 for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded parallel to the slots
ne = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to slip
F0 = proof load = Anbf0
f0 = proof stress = 0.7 fub
Anb = net area of bolts at threads
fub = Ultimate tensile stress in bolt
(Refer Slide Time: 3:44)

Now the design shear force,

Vdsf = Vnsf gmf

Vdsf = design shear force

γmf = partial safety factor
= 1.1 if slip resistance is designed at service load
= 1.25 if slip resistance is designed at ultimate load
Reduction Factor for Long Joints:

If length of joint lj > 15d, where d = nominal diameter of bolts,

Then, βlj = 1.075 – lj/ (200d), 0.75 ≤ βlj ≤ 1.0

Vnsf is reduced by a factor βlj

(Refer Slide Time: 5:40)

Bolts in Bearing:

Now in case of HSFG bolt, we also consider the bearing failure. So this bearing failure we
can calculate as we have calculated in case of bearing type of bolt.

Vnpb = 2.5kb dtf u

Where,
Vnpb = nominal bearing strength of bolt
fu = ultimate tensile stress
d = nominal diameter of bolt
t = summation of thickness of connected plates experiencing bearing stress in same direction
So this is what we have discussed earlier also, now also the same formula we are using.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:37)

Similarly, we can calculate the strength due to bearing using this value of Kb

e p
kb = smaller of , - 0.25, f ub fu ,1
3d 0 3d 0

Where,
fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts
d0 = diameter of bolt hole
p = pitch of fastener along bearing direction
e = edge distance
So the design force,
Vdsb = Vnpb gmb

Where, γmb = partial safety factor = 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 7:24)

Bolts in Tension:

In case of bolt in exerted in tension we can calculate the tensile strength of the bolt as

gm1
Tnf = 0.9 f ub Anb < f yb Asb
gm 0

Where,
Tnf = design tensile strength of bolt
fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolts
Anb = net tensile stress area of bolt
Asb = shank area of bolt
fyb = yield stress of bolt
γm0 = partial safety factor = 1.1
γm1 = partial safety factor = 1.25
The design tensile force,

Tdf = Tnf gmb

Tdf = design tensile force
γmb = partial safety factor = 1.25
So similar way whatever we have done here same process we are following in case of HSFG
bolt except the shear strength calculation.
(Refer Slide Time: 8:31)

Bolts with combined Shear and Tension:

If bolts are in combine shear and tension, then we have to check the interaction formula

2 2
æVsf ö
÷ æT f ö
÷
ç
ç ÷ +ç
ç ÷
ç ÷
÷ ç ÷ £ 1.0
ç
èVsdf çT ÷
ø è sdf ø

Where,
Vsf = applied shear force at service load
Vsdf = design shear capacity
Tf = externally applied tension at service load
Tsdf = design tension capacity
So in this way we can calculate the strength of bolt, bolt means HSFG bolt due to shear due
to bearing due tension and due to combined effect.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:52)

Praying forces:

Now for high strength friction grip bolt, another force will come which is called prying force.
Prying force is the additional force coming into picture in case of tension and if the
deformation is allowed between two plates then prying force develops. Let me show through
some figure, say one plate is attached with a ‘I’ section, as shown in the figure. So what we
can see here that it has an applied force and in the opposite direction of applied force bolt
force is coming. So if the applied force is 2Te then bolt force is Te, this equation is true if
deformation of the flange is not allowed. If deformation is allowed, then what will happen
that some additional forces at the connection will be developed. This additional force is called
prying force that means due to application of load of 2Te, the bolt is getting force as Te but if
we allow the deformation of the flange then additional prying force will come into picture. So
if Q is the praying force then bolt force will be (Te + Q). So the prying force will be
developed at the connection and to withstand that force bolt will face extra force of amount Q
and this Q value has been calculated and reported in clause 10.4.7.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:10)

As per clause 10.4.7

æl öé bhf 0bet 4 ù
v ÷
Q =ç
ç ÷
÷êT - ú
ç ÷ê
è2le ø
e
27 l l 2 ú
ë e v û

Where,
Q = additional force of fastener due to prying action
lv = distance from bolt centre line to toe of fillet weld or to half the root radius of a rolled section
(figure. 16 of IS 800)
le = distance between prying force and bolt centre line (figure. 16 of IS 800)

le =1.1t bf 0 / f y
β = 2 for non-pre-tensioned bolts
= 1 for pre-tensioned bolts
η = 1.5
f0 = proof stress
t = thickness of end plate

tmin = 4.4M p ( f ybe )

Where, M p = Telv / 2 = Qle
(Refer Slide Time: 14:014)

So in case of HSFG bolt apart from shearing, bearing and tension, prying force may also
come into picture. So the bolt we supposed to take will have some additional value of Q that
means if Te is the external force on bolt then actual force will be Te + Q where Q is a prying
force. Now we will go through one example of HSFG bolt and we will see how to calculate
the shear strength and other strength means bearing strength etc. for HSFG bolt then it will be
clear to us.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:22)

Example:

An ISA 110 mm ×110 mm ×10 mm carries a factored tensile force of 150 kN. It is to be jointed with a
10 mm thick gusset plate. Design the joint using HSFG bolt when (a) no slip is permitted, (b) when
slip is permitted. Assume steel is Fe 410 grade.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:46)

Solution:

Let us provide HSFG bolts of grade 8.8 and of diameter 20 mm.

For 8.8 grade bolts: f ub  800 MPa


Net tensile stress area of bolt, Anb  0.78   202  245mm2
4

For Fe 410 grade of steel: f u  410 MPa

a) Slip-critical connection (slip is not permitted):

3
proof load, F0  Anb  0.7 f ub  245  0.7  800  10  137.2kN

Slip resistance of bolt   f ne kh F0 /  mf

here,  f = 0.5 (assuming)

ne = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to slip

=1

 mf = 1.25 at ultimate load

kh = 1.0 (assuming bolts in clearance holes)

137.2
Slip resistance of bolt  0.5  11  54.88kN
1.25
 150
Number of bolts required   2.73
54.87

Thus provide 3 nos. HSFG bolts.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:18)

b) Bearing type connection: (slip is permitted)

Strength of bolt in single shear,

Anb f ub 245  800

Vdsb   103  90.53kN
3 mb 3 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 26:12)

 2.5kb dtf u
Strength of bolt in bearing, Vdpb 
 mb

Assume e = 40 mm [Minimum e = 1.7d0 = 37.4 mm]

p = 60 mm [Minimum p = 2.5d = 50 mm]

kb is smaller of 40/ (3×22), 60/ (3×22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1

Therefore, kb = 0.61

2.5  0.61 20 10  410  10 3

So, Vdpb   100.04kN
1.25

Hence, strength of bolt = 90.53 kN

150
Number of bolts required   1.66
90.53

Thus provide 2 HSFG bolts

(Refer Slide Time: 26:33)

So here we have seen that if we consider slip critical and if we do not consider slip, if we
allow slip and if we do not allow slip how the values are going to change. So design of high
strength friction grip bolt is exactly similar to bearing type of bolt except the friction. Friction
component if we had that means if we consider the slip resistance then we have to find out,
the design shear strength accordingly, other things will be exactly similar to the bearing type.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod 02 Lecture 09
Weld Connection

Hello, in today’s lecture am going to discuss about the weld connections. Before the design of
weld connections, I will discuss little bit about the advantages and disadvantages of weld
connections. As we have seen, in case of bolt connections, there are certain advantages and
disadvantages and according to the requirement in the field, we have to choose a certain type of
connections. There are two type of bolt. One is bearing type of bolt and another is high friction
grip bolt. The two type of bolt connections have been designed and certain number of examples
have been worked out. Now in this lecture I will first discuss about the weld connections, weld is
basically a process of joining metals, metal pieces by the application of heat and with or without
pressure.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:17)

Different process of weld connections are there, i.e. forge welding, thermit welding, gas welding,
resistance welding and electric-arc welding. Nowadays the electric arc welding is a most popular
type of welding.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:53)

Now coming to weld connections, let us see first the certain type of advantages, weld connection
does not need any hole in the plate. So there should not be any reduction of area that means the
structure members are will be more effective to take the load. Second is, in weld connection filler
plate, gusset plate, connecting angles etc. are not used that means the total weight of the joint
will be less in such cases. Now weld joint should be economical as less materials are required.
So these are the certain advantages. Another advantages is that efficiency of weld joint is more
than that of the riveted or bolted joint, because when bolt connection or riveted connections are
used we create hole and because of creation of hole the net effective area of the plate is going to
be reduced and this area under tension will be less and therefore, the capacity or strength of the
bolt joint will be less compared to the weld joint. Therefore, the efficiency of weld joint will be
comparatively more than the efficiency of the bolt or rivet joint.

Now another advantage is that, the weld joint look better than the bulky riveted and bolted joint.
If we want to make a particular shape of the joint, we can make by the weld joint, but in case of
bolted joint or riveted joint it will look bulky, because of extra bolt and bolt or rivet will be
added.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:54)

Another advantage is the speed of fabrication. In case of weld joints, speed of fabrication will be
much faster than the riveted joint and complete rigid joint can be achieved through weld process.
In case of bolted joint complete rigid joint we cannot achieve, but in this case we can make it.
Then alternation and addition of the existing structure is easy as compared to riveted joint,
because rivet joint is permanent in nature, it is difficult to add or alter the existing structure.

Now another important advantage is that no noise is produced during the welding process as in
case of riveting process and also, the welding process requires less work space in comparison to
rivet and any shape of joint. So these are certain advantages we obtain in weld joint.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:09)

Weld material are brittle in nature and as a result the fatigue strength is less
(Refer Slide Time: 5:21)

Now let us come to the disadvantages of weld joints. Weld joints are basically brittle in nature
and therefore, it is means its fatigue strength is comparatively less. This is one disadvantages and
another disadvantage is that due to uneven heating and cooling of the member during the
welding the members may distort resulting additional stresses. So distortion may come and
because of distortion the additional stress may come into picture. Then another disadvantage is,
we need skilled labor and electricity for welding say for example, if we want to construct a
structure at the remote place where electricity is not there, in that case, it would be difficult to go
by the weld joint. So this is another disadvantage. Then there is no provision for expansion and
contraction in welded connection and therefore, there is a possibility of cracks. So cracks may
develop because of this and inspection of weld work is more difficult and costlier than riveting
work and another disadvantage is the defects like internal air pockets, slag inclusion, incomplete
penetration are difficult to detect.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:17)

Now coming to type of weld, there are three types of weld we have; one is fillet weld. Fillet weld
is used when two members are lapped together.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:34)

Suppose two members are there and these are overlapped, when we are going to join this we
need to join at the overlap portion and if we see in that plan we will see that these are say, these
are welded. So this type of welding is called fillet weld means when 2 members are lapped
together, 2 members are to be joined, in that case fillet member we can use and in case of fillet
weld or I should say that in case of 2 members joined in a different plane then fillet weld can be
used. Butt welds we can use when the two members are joined in same plane, suppose this is a
member and this is another member, we will be joining in same plane. So in this case we can
provide butt weld and we can fill with weld material and it may have complete penetration, it
may have incomplete penetration, different type of butt welds are there. I will come into it later
and according to the process of penetration the throat thickness of the weld is defined and the
strength calculation is carried out.

Another type of weld is plug weld, the plug weld is required when two members are connected
together having a limited length of the joint, say suppose one members is like this and another
member is connected, right and we have limited length. Limited length means here if we see that
length is this much say, this is l1 and we will get this is l2, so total length will be available length
will be here2×l1+l2 and suppose the force along the joint is so high that the required length L R is
much more than the available length. So in this case we have to adjust the total length in
between, so what we can do we can make a slot here and we can provide way. So in this way we
can increase the length of the weld joint by the insertion of slot. So this is how one can make
adjustment of the additional length with the insertion of slot. So these are the 3 types of weld we
will come across.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:56)

Now I will quickly show some basic type of welds and their symbols, we do we use sub-symbol
that means if we use certain symbol like this, then it means this is fillet weld. Similarly if a
square butt weld is used then in the drawing we use this parallel line 2 parallel line. So that
means when parallel line is there that means we understand that this is a square butt.

If we write V that means it is a single V butt joint where joint will be like this, again if we come
to double V butt joint it will be like an X when joint is single U butt we will make a symbol like
this. So in case of double U butt joint, its symbol will be like this. So different symbols we use
for different type of weld in the drawing sheet, so we have to know that what symbol are given in
the drawing and what does it mean.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:35)

Similarly double V, double-bevel-but joint, single-j-butt joint, double-j-butt joint we can also use
in terms of its symbol.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

Now shape of the weld when it is flat, its symbol is like this, and when convex, its symbol we
use like this and when concave we will use symbol like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:18)

So first we will discuss the fillet weld, its different parameters, then we will see the design
methodology for fillet weld joint then we will go for butt weld joint and finally we will go for
slot weld joints. Therefore, in case of fillet weld, as we know that when two lapped plates are to
be joined. In case of fillet weld, we know that certain terms will be used in case of fillet weld.
Say, what is size of fillet weld? How do we define the size of fillet weld? Then we will discuss
then what is the throat of fillet weld and throat thickness of that fillet weld, then effective length
of fillet weld, we know the length of fillet weld, but what is the effective length?

Then another term we will use in fillet weld is end return, then overlap, then side fillet,
intermittent fillet, single fillet weld and permissible stress and strength of fillet weld we have to
find out. So these terms we will be frequently used in case of fillet weld design. So we need to
know one by one about the term.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:51)

So, if we see here that the two members are joined together and by the application of heat then
this will be the fusion zone where the members are joined. Now this is the portion, which is
called root. So from root to toe the length is called leg and this will be the size of the weld. This
is a weld face and we will see that some extra deposit are there means if we make a straight line
from this toe to this, we will see this is the extra deposit which is call reinforcement, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:51)

The leg length of the weld, is the distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld
measured along the fusion face.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:49)

Now minimum size of the weld are given in clause 10.5.2.3 of table 21 of IS 800-2007. So it
depends on the thickness of the thicker part of the member, suppose the two members are joined
together overlapped. So it may be of same thickness it may be of different thickness. Now
minimum size of the weld we can define on the basis that if the thickness of thinner part is up to
10 mm then minimum size of the weld will be 3 mm. Similarly, from 10 to 20 mm if thickness of
thicker part is existing then minimum size of the weld will be 5 mm. Similarly 20 to 32 it will be
6 mm and so on. So these details are given in table 21 of the IS 800-2007. So, we can use that
while designing the fillet weld.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:03)

Now few things we have to remember like when the minimum size of the fillet weld is greater
than the thickness of the thinner particularly, the minimum size of the weld should be taken as
the thickness of the thinner part. So minimum size cannot become more than the thickness of the
thinner part. Then when the thicker part is more than 50 mm thick special precaution like
preheating etc. will be taken care and as per clause 10.5.2.1. For deep penetration weld where the
depth of penetration beyond the root run is minimum of 2.4 mm, the size of the filet weld is
minimum leg size plus 2.4 mm and this is about the minimum size of the fillet weld.

Now the maximum size is also defined in the code that is the thickness of the thinner part minus
1.5mm, it can go up to that means the thickness of the thinner part we know and the maximum
size we can become that thickness of the thinner part minus 1.5 mm. Similarly, in case of angle
the maximum size of the fillet weld be three fourth of the nominal thickness of the angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:21)

Now, (I will come to) now I will discuss about the effective throat thickness, as I told one is size
of the weld. So if we see if we make a diagram that this is a size of the weld and (this the) this is
root and from root to toe is a size of the weld and if size of the weld in different direction is same
then we can write S or the minimum of that. Now extra deposits happens here, which is called
reinforcement and this extra deposit we provide to increase the efficiency of the joint.

Now if we give a name say suppose A, B, C. Now from root to perpendicular distance to the
hypogenous will be the thickness of the weld. So if this is D then the throat thickness will be BD
where the size will be BC or AB. Now how to find out the relation between T and S. So we can
see here that, in triangle ABD, if we write in triangle ABD,

BA  BC  S

 AC  2S

AB2  AD 2  BD 2
 BD  AB2  AD 2

2
 S S
 BD  S  2
  BD 
 2 2

 BD  T  0.707S  0.7S

(Refer Slide Time: 23:17)

Now this is true for right angle triangle if it is right angle then fine we can find out this relation
but what will happen about different angle. So in that case what will happen, so that is defined in
code that is in clause 10.5.3.1 of IS 800, it is told that the throat thickness will not be less than 3
mm and generally not exceeding 0.7t or 1.0t under special circumstances where t is the thickness
of thinner plate?

For the angle other than right-angled fillet weld the value of throat thickness is given as:

T = KS
Where,
T = Throat thickness of weld
KA constant depends upon the angle between fusion face
S Thickness of the weld
(Refer Slide Time: 24:49)

In table 22 of IS 800-2007 the values of K is given. So in clause 10.5.3.2 we will see that the
value of K will be 0.7 if angle between fusion face is 60 to 90 degree. Similarly for 91 to 100
degree the value of K will be 0.65, 101 to 106 degree. The maximum value is 0.7. So maximum
value of K is 0.7, when angle between fusion face is 60 to 90 degree. If it is more than that then
the value of K will be reduced. So we have to take the value of K from this table.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:51)

Now coming to effective length. So effective length can be found out from the area of the weld
for which specified size of the effective throat thickness of the weld exist. Suppose we have a
length this much then if we say, this is effective length then total length will be l + 2S, total
length and if it is effective length. So why 2S , because we assume that the strength will be
carried out by the length which is called effective length, but we have to provide little more in
two side to make sure the strength is being carried out by this l e. So the total length we will make
little higher, right and this effective length should not be less than four times the size of the weld.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:26)

Now coming to the design strength of fillet weld. When we are going to calculate the strength of
the fillet weld join we have to find out what is the permissible strength of the joint or permissible
force of that joint. So that can be calculated from this formula which is given in the IS 800 that is

f u Lwte
Pdw =
3γmw

Lw = length of weld in mm

fu = ultimate stress of weld in MPa

te = effective throat thickness = 0.7S

γmw = partial safety factor

= 1.25 for shop welding and

= 1.5 for site welding

S = size of weld in mm

(Refer Slide Time: 29:52)

Now if we go to the design procedure we will see that first what we have to do? We have to
assume a size of the weld, suppose we are going to design a weld joint, we have been given a
particular load then what we can do? If we have a certain length then we can find out the what
will be the throat thickness of the weld and size of the weld, in other way also we can do, we can
fix the size of the weld from the maximum and minimum criteria and the we can find out the
effective length Lw and then the total length, right.

So one way we can do, we can assume size of the weld based on thickness of the member then
by equating the design strength of weld to external factor load the formula which I have given in
last slide the effective length of weld is calculated. If length exceeds 150t e then we have to
reduce the design capacity of the weld as prescribed in clause 10.50.7.3 and is as given below,
right. So that reduction factor will be

0.2l j
blw = 1.2 -
150te

Where, lj = length of joint in the direction of force transfer

te = throat thickness of the weld.

Then another thing is end returns of length equal to twice the size of the weld are provided at
each end of the longitudinal fillet.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:07)

Let us come to that slide, this is called end return that means when the length of joint is this then
we have to provide a end return of this value and that is 2S. So this return, this is 2S, right. So if
we provide here, the weld in this direction and this direction and if it is extended up to the corner
then we have to extend up to 2S more, which is called end return and another thing we have to
remember that is overlap.

The overlap of lap joints should not be less than four times the thickness of the thinner plate or
40 mm whichever is less, this also we have to keep in mind while going to design. So this is all
about the calculation of design strength of fillet weld we have seen that how to find out the
design strength of fillet weld Pdw which is basically

f u Lwte
Pdw =
3γmw

Where fu is the ultimate stress of the weld metal and Lw is the effective length not the total length
and te is the effective throat thickness. So this is how we can find out the design strength of weld
connection, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 10
Module 2
Design of Fillet welds

Hello, today I am going to discuss about design of Fillet welds. In last lecture I have
discussed about the fillet welds, means different parameters used for fillet welds like what is
the effective length of the weld, what is the total length of the weld, what is the size of the
welds, what is the effective thickness of the weld etc. We have also discussed to find out the
maximum allowable throat thickness of the size and minimum size of the weld on the basis of
the plate thickness and finally we have discussed about the design strength of fillet weld,
right.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:10)

This is the same formula to calculate the design strength of the fillet weld,

f u Lwte
Pdw =
3γmw
Lw = length of weld in mm

fu = ultimate stress of weld in MPa

te = effective throat thickness = 0.7S

γmw = partial safety factor

= 1.25 for shop welding and

= 1.5 for site welding

S = size of weld in mm

We generally use right angle and for that it is 0.707S and on the basis of this, we will go
through one workout example. If some load is given then how to find out the length of the
weld and how to distribute the length of the weld in different site that will see through this
workout example.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:04)

Example:
A tie member of a roof truss consists of ISA 100×75×8 of Fe410 grade, is welded to a 10 mm
gusset plate. Design the welded connection to transmit a tensile load, T. Assume connection
are made in the workshop.
So here the thickness is given means thickness of the gusset plate is given 10 mm and
thickness of the angle is 8 mm, so from these two we can find out the size of the weld right.
So this is one thing second thing is that this is an angle section so its c g distance will not be at
the middle not at will be at the centre. So that means the weld length will not be distributed
equally in upper side and lower side so, the design of weld has to be made in such a way the
equivalent strength passes through the cg.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:04)

Solution: Minimum weld size = 3 mm [Table 21, IS 800]

Maximum weld size = ¾ ×8 =6 mm [clause 10.5.8.2, IS 800]

Therefore, Let us adopt 5 mm thick fillet weld.

Throat thickness, te = 0.7 × 5 = 3.5 mm

For ISA 100×75×8, Gross area, Ag = 1336 mm2 , Cz = 31mm

Full strength of the angle,

f y Ag 250×1336
= = ´ 10- 3
γm0 1.1
= 303.64kN
Strength of 5-mm weld,

3.5  410
 662.8 N / mm
3 1.25

Force to resist by weld at 100 mm side of angle,

P2  662.8 100 103  66.28kN

Force to resist by weld at upper side of angle,

Ty P2 303.64  31 66.28
P1      61kN
d 2 100 2

Force to resist by weld at lower side of angle,

61103
Lw1   92mm
662.8

Length required at upper side of angle

176.36 103
Lw3   266mm
662.8

Total Length (effective) of weld = 266 + 92+100 = 458 mm

Note: Add twice the weld size at the ends.

Thus total length = 458+2S = 468 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 8:07)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:07)

So whatever you are getting you have to represent in terms of drawing so that engineer can
understand at the site. Here one thing we have to remember, we provide the effective length
suppose length whatever we are providing is effective length and engineer has to add to this
that means the size of the weld it has to add and then it has to fabricate right. So this is one
example.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:26)

Example Design a suitable fillet weld to connect web plate to flange plate and flange plate to
flange cover plate of a built-up girder as shown in the figure, for the following data. Assume
shop welding.
Web plate: 1200 mm × 12 mm
Flange plate: 450 mm × 20 mm
Flange cover plate: 350 mm × 16 mm
Maximum Factored shear force: 1600 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 19:25)
(Refer Slide Time: 20:32)
For Fe 410 steel:

f u  410 MPa

For shop weld:

 mw  1.25

Permissible shear stress

fu 410
   189.37 N / mm 2
3   mw 3 1.25

Connection of web plate to flange plate:

Size of weld: Minimum = 5 mm [Table 21, IS 800]

Maximum = 12 – 1.5 =10.5 mm [clause 10.5.8.1, IS 800]

Let us provide 7 mm size of fillet weld.

Effective throat thickness of weld

te  KS  0.7  7  4.9mm

te  2  4.9  9.8mm

Ay  450  20  (600  10)  350 16  (600  20  8)

 900.68 104 mm3

 350 163 450  203 12 12003
I zz  2  [  350  16  6282   450  20  6102 ] 
12 12 12

 12.8  109 mm 4

Shear stress:

VAy 1600  103  (900.68 104 )

  114.9 N / mm 2  189.37 N / mm 2
I zz  te 12.8  10  9.8
9

Hence, the weld is safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

Connection of flange plate to flange cover plate:

Adopt a 7 mm fillet weld.

te  KS  0.7  7  4.9mm

te  2  4.9  9.8mm

Ay  350  16  (600  20  8)  351.68 10 4 mm3

(Refer Slide Time: 29:18)

Shear stress:

VAy 1600  103  (351.68 104 )

  44.86 N / mm 2  189.37 N / mm 2
I zz  te 12.8  10  9.8
9

Hence, the weld is safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:57)

This is how we can check the joint whether it is ok or not right. So in todays lecture what we
have seen that two type of problem we have come across and we have seen how to calculate
the design strength of the weld or how to design the weld joint. And in first case we have seen
how the distribution of the weld will be done for an angle section because in angle section c g
distance is not at the centre so we have to make the weld connection in such a way that
strength of the weld connection coincide with the c g of the joint. So this is what we have
done, this is all for todays lecture, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 11
Module 3
Design of Butt welds

Hello today we will discuss about the design procedure of butt joint. In last lecture we have
discussed how to design a weld joint using fillet weld and the fillet strength has been
calculated and we have discussed that the size of the weld, then throat thickness of the weld,
minimum size of the weld, maximum size of the weld.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:59)

So butt weld is basically a type of weld when two plates are joined at the same plane.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:10)

That means I had shown earlier if you remember that when two plates are joined, then plates
may be of different size or same size. In this kind of joint, we use butt weld also we can see
that when a T joint is desired in that case also we can use this butt weld.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:45)

Now in case of butt welds we have certain specification, so we need to know the specification
like size of the weld, how the size of the weld will be calculated, then effective length of the
weld, then effective area of the butt weld and reinforcement. So if we see here the two plates
this is one plate and this is another plate are connected in the same plane and through fusion
we have joined and this is called throat thickness, from which the size of the weld can also be
found.
And this extra deposit is called reinforcement and I told this reinforcement is necessary
though we do not calculate the strength due to this extra deposit but this is necessary for
efficient joint of the members.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:57)

Now size of the weld can be defined by the effective throat thickness as follows, like the size
of the butt weld is the thickness of thinner plate, this is one that if we have two plates joined
together. Suppose if we have two plate then the size of the thickness of the thinner plate will
be the size of the butt weld, now in case of complete penetration the effective throat thickness
will be the size of the thinner plate otherwise we have to calculate. I will come later and
different type of complete penetrated joint are double V butt joint, double U butt joint, double
J and double Bevel butt joint these are some example with completely penetration. Therefore,
in this case the thickness of the thinner plate will be the size of the weld.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:00)

In case of incomplete penetration the effective throat thickness is taking as 7/8 of the
thickness right not the full thickness, but for the purpose of stress calculation we will
calculate 5/8 of the thickness of the thinner part. So there are two things when you are going
to calculate the effective thickness of the butt weld in case of incomplete penetration we will
calculate the effective throat thickness as 7/8 times the thickness of the thinner plate but when
we are going to calculate the strength of the plate we will calculate 5/8 times of the thickness
of thinner plate as effective throat thickness.

Now the difference in thickness between two plates should not be more than 25 percent of the
thickness or or 3 mm whichever is more. If difference is more than 25% then a tapering is
required of 1 in 5.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:29)

Now the effective length is calculated in a similar way as we have done in case of fillet weld
the effective length will be based on the effective area. It is the area of the butt weld for
which the specified size that means the effective throat thickness of the weld exists that
means the length in which the effective size of the throat thickness are existing that length
will be the butt weld length and the minimum length of the butt weld should not be less than
4S where S is the size of the weld.

So minimum length has to be 4 times the size of the weld and I told again I am repeating here
that in drawing only effective lengths are shown, the welder must provide an additional
length of 2S to get the overall depth. So in drawing we will show the effective length but
weld length has to be added 2S for designing.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:44)

Reinforcement is basically an extra deposit over the plate and this is also necessary for
effective strength of the joint and this is least 10 percent greater than the thickness of the weld
material. So the extra deposit of the metal above the thinner plate between 1 mm to 3 mm is
not considered for stress calculation or design. The reinforcement is provided to increase the
efficiency of the joint.

So reinforcement has not been taken considered for calculation of strength but to make it
efficient we need to provide the reinforcement and what will be the permissible stress in the
butt weld that also defined, i.e. the stresses of butt weld should be taken equal to the stress of
the parent metal in case of shop weld. Therefore, stress of the butt weld will be the stress of
the parent metal.

Stress of the butt weld we can consider, as a stress of the parent metal but the value will be
reduced to 80 percent when it is done in field.
(Refer Slide Time: 8:21)

The design strength of butt weld in tension or compression is governed by yield,

f y Lwte
Tdw =
γmw

Lw = effective length of weld in mm

fy = smaller of yield stress of weld and parent material in MPa

te = effective throat thickness in mm

γmw = partial safety factor

= 1.25 for shop welding and

= 1.5 for site welding

The design strength of butt weld in shear is also governed by yield

f y Lwte
Vdw =
3γmw
(Refer Slide Time: 10:28)

Now stress due to individual force when subjective to different types of compressive or
tensile force then the stress we can calculate by the force divided by the effective area.
Effective area means te into Lw.

When subjected to either compressive or tensile due to axial force or shear force alone, the
stress in the weld is given by,

P
f a or q 
te lw

Fa = calculated normal stress due to axial force in N/mm2

q = shear stress in N/mm2

P = force transmitted (axial force N or shear force Q)

te = effective throat thickness of weld in mm

lw = effective length of weld in mm

(Refer Slide Time: 12:06)

Now combination of stresses so it may happen that two type of stress or more than two type
of stress are acting together combined, so in this case we have to find out the equivalent
stress.

fu
fe  fa2  3q2 
3  mw

fa = normal stress, compression or tension, due to axial force or bending moment.

q = shear stress due to shear force or tension.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:28)

Now if we go for another stress which is called bearing combined bearing, Bending and
shear. So if we combine this three stress then the equivalent stress can be calculated from this
formula,

fe  f b2  fbr2  f b fbr  3q 2

Fe = equivalent stress

Fb = calculated stress due to bending in N/mm2

Fbr = calculated stress due to bearing in N/mm2

q = shear stress in N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 15:08)

Now we will go through some examples we have seen how to find out the strength of the
butt weld, now through some example will see how to calculate the strength of butt weld due
to incomplete penetration due to complete penetration, this also we will go through this
example and we will see how the design strength is going to vary right.
Example:

Two plates of thickness 12 mm and 10 mm are to be jointed by a groove weld. The joint is
subjected to a factored tensile force of 250 kN. Assuming an effective length of 150 mm,
check the safety of the joint for

(a) Single-V groove weld joint and,

(b) Double-V groove weld joint.

Assume Fe 410 grade steel plates and that the welds are shop welded.

Solution:

(a) Single-V groove weld:

Throat thickness,

5 5
te  t  10  6.25mm
8 8
Effective length of weld,

Lw  150mm

(Refer Slide Time: 16:20)

Strength of weld

Lwte f y 150  6.25  250

 103  187.5kN  250kN
 mw 1.25
(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)

(b) Double-V groove weld:

Throat thickness = thickness of thinner plate = 10 mm
Strength of weld

Lwte f y 150 10  250

 103  300kN  250kN
 mw 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 19:47)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:59)

Example:

A joint is subjected to a factored shear force of 300 kN. Assuming single-V groove weld joint
find the effective length of the weld if the thickness of thinner plate is 8 mm. Assume Fe 410
grade steel plates and that the welds are shop welded.

Solution:

For single-V groove weld, effective throat thickness =

5 5
te  t   8  5 mm
8 8

Length of the weld,

3γ´ ´ Vdw 3 ´ 1.25 ´ 300´ 103

Lw = mw
= = 520 mm
f y ´ te 250 ´ 5

Thus, the effective length of the weld will be 520 mm.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:40)

(Refer Slide Time: 27:39)

Effective length of the weld Lw will be 520 mm and if effective length of the weld is 520 mm
then the total length we can find out total length will be L w plus 2S where S is size of the
weld right so this is how we can find out the total length of the weld right.

So in today’s lecture what we have seen that how to calculate the design strength of butt weld
and this butt weld may under tension or compression or under shear. So in both the cases we
have calculated how to find out the design strength of the weld and off course here we have
to remember whether it is going to be full penetration or partial penetration penetration an
accordingly we have to find out the throat thickness or effective thickness of the weld
properly because the strength depends on the effective thickness of the weld. So, for today
this is all about the butt weld, thank you very much.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 12
Module 3
Design of Plug and Slot Weld

Hello, today I am going to discuss about the design of plug and slot weld. In last three
lectures we have discussed about fillet weld and then butt welds and I have told that three
types of welds are there fillet weld, butt weld and plug weld or slot weld, now plug weld and
slot weld is nothing but a type of fillet weld. As I have told earlier that in case of plug or slot
weld we are facing problem of limited distance and limited length of the joint. If the length of
the joint is limited and if we have higher values of tension or compression force then it is
difficult to adjust the entire length on this limited length. So, in that case we have to cut some
portion of the overlapping portion in terms of slot or plug to make adjust of that additional
length.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:29)

Now if we see here in case of plug or slot weld if we see here that here we have limited
length say L right. So here we will get only this much length and if it is L 1, L1 and L2 then
total length we are getting L2 + 2L1 right.

So if we get the Lw value which is more than L then it is difficult to adjust because our length
is limited, this L1 is fixed so to adjust within a limited length we make some cut of the
overlapping position. We cut some portion in terms of slot or plug and then fill with the
welded material and this is how we increase the strength and accommodate the additional
length.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:50)

So, if we see a slot is cut in one of the overlapping member and the welding metal is filled in
the slot now what is slot and what is plug. When the slot is small and completely filled with
weld metal then it is called plug weld, but if the periphery of the slot is filled with weld metal
then it is called slot weld. This is how slot weld and plug weld has a difference.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:38)

Now in IS816-1969 certain specifications are given which we need to follow for design of
plug or slot weld so what are the specifications we need to see. Say first the width or the
diameter of the slot should not be less than three times the thickness of the part in which the
slot is formed or 25 millimetre whichever is greater. Slot diameter means when we are
making a slot so this diameter or this is width this slot diameter or width should not be less
than three times the thickness of the part in which the slot is formed or 25 mm at least 25
mm.

So this diameter will be at least 25 mm or at least three times the thickness of the part in
which the slot is made so this is what we have to remember and diameter of the slot has to be
fixed in this way. Another thing is the distance between the edge of the part and edge of the
slot or plug or between the adjacent slot or plugs should not be less than three times the
thickness of thinner member or 25 mm whichever is greater.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:21)

Now if we draw the things then it will be clear say suppose we have a slot here and because
of this limited distance, we have to make some slot first point is telling that the diameter or
width should not be less than three times the thickness of the plate in which slot has been
done at least it should be more than three times the thickness of the plate right this is one
point. Second point is telling the distance between edge of the part and edge of slot that
means distance between edge of part or edge of slot or plug like this or adjacent to slots
should not be less than three times the thickness of thinner member or 25.

Then another point we have to remember corners at the enclosed ends should be rounded to a
radius not less than one and a half times the thickness of the upper plate or 12 mm whichever
is greater. So corner at the enclosed end means at the enclosed end we have to make the
rounded corner with a radius not less than one and half times the thickness of the upper plate
or 12 mm thickness whichever is greater. So these three points we have to keep in mind and
the design stress on a plug or slot weld will be same as that in fillet weld and is specified in
clause 10.5.7.1.1 of IS800:2007.

So as I told that design criteria will be same as we have done in case of fillet weld because
this is nothing but a type of fillet weld only thing is because of limited distance we have to
introduce some slot so that the additional length are adjusted.
(Refer Slide Time: 8:21)

Now with this we will go through some example so that we can understand how to design a
slot weld with the product provision whatever we have understood means whatever we have
discussed and then we will be designing the member.

Example:
An ISMC 300 @ 363 N/mm is used to transmit factored force 800 kN. The channel section is
connected to a 12mm thick gusset plate. Design a fillet weld connection if the overlap is
limited to 300 mm. Use slot welds if required. Assume site welding.
(Refer Slide Time: 9:36)
The properties of ISMC 300 are,

A= 4630 mm2 , tf = 13.6 mm , tw= 7.8 mm

maximum size of weld= 7.8 - 1.5 = 6.3 mm. (Cl. 10.5.8.1)

Minimum size of the weld = 3 mm (Table 21 IS 800:2007)

Adopt a 6-mm size weld.

Throat thickness = KS = 0.7 x 6 = 4.2 mm.

Strength of the weld per mm =

= 4.2  410 / ( 3  1.5)

= 663 N/mm
(Refer Slide Time: 12:21)

Required length of weld = 800×1000/663 = 1207 mm

The maximum length of weld that can be provided in the channel = 300 × 2 + 300 = 900 mm
< 12074 mm

Hence, use two slots welds of width 25 mm (3t = 3 × 7.8 = 23.4 mm or 25 whichever is
greater)

Assume the length of the weld is x mm, then,

1207 = 2 × 300 + 300 + 4x

Or, x = 76.75 mm

Hence, provide 80 mm × 25 mm slots, two in numbers as shown in the figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:49)

(Refer Slide Time: 18:21)
(Refer Slide Time: 20:58)

Now as we have time will through another example which I have discussed in last lecture. In
case of butt weld or in butt weld lecture we have discussed that is how to calculate the
equivalent stress of the weld joint means when it is under shear and normal stress or shear or
bearing and normal stress. So how to check that design strength of the joint when it is
subjected to axial tension or compression bending and shear, so I will go through one
example with this.

Example:
A pipe of 100 mm diameter and 8 mm thick is connected to a 16 mm thick plate with fillet
weld. It is subjected to a vertical factored load of 10 kN at a distance of 0.5 m from the
welded end. It is also subjected to a factored twisting moment of 3 kNm. Find the size of the
weld assuming shop welding and steel of grade to be Fe410
(Refer Slide Time: 22:41)

Here, fu = 410 MPa , ymw = 1.25

Permissible shear stress,

N/mm2

Hence, P = 10 kN
M = P. e = 10 x 0.5 = 5 kNm
T = 3 kNm

Polar moment of inertia,

= 785398t mm4

Izz= Ip/2 = 392699t mm4

(1) Shear stress due to direct load,

N/mm2
(2) Shear stress due to twisting moment,

N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 26:46)

(3) Normal stress due to bending,

N/mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 28:35)

Resultant shear stress,

N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 29:40)

Equivalent stress due to normal and shear stress,

N/mm2

So, t = 4.55 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 31:36)

Hence, mm
So, the size of the weld will be 7 mm.
So in this few lectures, we have discussed about the different type of connections starting
from rivet connection to bolted connection and then finally weld connection again weld
connection, fillet and butt weld has been discussed and design criteria has been discussed
how to calculate the design strength of the fillet weld and butt weld these things we have
discussed and accordingly we have solved certain number of examples, I hope this will clear
the r designing methodology how we have done and we will be able to design different type
of joint using bolt or weld, thank you very much.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 13
Module 3
Eccentric Connection (Load Lying in Plane of Bolted Joint)

In this lecture we are going to discuss about eccentric connections. In last few lectures, we
have discussed about the different types of connections but mainly those are concentric. Now
in case of eccentric connections c.g. of the connection and c.g. of the load will be in different
position so if it does not coincide then eccentricity will develop and because of eccentricity
extra moment will come into picture and because of the moment extra stress will develop.

So therefore we have to design the joint taking consideration of the direct load as well as due
to eccentricity. In case of eccentric joint we have different type of joint like when load is
lying in the plane of joint it will be one type of eccentricity again that can be designed by
weld connection as well as by bolt connection and similarly when load is lying in the
perpendicular to the plane of joint then another type of eccentricity come into picture means
another type of load reaction will come and that also can be designed using bolt joint and
using weld joint. So basically four type of joints will be considered for design.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:45)

Now I will discuss today mainly on the bolted type connection where load is lying in the
plane of joint. Say for example if we see above, there is a typical example of load lying in the
plane of bolted joint, the cg of the bolted joint and the load are acting in different positions.
Suppose the load is P with the eccentricity of e then the additional moment will come into
picture that is P×e. At the joint we have to calculate what are the load coming at each bolt,
accordingly we have to calculate the bolt strength and we have to see whether this is safe or
not.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:34)

If we draw the above figure we can see that a column is carrying some eccentric load which
is coming from beam or say gusset plate. Now P is the load so the eccentricity will be e. So
the additional moment due to eccentricity will be P×e. If n number of bolts are there, then
load in each joint will be P/n assuming that the loads are distributed equally to each joint.

So if we consider that every bolt is sharing equal load then load at each bolt, F =P/n and this
is the load which is coming due to direct load. Now another load will come because of
moment.

We can say r is radial distance as shown in the above figure. So for each bolt there are two
types of forces will be acting, one is called Fa due to direct load and another is called Fm due
to moment. Now we have to find out what is the resultant of this loads and these resultant
load will be the load acting on the bolt. The resultant force can be calculated as follows
ur uur uur
F  Fa  Fm

So we have to find out the resultant force for each bolt, where the extracted force for each
bolt will be different and we have to see which one is the most critical one.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:44)

So if we start with the load lying in the plane of bolted joint then we can see that this case can
be made equivalent to M (M = Pe) + = direct load as shown in the above figure. So we are
dividing into two parts, one is moment due to eccentricity another is direct centroid load.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:29)

So this two will be added and we have to find out the equivalent load. So this is what I have
discussed that if we can find out the direct force that will be Fa and this Fa will be simply P/n
and similarly we can find out moment, which will be P×e where P is the axial load and e is
eccentricity. So if we add this direct force and moment we can find out the combination of
this.
Similarly, here resultant will be the simply adding and here we can see that this will be again
adding so out of this six bolts in this particular case will see the extreme case will come either
this one or this one because this bolt and this bolt have similar magnitude because the theta
will be same here so resultant force will be same because distance radial distance from here
to this bolt and to this bolt is same.

That is why resultant force will become same for this case however in this case it will be
simply adding but in this case we will see it will be reduced, this Fr value will be less and
here it will be Fa minus Fm so it will be much more less than this and similarly this is equal
to this one so it will be also less so what we can see that we have to check only two bolts
means if we can check only these two bolts then we will be able to understand which one is
the critical bolt because this bolt and this bolt are same so we do not need to check one means
if we check the extreme one that is sufficient and also we have to check this one then we have
to find out the critical one.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:36)

So from this we can find out shear due to moment that will be Fm that will be varying with r
because in this case if we see that the moment will be more if the distance is more. But Fm
will be less in this direction in this bolt, so it varies with the distance. So we can write as

Fm  r
Where, r is the radial distance of bolts from the cg bolt.
We can write

Fm  kr
Fm
k
r
Here k is the proportionality constant
Moment due to Fm in each bolt = (kr).r = kr2
Hence, the total moment will be:

 F r  kr  r M   kr
m t
2
k  r 2

Fm
k
But, r
Fm
M   kr 2

r
r 2

Mr Per
 Fm  
 r  r2
2

So this is how the force on a particular bolt can be calculated from this formula where e is the
eccentricity and r is the radial distance of bolt to the cg group of the bolt, so Fm the force on a
particular bolt due to moment can be calculated. And Fa for each bolt can be calculated as
follows

P
Fa 
n
Where n is the number of bolt
(Refer Slide Time: 12:44)

Now the resultant force can be calculated as follows

R  Fa2  Fm2  2 Fa Fm cos 

Example: Calculate the safe load F that can be carried by the connection as shown in the
figure below. HSFG bolts of grade 8.8 with 20 mm diameter are used. Assume the thickness
of the bracket plate as 12 mm and column used is ISWB 350. Assume no slip is permitted and
slip factor (μf) as 0.5. All dimensions in the figure below are in mm.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:43)

Solution:

Now let us go through one example right, so this example let us go through. Say calculate the
safe load F that can be carried by the connection as shown in the figure below I will show the
figure. HSFG bolts of 8.8 grade with a 20 mm diameter are used. Assume the thickness of
bracket as 12 mm and column used is ISWB 350. Assume no slip is permitted and slip factor
Mu has been given that is Mu f as 0.5. So all dimensions in figure are given in millimetre.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:36)

So if we try to solve this problem then it will be clear to us say in this problem the figure is
given like this say it is a ISWB 350, is connected with a bracket and it has a force F this is F
and it is situated at a distance of 180 millimetre. Now bolts are placed in this way six bolts
are placed with a pitch distance of 60 mm and edge distance of 40 mm right. Say this is bolt
number 1, this is bolt number 2 and this bracket thickness is 12 mm and this is ISWB 350
section.

HSFG 8.8 bolt, Ø = 20 mm, μf = 0.5

ISWB 350, tf = 11.4 mm

Proof load, Fo = Anb ×0.7 f ub

π
¿ 0.78 × ×202 ×0.7 × 800× 10−3=137 kN
4
(Refer Slide Time: 17:33)

Now

1) Slip resistance of bolt in bearing,

V dsf =μ f ne k h F o / γ nf
= 0.5 × 1 × 1 × 137/1.25 = 55 kN
2) Strength of bolt in bearing,
2.5 k b dt f u
V dpb =
γ mb
 e 40

( )
= =0.606,
3 d o 3 ×22
p 60
−0.25= −0.25=0.66,
k b =¿ least of 3 do 3 ×22
f ub 400
= =0.975,
f u 410
1

¿ 0.60 6

(Refer Slide Time: 20:14)

Here, thickness, t will be the thickness of flange of ISWB350 = 11.4 mm.

410
So, V dpb =2.5 ×0.606 × 20× 11.4 × × 10−3
1.25

¿ 113 kN

So bolt value we can find out as least of bearing and shearing, shearing is 55 kN and bearing
is 113 kN.

Hence, Bolt Value= least of (55 & 113) = 55 kN

r 1=√ 502 +602=78.1 mm , r 2=50 mm

∑ r 2 =4 r 12+2 r 22=4 ×78.12 +2 ×502

 2
¿ 29398 mm
(Refer Slide Time: 23:01)

So now the force due to direct load in each bolt will be Fa is equal to P by 6 right.

F
Fa =
6

F × 180
Fm = × 78.1=0.478 F
1
29398

F × 180
Fm = × 50=0.306 F
2
29398

θ1=tan−1 ( 5060 )=50.19 ; θ =0

°
2

Now, Fr =√ F2a + F 2m +2 F a Fm cos θ1

1 1 1

¿F
√( )
1 2
6
1
+0.478 2+2 × ×0.478 ×cos 50.19
6

¿ 0.599 F

(Refer Slide Time: 23:13)

 Fr =F
2
√( )
1 2
6
1
+ 0.3062 +2× ×0.306 × cos 0
6

¿ 0.473 F

∴ F r=max of ( Fr ∧Fr )=0.599 F

1 2

∴0.599 F=5 5

¿ F=92 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 26:24)

So 0.599P is equal to 55 we can equate and then we can find out P as 55 by 0.599 and this
will become 92 kilonewton that means to withstand the load on this arrangement of bolt we
need means we can apply maximum value of P as 92 kilonewton at a distance of 170 mm. So
this is how if we know the distribution of bolt and the loading distribution then either we can
find out the load considering the maximum capacity of bolt due to shearing and bearing or we
can apply certain load and we can check whether the existing bolt in what way it is
distributed are safe or not means if we provide certain load then we can check what is the
load coming on these bolt or in the critical bolt what is the load coming and that load if it is
more than the bolt strength then it is unsafe otherwise the bolt is safe.

So this is how in other way we can do either of the way we can do, either we can find out the
critical load or we can find out whether the section is mentioned the bolt connection group is
safe or not. So in this way the calculation can be made when the eccentric connection in a
sense that load is lying in the plane of connection if it is then I can find out the section
whether it is adequate or not.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 14
Module 3
Design of Eccentric Connection (Load Lying in Plane of Bolted Joint)

Today’s lecture is a continuation of the last lecture. In last lecture we have discussed how to
find out the strength of a bolt and what will be the critical bolt and what is the maximum load
coming to a particular bolt when the load is lying in the plane of joint. So firstly we have
decided bolt arrangement and we have found what are the total load is coming, total load
means the combination of direct load and eccentric load due to eccentricity. We have also
found that what is the moment and what is the load in each bolt due to direct load and due to
moment.

Then we found the resultant of the forces acting on different bolt and we found the maximum
load coming on a particular bolt then we see whether it is exceeding the design strength of
that particular bolt or not. If it is exceeding, we have to redesign and if it is not exceeding
then it is safe. In this lecture we will discuss that how to design a bolt group means if you
have given a load then what should be the number of bolt. First we have to find out number
of bolt required then the arrangement of the bolts means how many lines of bolt we can
provide and how many bolts we can give in each line. Accordingly, we have to decide that
what will be the pitch distance, what will be the edge distance, what will be horizontal
spacing.

Now it is not easy to find out the number of bolt at the very beginning because number of
bolt will be deciding on two factors one is due to direct load and another is due to moment.
Now we can find out number of bolt is equal to direct load divided by bolt strength but that
bolt is going to resist the moment also.

So that means the resultant we have to note unless we know the resultant force coming into
particular bolt we will not be able to find out the design right so for doing that we have to go
with certain trial and certain approximate calculation. Firstly, we have to find out what will
be the total number of bolt approximately required and then we will make a trial arrangement
then we will see that whether with this particular number of bolt and with that arrangement,
the bolt will be safe or not that means critical bolt forces is more than the bolt strength or not.
If bolt forces are coming more than the strength, then the design is unsafe so we have to
rearrange the bolt group or we have to increase the number of bolt then we can find out right.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:52)

So if we see here that for this case we will decide load line in plane of bolted joint, so here
say for example we have given four bolt in each line and total number of bolt are 8 right. So
with this if we have a value of P here then whether this is safe or not that we can find out
from earlier lecture but we have the value of P then what will be the number of bolt that
means whether 4 or 3 or 8 how do we decide that we will try to discuss.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:48)

Now we will discuss about the design procedure then we will go through one example so that
we will be able understand the design procedure. Firstly, we have to assume a suitable
diameter of bolt depending on the availability. If we want the lesser length of the joint then
we have to make bigger diameter otherwise we can go for small diameter also and it depends
on the thickness of the member, so depending on that we will decide the diameter of bolt.
Then we have to find out the strength of one bolt in shear, bearing and get bolt value Vsd.

So Vsd is the bolt value correct and how do we find out this shear and bearing, this can be
found whether it is double shear or single shear we have to know. Also we have to find out
whether it is HSFG bolt or whether it is bearing type bolt. Then when we will be going for
bearing stress we have to know what is the edge distance, what is the pitch distance and
accordingly we have to find out the kb, the constant value of kb then we have to find out the
bearing strength right.

So for finding out the bearing strength we have to find out first the pitch and edge distance as
well as the type of bolt whether it is bearing type or friction type depending on that we will
be able to calculate the strength of the bolt. Once it is calculated then we can use this formula,

n  P / Vsd

if P is the external direct load then P by V sd is equal to the number of bolt. So when will use
this formula will use if moment coming on the joint is much less compare to the direct load
that means if eccentricity is quite less and moment is coming therefore is less then we can use
simply this n is equal to P by Vsd to find approximate number of bolts.

When the moment is comparatively much less than the direct load, means if the eccentricity
is less than moment will be less, then we will increase the number of bolts to a certain
percentage which depends on the designers’ experience.

From designer from that experience they can understand that how much percentage should be
increased to make the total number of bolts and whether it will be in two or more vertical
lines that also have to decided. In earlier lecture I have shown we had two vertical lines right
so it may be two or more so with a suitable spacing we have to make. So we will increase the
number of bolt with a certain percentage to find out the total number of bolt for checking the
strength of that bolt joint right.

And another case is if moment on the joint is much high compared to direct load that means if
eccentricity is high then will not use the earlier formulae we will use the following formula

6M
n
n ' p  Vsd

where Vsd is the bolt strength and moment M is equal to P×V and p is the pitch distance and
n' is the number of vertical lines.
(Refer Slide Time: 9:36)

So in this case also we will increase the number of bolts to a certain percentage (depends on
the designers’ experience) and then arrange the number of bolts per line.

So in that case we have to take decision accordingly right so once we consider some
approximate number of bolts will make the arrangements of bolts then will find out the
resultant force for the critical bolt. We will see in which bolt it may come more right if we
cannot predict that then we have to calculate for each bolt or in few bolt we have to calculate
because in few bolts similar forces will be developed.

So we will calculate the resultant force in few bolts and will see what is the maximum force
coming on that bolt then we will see the resultant force in the critical bolt is less than the bolt
value or not if it is less than the bolt value then the joint is safe that means if the resultant
force in the critical bolt is less than the the joint is safe that means the arrangement whatever
we have done is correct, the arrangement means in terms of number of bolts and number of
bolt line, pitch distance, edge distance and spacing between two bolt lines.

So these arrangements are correct if it is not if forces in bolt is coming more than the bolt
value then we have to redesign that means we have to either increase the number of bolt or
we have to rearrange the bolt in such a way that the reaction force on the bolt is coming less
than the bolt strength. So if it is so what will do we will either increase the number of bolts
per line or we will change the bolt orientation in different positions means either number of
bolts per line the spacing and edge distance and pitch and will check whether the critical bolt
force is coming less than the bolt value in this way will design the entire process.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:46)

So this will be clear if we go through one example say let us go through this example right.

Example: Design a bolted bracket connection to transfer an end reaction of 300 kN with an
eccentricity of 170 mm, due to factored load as shown in the figure. The steel used is of grade
FE 410. Use 20 mm diameter bolt of grade 4.6. The thickness of bracket plate is 10 mm and
the column section is ISHB 200 @ 365.91 N/m.

Solution:

So this is the example we will try to solve that means you have been given 300 kN of load
acting at an eccentricity of 170 mm and this load is acting on a bracket of 10 mm thick
bracket and this bracket is connected with a ISHB 200 I section column right. So now we
have to design a bearing type of bolt to withstand this 300 kN, so we do not know how many
bolts will be provided here, how many bolt lines will be provided here, we do not have
anything. So we have to fast find out the approximate number and then we have to arrange
with increase of certain number of bolts and then we have to check whether it is ok or not. So
through this example we will learn how to do it ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:09)

For Fe 410 grade of steel: f u  410 MPa

For bolts of grade 4.6: f ub  400 N / mm 2

Partial safety factor for the material of bolt:  mb  1.25

For column section ISHB 200 @ 365.91 N/m,

Gauge, g  100mm

Thickness of flange, t f  9.0mm

Diameter of bolt, d = 20 mm

Diameter of hole, d0 = 22 mm [Table 19 IS 800]

Minimum edge distance, e = 1.5×22 = 33 mm [cl. 10.2.4.2 –IS 800]

Net shear area of the bolt at threads,

 
Anb  0.78   202  245mm 2
4

Minimum pitch, p = 2.5×20 = 50 mm

Provide e = 35 mm and p = 60 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 17:14)

Strength of bolt in single shear,

f ub
Vdsb   nn Anb  ns Asb 
3   mb
 400 103
  1 245  0   45.26kN
3  1.25

Strength of bolt in bearing,

2.5  kb  d  t  f u
Vdpb 
 mb

kb is smaller of 35/ (3×22), 60/ (3×22)-0.25, 400/410, 1

Hence, kb = 0.53

2.5  0.53  20  9  410 10 3

Vsd   78.23kN
1.25

Hence, the strength of the bolt, Vsd  45.26 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 19:37)

Let us provide bolts in two vertical rows.

Moment due to eccentricity, M = 170×300 = 51000 kN-mm

number of row, n  2

Number of bolts required in one row,

6M 6  51000
n   7.51  8
pnVsd 60  2  45.26
(Refer Slide Time: 21:55)
Force on critical bolt A

P 300
The direct force, F1    18.75kN
n 16
Pe0 rn
The force in the bolt due to twisting moment, F2 
 r2

Eccentricity, eo = 170 mm

rn  2102  502  215.87 mm

 r 2  4  [(2102  502 )  (1502  502 )  (902  502 )  (302  50 2 )]

 342400mm 2

(Refer Slide Time: 25:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

300 170  215.87

F2   32.15kN
342400

50
cos    0.232
2102  502

Resultant force on the critical bolt,

F  F12  F2 2  2 F1 F2 cos 

F  18.752  32.152  2 18.75  32.15  0.232

 40.8kN  45.26kN

Hence, connection is safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:20)
So if we check for few bolts and if we find out the critical one then we can see whether the
proposed arrangement of bolt and proposed number whether it is ok or not. This arrangement
also can be changed little means Fm value is coming here little more, that can be reduced
slightly if we change the P value suitably then also Fm value slightly will be reduced but
always it is suggested that you cannot change much more. So if the design strength of bolt is
quite less than the force coming on the bolt then it is better to increase the number of bolts in
place of changing the pitch distance or edge distance or the spacing because it will not change
much.

So this is what we have discussed today, to summarize once again let me conclude that design
of a bolt group due to eccentric load lying in the plane of joint can be done by trial and error
method.

We can find out the approximate number of bolt either from force or from moment then we
can increase a certain number of bolt on the basis on that approximate number and then we
can arrange the bolt group means bolts in a particular way, once it is arranged then we have to
check whether that bolts are safe or not that means the forces on critical bolt is coming less
than the bolt strength or not. If it is not then we have to redesign we have to increase the
number of bolt or we have to change the orientation means position of the bolts in terms of
spacing and pitch and edge or if it is safe then we can stick to that connections.
 Design of Steel Structures.
Professor Damodar Maity.
Department of Civil Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Lecture-15.
Eccentric Connection (Load Lying in Plane of Welded Joint).

In this lecture I will discuss about the eccentric connections where load is lying in the plane
of joint and using weld connection, here basically fillet weld will be used for connections.
Now in case of load lying in the plane of joint two types of stresses will come into picture in
the weld. One is due to direct force which would be the shear, and another will come due to
eccentricity and the stress will come due moment.

So we have to make calculation of the stresses due to direct force and due to moment and
then we have to find out its equivalent forces that means resultant forces, and that resultant
forces should be less than the weld strength. If the resultant stress is less than the weld
strength then our design factor is ok means design whatever we have designed is ok
otherwise we have to increase the weld size or length of the weld size or orientation means
the weld length and width has to be changed and then again we have redesign it.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:55)

So coming to this picture if we see here that basically if there is a force P then moment will
become P×e. Now because of that the stresses will be generated on the wild. Now if weld is
connected in this way, so in the bracket throughout the bracket if it is connected then we have
to find out the cg of the weld group.
Once we find out the cg of weld group then we can find out what will be the stresses acting
on each portion of the weld say for example in this point stress will be acting one stress will
be acting in this direction vertically downward due to direct force and another will be 90
degrees to the radial distance from cg, and then we have to find out the resultant right.

Now similar as bolt connection we have to find the resultant stress. But we know the stresses
will develop much more at the extreme point building stresses, so the radial distance of this
point and radial distance of this point if we compare it will be more here that means the
critical point will be this point. Similarly critical point will be this one and this point and this
point will be same because this distance and this distance are same, it is symmetric along this
direction.

Therefore the radial distance between this two will be same, the angle between two forces
will be same, therefore the stresses the resultant stresses at this point and this point will be
same. So at any point any of these two points if we calculate then we can find out the critical
stresses of the section right. So in place of calculating entire weld length, in place of
calculating in different position of the weld if we calculate only one point then we can find
out the critical strength.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:06)

So critical strength will be developed only at this point because of its position. Now direct
shear stress in the weld can be found out from the following formulae

P
ps 
Lt

Where P is the vertical load, L is the total length of the weld and t is the throat thickness.

Say for example if we draw this figure whatever we have seen and this is a column which is
connected by a weld. The bracket is taking a load of P right and this distance is suppose some
distance say e1 and this we have this distance we have so we can find out the cg of this
distance and then we can find out the x and cg e.

So we do not know what is the M value right now unless we know the cg of the weld group
right. So weld if it is made through this periphery then total length here this L, L is the length
of weld, which can be calculated as

L=2 x+ d

Now shear stress due to bending can found from the following formulae

M
pb  r
IP
Where M is the moment which is calculated as P×e and r is the radial distance of the welding
point from the cg of the weld. Now unless we know the distribution of the weld we cannot
find out the value of e, e is the distance between load and the cg of the weld group

(Refer Slide Time: 8:22)

So before calculating the stress we have to provide certain distribution of the weld, then we
can find out the cg of the weld, then we can find out the stress how much it is coming due to
moment. So here Ip is basically polar moment of inertia of the weld and this can be calculated
as Ixx + Iyy.

Now at any point the resultant stress is given by

p r  ps2  p b2  2ps p b cos 

Where θ is the angle between ps and pb.

For critical condition developed stress should be less than the permissible stress in the weld.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:43)
Example:

A bracket is subjected to a load of 50 kN and is connected to a stanchion by welding as

shown in the figure. Find the size of the weld so that the load can be carried safely.

Solution:

Firstly, we have to find out the cg of the weld group. So along vertical directions say in y-
direction weld group is symmetric but along horizontal direction say x-direction we have to
find out the cg.

Distance of the CG of the welded area from weld line BC,

2 100t  50
X  25mm
2  100t  200t

Eccentricity of the load = 150 + 100 – 25 = 225 mm

1
 I xx  t  2003  2 100t 100 2  2.67 106 t
12
mm4

Similarly,

1
t 1003  2 100t   50  25 
2
I yy  200t  252  2 
12
  4.17  105 t
mm4

(Refer Slide Time: 16:42)

Now the polar momentum of inertia,

I P  I xx  I yy  26.7 105 t  4.17 105 t

 30.87 105 t
mm4

2  100t  200t  400t

Area = mm2
 r  752  1002  125
Maximum radial distance, mm

For getting the maximum shear due to bending, first we have to find out the moment.

M  50  225 / 1000  11.25

So Moment, kN-m

Now maximum shear stress due to bending,

M 11.25 106 455.54

pb  r  125 
Ip 30.87 10 t
5
t

(Refer Slide Time: 19:28)

Direct shear stress,

T 50 103 125
ps   
A 400t t

75
cos    0.6
125

Resultant stress,
 2 2
 455.54  125
   
455.54  125
pr       2      0.6
 t   t  t  t

539.88

t
(Refer Slide Time: 22:24)

Strength of weld = 410 /(√ 3 × 1.25)=189.37 MPa

Therefore, 539.88/t=189.37

Thus t=539.88/189.37=2.85 mm

Size of the weld, s=t /0.707=4.03 mm

Hence, provide 5 mm size of the weld.

Now from minimum and maximum criteria means what should be the minimum size of weld
that from the codal permission we have to check. And then we have to see whether it is
exceeding or not if it is less than the minimum then we have to provide the minimum. So for
this case the minimum thickness will be 3 mm so we can provide the size of the weld as 5
mm.

Now say for example, if the size of the weld is given and the distribution is given then also
we can find out what will be the load carrying capacity of the weld joint. The reverse way
first we have to find out the strength of the weld then according to the size of the weld we can
find out what is the Ps and Pb then from that we can find out the load acting at a particular
distance P.

So either of the way we can find out right. So the weld joint when load is lying in the plane of
joint then how to design the joint that has been discussed in this lecture.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 4
Lecture No 16
Eccentric Connection (Load Lying Perpendicular to Plane of Bolted Joint)

(Refer Slide Time: 0:27)

In this lecture we are going to discuss about the load line perpendicular to the plane of bolted
joint, that means when loaded in out of plane then how reactions on the bolt will be coming
in to picture that we will try to understand. And in each bolt we know that due to the
eccentricity of the load the moment will come in the bold group as well as direct force will
come. Now as it is out of plane loading that is why here if we see the 2 type of stresses will
develop. One is the shear stress due to direct load and another is the tensile stress due to
moment.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:19)

So if we draw the diagram say for example a bolt group is connected with certain bracket say
for example this is connected here and we have bolt group at different positions. Now a load
of magnitude P is acting at a distant of e, so moment will be basically P×e, this moment will
come into picture and because of this P the shear stress will develop in this direction and
because of this moment tensile force will come in this direction and we know this tensile
force will be in this top portion and in bottom portion there will be compressive force.

If we draw the stress diagram this will develop as shown above. Now where will be the center
of rotation that means the neutral axis, so there are different opinions for finding out the
neutral axis because it will not be at the cg of the bolt group. This is because bolt lying above
the neutral axis will be in tension but in this portion the bracket if we draw this the bracket is
going to take the compression, so the amount of compressive force will be huge in this
direction compared to the bolt force in as a tension therefore the center of rotation cannot be
at the center of gravity or at the mid-point.

Another opinion has come that it may be at the bottom of the bolt but this is also not true
because the bottom flanged of the bracket and the stanchion are not perfectly rigid so if it is
not perfectly rigid we cannot consider that all the bolts are going to be carry out by the
tension, this is not also practicable, so that we actually need to make some trial and error.

Trial and error means we have to find out where it can lie so through trial and error analysis
we can find out otherwise there is an opinion that we can consider at a distance of h/7, where
h is the height from the bottom of the bracket to the top most bolt position which are in
tension.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:52)

So if we consider the neutral axis at h/7 then we can find out the total tensile force on the bolt
and total compressive force on the bracket, so and we can make equal to find out the
equilibrium equation.

So the assumption is here that the tensile force develop on the bracket will be proportionate to
the distance from NA, that means it will be meeting with distance at NA, say if this is
distance y then t will be vary with y or I can write

Ti  kyi
Where Ti is the tensile force developed at ith bolt and yi is the perpendicular distance from
center of rotation or from neutral axis to that center of the particular bolt.

So this is what we can assumed and then we can find out the constant which is called elastic
constant or proportionality constant that I can write as

Ti
k
yi
The moment of resistance due to this tensile force

So, total Moment of resistance provided by the bolts in tension,

 Ti  yi 2
Or M '   kyi  2

yi
So moment of resistance provided by the bolt intension we can write down in this way.
(Refer Slide Time: 7:54)

So we can find out the value of moment in terms of its tensile force.

Now tensile force in bolt i,

M ' yi
Ti 
 yi 2
Tensile force in the extreme critical bolt will be:

M ' yn
Tn 
 yi 2
Total tensile force exerted by the bolt,

M '  yi
T
y i
2

This is the total tensile force exerted by the bolt and these has to be equal to the total
compressive force because we know about neutral axis the total tensile force and total
compressive force has to be equal.

Thus total compressive force,

M '  yi
C
y i
2

2 h 2h
This compressive force acts at a distance of    from the neutral axis.
3 7 21

(Refer Slide Time: 11:43)

Hence taking moment about NA we get

External moment (M) = Moment resisted by bolts in tension (M’) + Moment resisted by
compressive force.

M '  yi 2h
 M  M ' Cy  M ' 
y
2
i
21

or M  M '  1 
y
 i 2h
 
 y 21
2
 i 

M
M '
Therefore, 2h  yi
1
21  y 2
i

Now depending on the number of bolts position of the bolt we can find out what is the
fraction of moment is carrying by the bolts, so this is how we can analyze.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:32)

Now we will find out the maximum tensile force at the bolt, what will be the maximum
tensile force? Maximum tensile force will develop at the extreme bolt.
Therefore, the tensile force in the extreme bolt,

M ' ymax
Tmax 
 yi 2
Where ymax is the maximum distance of the bolt from neutral axis.
6
Thus, ymax  h
7
So maximum tension in the bolt I can find out from this formula and where M' already we
have found out.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:32)

Now I will go to the design steps means I did not know. I have been given a tension and
which is connected to a bracket and then this bracket is carrying an eccentric load of say P at
a distance of e. Now what should be the number of bolt, we have to find out. So if P and e is
given then how to find out the number of bolts. So what we can do we can write as design
steps.

Design Steps

1. Select nominal diameter of bolt and provide pitch and edge distance suitably.

2. Calculate the design shear strength (Vdsb)

3. Select number of bolt lines, n' and external moment (M) due to eccentricity.

4. Find the approximate number of bolts (n) per line from the following formula:

6M
n
n ' p  Vsdb

5. Compute the shear force (Vsb) in the bolt.

6. Calculate the design tensile strength of the bolt (Tdb).

7. Calculate tensile force (Tb) in the extreme critical bolt.

8. Check for developed shear and tension individually:

Vsb < Vdsb and Tb < Tdb.

9. The connection should be checked against combined shear and tension using the
interaction formula:
2 2
 Vsb   T b
     1.0
 Vdsb  T db
(Refer Slide Time: 19:19)
(Refer Slide Time: 22:55)

So this is how we can go for design, design is basically a trial and error method, so we will
start with an approximate number of bolt per bolt line, then we will check whether it is okay
or not. If it is not okay then we have to again increase the number of bolts, so it is an iterative
process.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture No 19
Design of Eccentric Connection (Load Lying Perpendicular to Plane of Bolted Joint)

This lecture will be the continuation of last lecture. In last lecture, we have discussed about
the bolt group connection where the load is lying perpendicular to plane of the bolt group. So
far we have covered the followings; how to find out the tensile force developing on the bolt
and the shear force in each bolt, how the neutral axis will be decided and on the basis of that
how the tensile force is going to vary from bolt to bolt and through interaction formula how
to check the bolt group.

So in this lecture we will go through one example to understand the same process whatever
we have discussed. So before going to the example, let us take an overview of design
procedure whatever we have discussed in last lecture.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:41)

Let us say one bracket is connected to a stanchion which is loaded with certain amount of
force at a certain distance away from the structure that means it is an eccentric connection.
Now we have to see first whether it is out of plane load or in plane load. If it is out of plane
load then we have to design according to the design steps given.

So we will start with certain assumptions means diameter of bolt which will not be given. So
we can start with certain bolt diameter then we can find out what will be the pitch distance
and edge distance according to the bolt diameter, what will be the bolt strength due to shear
and other things. Again we do not know how many number of bolts are exactly required
because it is not given. So what we can do we can assume certain number of bolt groups,
certain number of bolt lines, right two or three whatever it is, then per line what will be the
number of bolt that approximately we can calculate this from the moment formula.

So that we are showing here, say suppose in first step we can see that we can find out the
nominal diameter of bolt and we will provide the pitch and edge distance. Accordingly we
can find out the design shear strength assuming number of bolt lines and the external moment
due to eccentricity. Then we can find out the approximate number of bolt per line from the
formula given in step 4 and also we can find out the shear force coming in each bolt.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:54)

Then in next step we can find out the design tensile strength of the bolt group and also the
tensile strength in the extreme bolt. Further we have to check individually that the shear force
developed on a particular bolt should be less than the design shear strength of the bolt and
similarly the tensile force develop on the bolt should be less than the tensile strength of the
bolt.

So individually it has to be less if it is not than either we have to increase the number of bolt
or we have to increase the diameter of bolt to make sure that mentioned conditions are
satisfied and once it is satisfied we have check against combined shear and tension using the
interaction formula given in step 9. If the equation is not satisfied then we have to increase
either number of bolt or diameter of bolt and we have to recheck once again.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:22)

Example:

Design a bracket connection to transfer an end reaction of 200 kN due to factored load as
shown in the figure. The end reaction from the girder acts at an eccentricity of 250 mm from
the face of the column flange. Design bolted joint connecting the Tee-flange with the column
flange. Steel is of grade Fe 410 and bolts of grade 4.6

Solution:

(Refer Slide Time: 6:51)

For Fe 410 grade of steel: �� = 410 ���

For bolts of grade 4.6: ��� = 400 ���

Partial safety factor for the material of bolt: ��� = 1.25

The bolts along section AA are subjected to

Shear due to the load, P = 200 kN passing through the c.g. of the joint

Bending moment, M = 200×250 = 50,000 kN-mm

Let us provide 24 mm diameter bolts for making the connection.

Diameter of hole d0 = 24+2 = 26 mm [table 19, IS 800]

Net tensile stress area,

��� = 0.78×�/4×242 = 353 ��2

(Refer Slide Time: 9:55)

Minimum pitch, p = 2.5×24 = 60 mm

Minimum edge distance, e = 1.5d0 = 1.5×26 = 39 mm [cl. 10.2.4.2, IS 800]

Provide p = 65 mm and e = 40 mm.

Strength of bolt in single shear, ���� = ��� = (��� ���)/(√3 ��� )

= (353×400)/(√3×1.25) N

= 65.22 ×103 N

= 65.22 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 12:29)

Strength of bolt in tension, ��� = ���/���

��� = 0.9��� ���

= 0.9×400×353

= 127.08×103 �

= 127.08 ��

Hence, ��� = 127.08/1.25 = 101.66 kN

The bolts will be provided in two vertical rows, one on each side of the web of the Tee
section, connecting the flanges of the two sections.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:42)

Number of bolts required in one row,

n=
√ 6M
'
p n V sd√=
6 ×50000
65 ×2 ×65.22
=5.95 ≈ 6

Hence provide 6 bolts in each row at a pitch of 65 mm and edge distance of 40 mm.

Total depth of the bracket plate ¿ 5× 65+2 × 40=405 mm

Therefore h=405 – 40=365 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 17:38)

The neutral axis is assumed to lie at h/7 from the bottom of the bracket, i.e., at 365/7 = 52.14
mm

(65+ 40−52.14)+(130+40−52.14)
Now ∑ y i =2× ¿

+(195+ 40−52.14)+(260+ 40−52.14)

+(325+ 40−52.14)¿

=1828.6 mm
(Refer Slide Time: 20:46)

∑ y 2i =2× [ 52.86 2+117.86 2+182.86 2+247.86 2+312.86 2 ]

¿ 418877. 8 mm2

2
y max =h−52.14=365−52.14=312.86 mm
52.14 mm

312.86 mm

365 mm

405 mm
Maximum tensile force in the critical bolt,

M y max 50000 ×312.86

T b= = =37.3 5 kN < 101.66 ( T db ¿
∑y 2
i
418877. 8

So what we could see that maximum tensile force develop on the extreme bolt is less than the
tensile carrying capacity of the bolt. So this is ok, that means the number of bolts chosen in
this case are ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:05)

Shear force in the critical bolt,

V d sb
P 200
V sb= = =16.6 7 kN <65.22 kN ¿ )
number of bolt 2 ×6

Now we have to check from the interaction formula that means if it acts as combined then for
the combination of this formula we have to check the following

V sb 2 T b 2
( )( )
V dsb
+
T db
≤1.0

2 2
16.67 37.3 5
Or ( )(
65.22
+
101.66)=0.2≤ 1
Hence the bolt group is safe.

Now what we can see here we can see few aspects that interaction formula shows that the
combined coefficient is coming 0.2 only in place of 1, right so it is much much safer with this

combination. Also Vsb and Tb are much less compare to V dsb and T db respectively,

that means may be it is over designed.

So in place of number of bolt 6, we can come to number of bolt 4 or 5 and we can check, to
make economy in the design we can decrease the number of bolt or the diameter of bolts and
then we can check once again if we decrease the diameter of bolt than strength capacity also
would be reduced then also we can check.

So if design is much safe means over designed than to make it economy we can redesign
means either we have to decrease the number of bolt or we have to decrease the nominal
diameter of bolt. So if we reduce the number of bolt automatically that interaction formula it
was much less than 1, it will be near to 1, right.

So this way we can think but if we see that in the interaction formula it is more than 1, then
we have to increase the number of bolt or diameter of bolt to make it safe.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 18
Module 4
Eccentric Connection (Load Lying Perpendicular to Plane of Welded Joint)

This lecture will be the last lecture on the module eccentric connection. In last few lectures
we have seen the design procedure of eccentric connections where load was lying in the plane
of joint and load is lying on the plane of perpendicular to the plane of joint.

But one case we have not consider where load is lying perpendicular the plane of joint but the
connection is welded connections. So in this lecture we will discuss when a welded joint is
under eccentric load and load is perpendicular to that welded joint.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:16)

And you know that there are two types of welded joint, fillet weld and butt weld. Therefore
we have to calculate the stress develop on the fillet weld as well as butt weld.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:45)

So let us consider the first case that is when a column is loaded with a load P with an
eccentricity e and the connection is done by filled weld. Now we have to find out the stresses
means two type of stresses will come into picture in such type of connection one is shear
stress and another is stress due to bending and both will be perpendicular to each other.

So first if we see shear stress which is due to direct load, will come in the direction of direct
load.
 Load
The direct shear stress in the weld = q = Effective weld area
(a) Fillet Weld

1. The shear stress in the fillet weld,

P P
q 
lwtt 2d  tt
Where, P is the load and e is the eccentricity, d is the depth of bracket plate/welding depth,
�� is total effective length of weld, �� is the throat thickness of the fillet weld.

2. The stress due to bending,

M
fb  y
I
Where,
1
I  2 t td3
12 ,
d
y
2 and
M  Pe

(Refer Slide Time: 5:44)

Therefore,
Pe d 3Pe
fb   2
1 3 2 ttd
2  t td
12
Now resultant stress can be calculated as follows:
fu
f e  q 2  f b2  weld strength 
3 mw

(Refer Slide Time: 7:18)

Design Steps:

i. Select a suitable size of weld and then compute throat thickness and weld strength,
fu
Rw 
3 mw

ii. Calculate the depth of weld using the following expression:

3Pe
d
tt Rw

iii. Increase depth d to certain percentage to accommodate shear stress as well.

iv. Calculate direct shear stress, q, which should be less than ��.
P
q
2 d  tt
(Refer Slide Time: 11:32)

v. Similarly, compute stress due to bending, fb, which should be less than ��.
3Pe
fb 
tt  d 2

vi. Calculate equivalent stress, fe, which should be less than ��.

f e  q 2  f b2

vii. If the equivalent stress exceeds the design weld strength �� then length of weld should
increase and above process be repeated till the checks are satisfied.

So unless it is satisfying this criterion we have to go on increasing the depth of weld or size
of weld or both to make sure that design is ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:22)

Example: (Fillet weld)
Design a fillet weld to connect a 10 mm thick bracket to the flange of a column as shown in
the figure below.

Solution:
There are three cases, either size of the weld is given then you have to find out the depth or
depth is given then you have to find out the size of weld or both depth and size of the weld is
not given then you have to find both. So in case of finding both we have to go for trial and
error means we have to assume certain size of the weld from the basis of the thickness i.e.
from minimum size of the weld and from maximum size of the weld, we have to find the
suitable size and then we have to find the depth and then we have to check. So both cases can
be done.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:42)

So in this case the depth is given but size of the weld is unknown.

Let s = size of weld;

Throat thickness, tt = 0.707s

P 50×103 176.8
q= = = MPa
Therefore, Vertical shear stress, 2dt t 2×200×0.707s s

Horizontal shear stress due to bending,

6M 6×P×e
fb = =
2t t d 2 2t t d 2

6×50×103 ×150
=
2×0.707s×2002
795.6
= MPa
s

(Refer Slide Time: 17:16)

Now we can find out the equivalent one.

So the equivalent stress,

2 2
 176.8  795.6
 815
fe  q  f b
2 2
     
 s   s s

This equivalent stress should be less than Rw.

Now weld strength,

R w  410 /   3 1.25  189.37MPa
Equating fe and Rw we get
780
 189.37
s
 s  4.3 mm

So we can adapt a weld size of 5 mm.

So what we have seen in this example that the depth of weld is given but the size of the weld
was not known so designing this what we have found we have assumed certain size of weld
and then we have equivalent stresses due to external forces equal to the weld strength. So by
making equal of this, we can find out the size of the weld.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:46)

(b) Groove Weld:

In case of groove weld the weld has been done by grooving in the plate. So here if we
consider the depth of weld as d and thickness as t then we can find out the shear stress and the
bending stress in a similar fashion.

1. The shear stress in the fillet weld,

P P
q 
lw t e d  te

Where, P is the load and e is the eccentricity,

d is the depth of bracket plate/welding depth,
�� is total effective length of weld and
�� is the effective thickness of the groove weld

In earlier case, we have considered lw as 2d because in two sides (the periphery) the weld
joint has been done by fillet weld but in case of groove weld this will be only d.

2. The stress due to bending,

M
fb  y
I
Where,
1 d
I t ed3 y
12 and 2

Pe d 6Pe
fb  
1 3 2 ted2
t ed
Therefore, 12

fy
f e  3q 2  f b2 
Now resultant stress,  m0

(Refer Slide Time: 22:27)

Design Steps (Groove weld):

Now coming to the design steps, so for designing a groove weld if we see in a similar way we
can move forward.

i. Select a suitable size of weld and then compute effective thickness and weld
strength,
 fy
Rw 
0

ii. Calculate the depth of weld using the following expression:

6 Pe
d
te Rw

iii. Increase depth d to a certain percentage to accommodate shear stress as well.

iv. Calculate direct shear stress, �, which should be less than ��.
P
q
d  te

(Refer Slide Time: 24:26)

v. Similarly, compute stress due to bending, ��, which should be less than ��
6 Pe
fb 
te  d 2

vi. Calculate equivalent stress, ��, which should be less than ��

f e  3q 2  fb 2

vii. If the equivalent stress exceeds the design weld strength �� then the length of the
weld should be increased and above process be repeated till the checks are
satisfied.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:50)

Now the same example which has been considereded earlier, will be done using the groove
weld.

Example: (Groove weld)

Design a groove weld to connect a 10 mm thick bracket to the flange of a column as shown in
the figure below.

Solution:

So if we use groove weld how to design the connection that we will see.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:46)

Let provide a double J groove weld.

Therefore, effective throat thickness = thickness of bracket plate = te = 10 mm

Therefore, vertical shear stress,

P 50×103
q= = =25 MPa
dt e 200×10

Horizontal shear stress due to bending,

6M 6×P×e
fb = =
t ed 2 t ed 2

6×50×103×150
=
10×2002 =112.5 MPa
(Refer Slide Time: 28:16)

Resultant stress at extreme fiber,

f e  3q 2  f b 2  3   25    112.5   120.55
2 2

Now weld strength,

R w  f y /  m0  250 / 1.1  227.27MPa

So the resultant stress is less than the weld strength that means the joint is safe.

So in this way we can design, in this case, the length of the weld was fixed length of weld or
depth of weld was fixed and the thickness is also fixed because it was a double J groove weld
and so the effective thickness was also fixed. So what we need to do here, we have to find out
the equivalent stress and that equivalent stress whether it is less than the strength permissible
strength or not that we have to check, if it is ok then fine, if it is not ok then the design is not
safe.

However if the depth is not given then we can find out the depth also by trial and error
method the way we have discussed earlier, in the same way we can find out the approximate
depth and then we can check whether it is ok or not, if the equivalent stress is much less than
the weld strength then we have to decrease the depth and we have to check again and if
equivalent stress is more than the permissible stress then we have to increase the depth of the
weld so that we can accommodate it.
So this is how we can find out the design strength of weld and we can find out the equivalent
stress of the weld and we can check. So in the last few lectures, we have discussed the
eccentric connections and in eccentric connections, two types of connections will come
basically one is due to in plane loading another is due to out of plane loading. In case of in
plane loading we have seen what are the stresses will develop and how to design and in case
of out of plane loading also we have seen what are the stresses are coming and what are the
equivalent stress and how to design.

And we could see here in all the cases the design procedure is basically a trial and error
method, where we will assume certain parameters then we can find out the stresses developed
on the joint whether it is bolt joint or weld joint, whether it is butt weld or fillet weld and then
we have to see whether it is exceeding the permissible limit or not, if it is not exceeding the
permissible limit then design is fine otherwise we have to redesign with the increase of
number of bolts, diameter of bolts, or weld thickness, weld depth, etc as per the case required.
So with this, I would like to conclude the entire lecture of eccentric connections. In the next
class, we will discuss the design of tensile member.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 19
Module 4
Tension Members and Net Area
Hello today I am going to start a new chapter on new module, that is tension member. So far,
we have discussed about different type of connections, starting from bolted connections,
welded connections and also eccentric connections. Now we will go one by one the member
design. Member means either it is a compression member or tension member or flexural
member.

Now unlike RCC structure here tension member plays an important role. In case of RCC
structure because of the dead load or self-weight, generally structure undergoes compressions
and may be rarely tension comes into but in case of some structures where tension occurs
frequently, we have to use the steel member so that the steel can take tension.

So in case of industrial building or bridges particularly trust members are subjected to tension
because of different type of loads including vehicle load for bridges and wind load,
earthquake load for industrial structure etc. Therefore, we found that many members
undergoes axial tension.

So we means we have when we will be learning the design means design of steel structures
we have to learn how to design a tension member. In case of RCC member many of us have
not learnt that design of tension member in RCC but in case of steel we need to know as we
know that wind when industrial structure is built when wind comes into picture or earthquake
comes into picture some columns goes compression and other columns under tension.

Again, because of reverse direction again the columns which were in compression, will
undergo tension and which were in tension earlier may undergo compression. So we have to
design the members for both tension and compression in case of industrial building or
structures. So those things we will see one by one and you know tension members can have
any type of cross sections it may be angle section, it may be circular section, it may be I
sections any type of sections can be used.

However generally we use circular section as a tension member or sometimes we use angle
sections also because of its advantages geometrical properties.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:23)

So if we see that truss member, cables in suspension bridges, bracings for buildings, these are
often subjected to axial tensile forces which is be designed properly and as I told that any
cross sectional configuration may be used where circular rods and rolled angle sections are
commonly used.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:47)

These are some application of tension member where in case of cable stayed bridge we need
to design tension the stay cables and similarly in case of truss members few members are in
tension. In case of bracings we need to design the bracings which experience tensile force, so
the purlin, hanger supporting floor deck, etc we have to design for tension.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:18)

Now coming to tension member, we see that different type of section can be used, one is
circular sections, and we can use rectangular or square section. We can use angle section
back-to-back angle section we can also use one angle and this is another angle which is
connecting with a gusset plate.

Also we can see, this two angle sections are connected with a gusset plate with bolt
connection or four angle sections are also connected, this is the way we can make some angle
sections.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:22)

Then other type of configurations are like this, two channel sections back to back that
generally we use for column section means for compression member but sometimes we may
need it for design of tension member also. Again, channel section face to face may be
connected and angle section making a box this may also can be connected. Angle sections
with the use of gusset plate and other additional plates can be used for making a built of
section which will be useful for tension member design.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:30)

Now we will discuss about various factors affecting the tensile strength. Therefore, if we
have a plate and if we make a connection with a hole then the net area of the section is going
to be reduced. For this reason we will be calculating the net area or the for calculation of the
tensile strength we have to reduce the bolt hole area because this bolt hole cannot take tension
that is why the strength will be decreased in the presence of hole.

Then another factor is geometry factor. The ratio of gauge length (g) to diameter (d)
represents geometry factor. A lower ratio of gauge length to its diameter gauge results in
contentment of contraction at the net section and hence it is more efficient.

Then another is ductility factor if the members become more ductile then it increases its
strength because of even distribution of stress. Then residual strength, where fatigue is
involved, we have to count the residual stresses also, how much it is present so accordingly it
has to be taken care.

If spacing of fasteners are closer than relative to the diameter then block shear will lead into
failure so that has to be also taken care.
Next is the shear lag effect this is very important in case of tension member design.
Sometimes the whole member are not connected to the gusset plate or to the system. So when
the members are subjected to tension so all the portions of the element or the member are not
directly under tension. Therefore, tension force are not distributed throughout its cross section
properly, so there is scope of shear lag effect. Because of shear lag effect the strength of the
member gets reduced. Say suppose an angle is connected to a gusset plate. Now when the
tension force is applied so this portion will be under tension directly as it is directly
connected but in this portion, it will not occur there will be some lagging. So because of that
lagging shear lag effect will come into picture and because of shear lag effect the strength of
the member will be reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:00)

Now coming to net area calculation because in case of tensile member the net area plays
important role because when we will find out the rupture of the section means the member
may undergo rupture along its critical section.

So for that we have to find out the net area, net area means basically the total area minus the
hole area because of the presence of bolt, holes are made so that hole cannot take tension. So
when we are going to calculate the net area we have to reduce that area. So we have to
calculate the different options and then we have to find out that which one is the most critical
section and according to that critical section we have to find out the what is the strength due
to rupture. So, this is how we will make it.
So basically net area means gross area minus hole area, so this is the formula which we can
use are in chain bolting,

A net =( b−n d h ) t

Where,

t  Thickness of the plate

dh Gross Diameter of the plate

b  width of plate

n→ No. of bolts in one line

Say we know the when two plates are in connections and under tension say P, bolt
connections are made with a chain bolting. So there will be chance of failure along this
direction say, 1-1. So in this direction, along this path the net section area will be less, if I
consider here, if the width of the plate is b and thickness is t then gross area will be b × t,
right but the net area along these sections will be less. And that will be gross area minus hole
area means if diameter of the hole is dh and if t is the thickness then net area is b- dh × t × n.
Therefore, this is how One can calculate the net area for chain bolting.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:58)

However, in case of staggered bolt we have different formula.

[ (
A net = b −nd + +
4 g1 4 g 2 )]
p 2s 1 p2s 2
t

Where,

b , t = width and thickness of the plate respectively.

d = diameter of the bolt hole (2 mm in addition to the diameter of the hole, in case the
h
directly punched holes).

g = gauge length between the bolt holes.

p = staggered-pitch length between line of bolt holes.

s

n = number of bolt holes in the critical section.

i = subscript for summation of all the inclined legs.

In case of staggered or zig-zag bolt, the bolts are not in a particular line it is distributed in a
zig-zag manner so we need to know how to calculate the net area and we have to see how it is
going to fail. t So here we can see that suppose the bolt connections is like this then it may
fail in this way say I can give a name that 1-2-3-4.So failure may occur along 1-2-3-4, again
failure may occur in this direction also if this is 5, this is 6 means 1-2-5-6. So it may fail in
the direction 1-2-5-6 also it may fail along 1-2-5-3-4. So three alternatives are there through
which the failure may occur. So what we need to know we need to find out what is the net
area along this three alternatives route and the least one will be the most critical one, so the
failure will happen first on that line so that is what we have to calculate.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 20:31)

Now if the gauge distance and staggered pitch distance are different then there is a
modification in the formula,

[ (
A net = b −nd + +
4 g1 4 g 2 )]
p 2s 1 p2s 2
t

So for example, this case where two plates are connected with a lag joint. P is the tensile
force acting and there is a bolt here, this is another bolt, this is another bolt, that means it may
fail along this 1-2-3, this is one case. There are other three failure cases, these are 1-2-4-5-6 /
1-2-5-6/1-2-4-7.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:18)

So now, I will show the same thing in this picture to give the summary of the things whatever
I have discussed. We can say that the net area Anet , we can calculate as (b - ndh )×t where, t is
the thickness of the plate, dh is the gross diameter of the plate, b is the width of the plate, and
n is the number of bolts in one line. Therefore, this is what number of bolts in one line means
in this line how many bolts are there. Therefore, in this case it will be 3.

So, for chain bolting I can easily find out the net area, but the problem start when we have to
calculate the net area for zig-zag bolting.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:08)

So in case of zig-zag bolting we have discussed two things one is when staggered pitch
distance () are same and gauge distance (g) are equal. In addition, I told that failure may
occur along 1-2-3-4 or 1-2-5-6 or 1-2-5-3-4. Therefore, if I consider failure along 1-2-5-3-4
then n will be 3, because number of bolt holes in critical section is 3 so n will be 3. So in this
way we can calculate.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:34)

And, the formula we know that

[ (
A net = b −nd + +
4 g1 4 g 2 )]
p 2s 1 p2s 2
t

So, the parameter name I have told that the variables like n is equal to number of bolt holes in
the critical section means which sections I am passing according to that I can find out number
of bolt holes. And ps is the staggered pitch length between line of bolt holes as shown in the
figure and g is the gauge length between the bolt holes and as shown in the figure earlier. And
dh is the diameter of bolt hole and b and t is the width and thickness of the plate respectively
therefore the net area can be calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:28)

Now if the staggered pitch is different for different cases say for example this case. So in this
case this we see here s1 and s2 are different that means these bolts are not in the same line
means, in 1-2-3 it is not situated.

So in this case we have to calculate net area considering individual staggered distance. So if I
consider the net area along 1-2- 4-5-6, so there is two inclined line so I have to make this
ps2^2/4g2 and ps1^2/4g1 and net area I can find out in this way. Failure may occur in different
way and so for calculation of net area I have to find out the critical path or the net area for 1-
2-3, 1-2-4-5-6, 1-2-5-6 and 1-2-4-7. So, I will calculate the net area for these four cases and
the minimum one will be the critical one through which the failure will occur, right. So by
seeing we cannot tell that in which line it is going to fail, so I have to calculate and then I
have to find out which one will be the most critical one.

So with this I would like to conclude todays lecture as time is not permitting. So next day I
will go through one example and we will show how the net area is going to be calculated
thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 20
Module 4
Calculation of Net Area in Tension Member
Hello so today we will go through some worked out example. In last lecture, we have
discussed how to calculate the net area of a member along critical section. So the use of the
formula, we will try today to find out the net area of the section for a given section

(Refer Slide Time: 0:45)

Example: Calculate the net area of an angle ISA 75×75×6 which is connected to the gusset
plate through single leg as shown in following figure. Bolts used are M20 grade 4.6.

Solution:

(a) For bolt connection

Diameter of bolt hole = 20+ 2 = 22 mm

2
Net Area of connected leg, A = (75-6/2-22) × 6 = 300 mm
nc

2
Gross area of outstanding leg, A = (75-6/2) × 6 = 432 mm
go
 2
Net area, A = A + A = 300 + 432 = 732 mm
n nc go

(Refer Slide Time: 1:18)

(b) For weld connection

2
Net Area of connected leg, A = (75-6/2) × 6 = 432 mm
nc

2
Gross area of outstanding leg, A = (75-6/2) × 6 = 432 mm
go

2
Net area, A = A + A = 432 + 432 = 864 mm
n nc go

(Refer Slide Time: 9:05)

Example: A flat size of 200 × 8 mm of grade Fe 410 is used as tension member in a roof
truss. It is connected to a 12 mm gusset plate by M16 bolt of grade 4.6 using two alternate
methods of bolting as shown in following figures. Calculate the net area of the members.

Solution:

Diameter of bolt hole = 16 + 2 = 18 mm

(a) Chain bolting

The critical sectional area of the plate will be along 1-2-3-4.

So the net area, An = (200 – 2 × 18) × 8 = 1312 mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 10:42)

(b) Zig-zag bolting

In this case, the critical section may fail along 1-2-3, 4-5-2-3, 4-5-2-6-7 or 4-5-6-7. Hence,
the net area for all possible sections needs to be calculated and the minimum value will be
considered as net area.

A n=( b−n d h ) t 2
The net area along 1-2-3, = (200 – 18) × 8 = 1456 mm
(Refer Slide Time: 14:44)

Net area along 4-5-2-3,

[ p2si
] [ ]
2
75
A n= b−n d h+ ∑ × t= 200−2× 18+ ×8
4 gi 4 ×50

2
=1537 mm

Net area along 4-5-2-6-7,

[ ]
2
75
A n= 200−3 ×18+ 2× ×8 = 1618 mm2
4 ×50

It may be noted that the section along 4-5-6-7 will not be critical as the strength of the bolt 1
will be added to this section.

Thus the net sectional area = min of (1456 mm2, 1537 mm2 and 1618 mm2) = 1456 mm2

Therefore, the most critical sectional area will be along 1-2-3.

So when we are we will be going for design of some connection we will try to prefer zig-zag
bolting because it will be more efficient then the chain bolting. Now in next class we will
discuss about the strength calculation of the tension member. Now tension member may fail
due to yielding of the gross area so because of yielding what will be the design strength that
we will be calculating.

Next we will calculate the rupture of the critical section that means along critical section how
it is going to fail that we will try to calculate and there we will see that shear leg effect will
come into picture and I told that shear leg happens when the hole sections are not connected
to the member. So, if part of the member is connected then the direct axial tension will first
come to that portion and the shear leg effect will be there in the outstanding leg, which are
not connected.

So, because of shear leg effect the strength is going to be reduced little bit. So we have to
calculate that shear leg effect and then we have to find out the design strength due to rupture
and another scope of failure will be the block shear failure as a hole it may fail due to shear
which is called block shear failure.

So for that also, we have to calculate how the block shear failure is going to happen and what
will be the design strength and then out of this minimum of these three strength will be the
design strength of the member.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 21
Module 5
Design Strength of Tension Member

Hello today I am going to discuss about the codal provisions for calculation of design
strength of members under axial tension. Therefore, as I told in last class that design strength
will be calculated based on three criteria; one is the due to gross yielding of the section, due
to rapture and due to block shear. And the minimum of these three will be the design strength
of the tension member.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:05)

So coming to the codal provisions, we will get the design strength calculation of tension
member in clause 6 of IS: 800-2007. So details you can find out from clause 6 that the design
tension T should satisfy the requirement of this Td . Where Td is the design strength of the
member under axial tension and Td will be the least of these three, one is the yielding of gross
section (Tdg), then rapture of critical section (Tdn) and then block shear failure (Tdb).

So on the basis of these three, the Td will be decided. So, Td will be the least of these three
and that Td has to be greater than the factor tensile force coming into the member. So coming
to clause 6.2, we will see that design strength due to gross yielding Tdg can be calculated as,

Tdg = Agfy /m0

Where,

fy is the yield stress of material in MPa,

Ag is the gross area of cross-section

 m0 is the partial safety factor of failure in tension by yielding (Table 5, IS 800: 2007).

(Refer Slide Time: 3:26)

Similarly we can find out design strength due to rapture of critical section. So this can be
found in clause 6.3 and in clause 6.3.1, you will get design strength in tension of a plate,

Tdn = 0.9Anfu /m1

Where,

fu is the ultimate stress of material in MPa,

An is the net effective area of cross-section

m1 is the partial safety factor of failure in tension at ultimate stress (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)

So, for plate in earlier lectures we have seen, how to calculate the net area of the plate means
about the critical section. So this net area will be required to find out the rupture strength of
the section.
The design strength of threaded rods in tension,( Tdn ) governed by rupture is given by

Tdn = 0.9Anfu /m1

Where,

An is the net root area at the threaded section.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:58)

Similarly for single angle section, now in case of single angle as I told that if it is connected
with some gusset plate, or some other plates, or some other members then shear lag effect
will be going to be occur. So, we have to calculate the T dn value taking care of the shear lag
effect.

Tdn = 0.9Ancfu /m1 + Agofy /m0

Where,

= 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc)  fum0 /fym1

 0.7

Here, w = outstanding leg width,

bs = shear lag width, as shown in figure below.

LC = length of the end connection, that is the distance between the outermost bolts in the end
joint measured along the load direction or length of the weld along the load direction.

Here,  is a factor which can be calculated from this formula that is

= 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy /fu) (bs /Lc) and this should be less than or equal to fum0 /fym1 and
should be greater than or equal to 0.7.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:09)

And at the beginning we may not know all the details, so for preliminary sizing we can
calculate Tdn from this formula

Tdn =  Anfu /m1

Here,  = 0.6 for one or two bolts, 0.7 for three bolts and 0.8 for four or more bolts along the
length in the end connection or equivalent weld length.

An = net area of the total cross-section;

Anc = net area of the connected leg;

Ago = gross area of the outstanding leg; and

t = thickness of the leg.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

For other sections like double angles, channels, I-sections and other rolled steel sections
connected by one or more elements to end gusset is also governed by shear lag effect. The
design tensile strength of such sections as governed by tearing of net section may also be
calculated using equation in clause 6.3.3, where  is the is calculated based on the shear lag
distance bs , and bs is taken from the furthest edge of the outstanding leg to the nearest bolt or
weld line in the connected leg of the cross section. So, for rapture strength calculation other
than the single angle section we can use this clause that is clause 6.3.3.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:35)

Then the design strength due to block shear can be calculated from clause 6.4 of the IS code,
it is given in clause 6.4.

Bolted Connections

The block shear strength, Tdb of connection shall be taken as the smaller of,

Tdb = Avgfy /3m0 + 0.9Atnfu/m1 (For tension fracture and shear yield)

or

Tdb = 0.9Avnfu /3m1 + Atgfy /m0 (For tension yield and shear fracture)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:00)

where

Avg and Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along bolt line parallel to external force,
respectively (1-2 & 3-4 as shown in Figure above).

Atg and Atn= minimum gross and net area in tension from the bolt hole to the toe of the angle,
end bolt line, perpendicular to the line of force, respectively (2-3 as shown in Figure above),
and fu and fy = ultimate and yield stress of the material, respectively.
Now for weld connections Tdb can be checked for welded connections by taking appropriate
section in the member around the end weld and this which can shear off as a block.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:26)

Now another thing we have to check that is slenderness ratio, theoretically there should not
be any upper limit of the slenderness ratio because it is under tension if it is compression then
there is a chance of buckling so for that we have to consider the limiting value of slenderness
ratio. But in this case, theoretically we should not, but we consider certain slenderness ratio
from serviceability point of view, because limitation is necessary to prevent undesirable
vibration and lateral movement.

So permissible values of slenderness ratio is given in clause 3.8, table 3 in the IS code. So we
are checking slenderness ratio in case of tension member because to make sure that vibration
is not going to be more from limit state of serviceability point of view also sometimes the
member get reverse load due to wind and earthquake . So in that case slenderness ratio will
be a big factor.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:44)

So the slenderness value slenderness ratio value are given in table 3 of IS: 800-2007, if we
see when the tension member has reversal of direct stress due to loads other than wind and
seismic it is 180.

Whereas when a member subjected to compressive forces resulting only from a combination
of wind and earthquake actions, provided the deformation of such a member does not
adversely affect the stresses in any part of the structure. In that case, the permissible value of
slenderness ratio is 250.

And, if a member normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or a bracing member which is not
considered effective when subjected to reversal of stress resulting from the action of wind or
earthquake we can consider as 350.

And, when members are always in tension other than pre-tensioned members we can consider
as 400. So this is how the IS code has provided certain limit on maximum effective
slenderness ratio, so that has to be kept in mind.

So that means when we are going to design a tension member not only we have to find out
the strength but also we have to find out whether it is under the permissible limit of
slenderness ratio or not, so both the things we have to see.

So this is how one can calculate the design capacity of a particular section, in tension and
check whether that section is violating the slenderness ratio or not.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 22
Module 5
Strength Calculation of Tension Member

Hello so in today’s lecture we will discuss how to calculate the design strength of a member.
So I will go through one work out example through which we will try to see how to find out
the design strength due to gross yielding of the section, due to rupture of the critical section
and due to block shear. So these three aspects will be seen in the workout example.

And in the workout example we will go through one angle section in which one leg is
connected to the gusset plate that means the shear leg effect will come into picture.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:26)

Example:

Two ISA 75×50×8 are connected to a gusset plate on its same side of thickness 10mm by four
M18 grade 4.6 bolts. Find the design tensile strength of the angle if (1) gusset is connected to
the longer leg (2) gusset is connected to the shorter leg.

Solution:
(1) Gusset connected to the longer leg
2 ISA 75 × 50 × 8 connected back to back with its longer length.
Thus, the gross area will be Ag = 2 × 938 = 1876 mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 2:48)

Strength due to yielding of gross section:

f y × Ag 250 × 1876
T dg= = = 426.36 × 103 N = 426.36 kN
γ m0 1.1

Dia. of bolt = 18 mm

Dia. of hole = 18+2 = 20

Let us assume pitch distance = 50 mm, edge distance = 30 mm

Then we will go to calculation of the strength due to rupture of the critical section. So as
diameter is 18, so hole diameter will be d h diameter of hole become 18 + 2 that is 20 mm and
we can assume pitch distance as say 2.5d that is 50 mm and edge distance e as 1.5d that is 30
mm, so we can use this, ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:30)

Strength governed by rupture of net section:

Anc = (75 - 8/2 - 20) × 8 = 408 mm2

Ago = (50 - 8/2) × 8 = 368 mm2

An = 408 + 368 = 776 mm2

bs w f y 50+ 40−8 50 250

β=1.4−0.076 × × ¿ 1.4−0.076 × × ×
Lc t f u 3 ×50 8 410

= 1.242
(Refer Slide Time: 8:30)

f u γm 0
Again, β≤ and ≥ 0.7
f y γm1

f u γ m 0 410 ×1.1
= =1.443
f y γ m 1 250 ×1.25

Thus, satisfying above criteria, β=1.242

0.9 f u A nc βf y A go 0.9 × 410 × 408 1. 242×250 × 368

T dn= + ¿ + = 224.31 × 103 N =
γ m1 γ m0 1.25 1.1
224.31 kN

So, the strength due to rupture for two angles = 2 × 224.31 = 448.62 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 10:38)

α × An × f u 0.8 ×776 × 410

Alternatively, T dn=2× =2 × = 407kN
γ m1 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 11:54)

Strength governed by block shear:

Avg = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30) = 1440 mm2

Avn = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30 – 3.5 × 20)= 880 mm2`

Atg = 8 × 35= 280 mm2

[as gauge g = 40 for 75 mm leg; p = 75 – 40 = 35]

Atn = 8 × (35 – 0.5 × 20) = 200 mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 13:50)

0.9 A vn f u f y A tg 0.9× 410 ×880 250× 2 80

T db1= + = + = 213.62 × 103 N = 213.62 kN
√ 3 γm 1 γm 0 √ 3 ×1.25 1.1

Thus, Tdb1 for both the angle will be:

2 × 213.62 kN = 427.24 kN.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:12)
 A vg f y 0.9 f u Atn 1440 × 250 0.9 × 410× 200
T db2= + = +
√ 3 γ m0 γ m1 √3 ×1.1 1.25

= 248 × 103 N = 248 kN

So, Tdb2 for both the angle will be: 2 × 248 kN = 496 kN.
(Refer Slide Time: 16:32)

Thus, the block shear, Tdb = 427.24 kN

Design tensile strength of angle will be least of Tdg , Tdn and Tdb (426.36 kN, 448.62 kN and
427.24 kN) = 426.36 kN.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:06)
Here we have calculated the strength of the connection where the longer leg is connected.
Now we will see what will be the design strength when the shorter leg is connected to gusset,
this is one thing another thing we will see which one is efficient.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:49)

(2) Gusset connected to the shorter leg

Strength due to yielding of gross section:

f y × Ag 250 × 1876
T dg= = = 426.36 × 103 N = 426.36 kN
γ m0 1.1
Dia. of bolt = 18 mm

Dia. of hole = 18+2 = 20

Let us assume pitch distance = 50 mm , end distance = 30 mm.

Assuming gauge length for 50 mm leg = 25 mm

Strength governed by rupture of net section:

Anc = (50 - 8/2 - 20) × 8 = 208 mm2

Ago = (75 - 8/2) × 8 = 568mm2

An = 208 + 568 = 776 mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 21:58)

bs w f y 75+25−8 75 250
β=1.4−0.076 × × ¿ 1.4−0.076 × × × = 1.133
Lc t f u 3× 50 8 410

f u γm 0
Again, β≤ and ≥ 0.7
f y γm1

f u γ m 0 410 ×1.1
= =1.443
f y γ m 1 250 ×1.25

Thus, satisfying above criteria, β=1.133

0.9 f u A nc βf y A go 0.9 × 410 ×208 1 .133 ×250 ×568

T dn= + ¿ + = 207.661 × 103 N =
γ m1 γ m0 1.25 1.1
207.66 kN

So, the strength due to rupture for two angles = 2 × 207.66 = 415.32 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 24:03)

α × An × f u 0.8 ×776 × 410

Alternatively, T dn=2× =2 × = 407kN
γ m1 1.25

Strength governed by block shear:

Avg = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30) = 1440 mm2

Avn = 8 × (3 × 50 + 30 – 3.5 × 20) = 880 mm2`

Atg = 8 × 25 = 200 mm2 [as gauge g = 25 for 50 mm leg; p = 50 – 25 = 25]

Atn = 8 × (25 – 0.5 × 20) = 120 mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

 0.9 A vn f u f y A tg 0.9× 410 ×880 250× 200
T db1= + = + = 195.43 × 103 N = 195.43 kN
√ 3 γm 1 γm 0 √ 3 ×1.25 1.1

Thus, Tdb1 for both the angle will be: 2 × 195.43 kN = 390.86 kN.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:39)

A vg f y 0.9 f u Atn 1440 × 250 0.9 × 410× 120

T db2= + = + = 224.37 × 103 N = 224.37 kN
√ 3 γ m0 γ m1 √3 ×1.1 1.25

So, Tdb2 for both the angle will be: 2 × 224.37 kN = 448.74 kN.

Thus, the block shear, Tdb = 390.86 kN

Design tensile strength of angle will be least of Tdg , Tdn and Tdb (426.36 kN, 415.32 kN and
390.86 kN) = 390.86 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 30:46)

Now if we compare that in case of first one the value is coming 426.36 kilonewton and in
case of second one value is coming 390.86 kilonewton, right. And what we see here that if
longer length is connected then the strength is more strength of the joint is more. So
whenever we are using unequal section we should try to join the longer length with the gusset
plate to get the strength more with same material, right. So, this is how we can calculate the
design strength of a member which is subjected to axial tension and the three criteria we will
follow and the least of these three will be the design strength of the member, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 23
Module 5
Strength of Tension Members and Weld Connection

Hello today we are going to start the design calculation of tension member where it is
connected with welded joint. So, in last classes we have gone through one workout example
where the strength of the tension member has been calculated using bolt connections. Now
same thing we will be doing for weld connections. In case of weld connection how the net
effective area is going to change with respect to bolt connections, how the shear lag distance
is going to change those things we will come across and we will also see that block shear how
to calculate, how to calculate that Atn, Atg, Avn, Avg.

So those parameters will be calculated in todays lecture and we will see how what is the
difference between bolt connection and weld connection with respect to strength calculation
of tension member.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:35)

Example:

An ISA 90×60×6 angle of Fe 410 grade steel is connected to a 10 mm thick gusset plate by
weld as shown in the figure below. Calculate the design tensile strength of the angle if gusset
is connected to the (a) longer leg (b) shorter leg.
Solution:
(a) Gusset is connected to longer leg
Gross area, Ag for ISA 90 × 60 × 6 = 865 mm2. [From IS hand book: SP: 6(1)-1964]
The net area of connected leg, Anc = (90 - 6/2) × 6 = 522 mm2
Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (60 - 6/2) × 6 = 342 mm2
(i) Tensile strength governed by yielding of gross section: [Clause 6.2]
f y × Ag 250 × 86 5 −3
T dg= = ×10 = 196.6 kN
γ m0 1.1

(Refer Slide Time: 4:29)

(ii) Tensile strength governed by rupture of net section:

Therefore, the length of outstanding leg will be, w = 60 mm.
So, the shear lag width, bs = 60 mm.
The average length of weld along the direction of load
= Lc = (75+75) /2= 75 mm. Thus,
bs w f y
β=1.4−0.076 × ×
Lc t f u

60 60 250
= 1.4 – 0.076× × × = 1.029
75 6 410
f u γm 0
Again, β≤ and ≥ 0.7
f y γm1
 f u γ m 0 410 ×1.1
= =1.443
f y γ m 1 250 ×1.25

Thus, satisfying above criteria, β=1.029

0.9 f u A nc βf y A go
T dn= +
γ m1 γ m0

0.9 × 410 ×522 1. 029 ×250 ×342

So, T dn= + = 234× 103 N = 234 kN
1.25 1.1

(Refer Slide Time: 8:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:00)

 α × An × f u
Alternatively, T dn=
γ m1

Here, An =Anc +Ago = 522+342=864 mm2

0.8× 864 × 410

Thus, T dn = = 226.71 × 103 N = 226.7 kN
1.25

(iii) Tensile strength governed by block shear:

Assuming average length of weld on each side as 75 mm
Avg = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2 [As gusset plate thickness = 10 mm]
Avn = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2
Atg = 90 × 10 = 900 mm2
Atn = 90 × 10 = 900 mm2
A vg f y 0.9 f u Atn 1500 × 250 0.9 × 410× 90 0
T db1= + = +
√3 γ m0 γm 1 √3 ×1.1 1.25

= 462.5 kN
0.9 A vn f u f y A tg 0.9× 1500× 410 250× 90 0
T db2= + = +
√ 3 γm 1 γm 0 √ 3× 1.25 1.1

= 460.2 kN
So, Tdb = 460.2 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

Thus, the design tensile strength of the angle = least of (i), (ii) and (iii) = 196.6 kN.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:47)

(b) Gusset connected to shorter leg

The net area of connected leg, Anc = (60 - 6/2) × 6 = 342 mm2

Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (90 - 6/2) × 6 = 522 mm2

Net cross sectional area, An = 522 + 342 = 864 mm2

f y × Ag
i) Tensile strength governed by yielding of gross section: T dg= =
γ m0

250 × 86 5
×10−3 = 196.6 kN
1.1

(Refer Slide Time: 22:54)

(ii) Tensile strength governed by rupture of net section:

Here, the section is connected through its shorter leg.

Therefore, the length of outstanding leg will be, w = 90 mm.

So, the shear lag width, bs = 90 mm.

The average length of weld along the direction of load

= Lc = (75+75) /2= 75 mm. Thus,
bs w f y
β=1.4−0.076 × ×
Lc t f u
 90 90 250
= 1.4 – 0.076× × × = 0.566
75 6 410
f u γm 0
Again, β≤ and ≥ 0.7
f y γm1

f u γ m 0 410 ×1.1
= =1.443
f y γ m 1 250 ×1.25

Thus, satisfying above criteria, β=0.7

0.9 f u A nc βf y A go
T dn= +
γ m1 γ m0

0.9 × 410 ×342 0.7 × 250× 522

So, T dn= + = 184 kN
1.25 1.1

(Refer Slide Time: 26:23)

α × An × f u 0.8× 864 × 410

Alternatively, T dn= = = 226.7 kN
γ m1 1.25

(iii) Tensile strength governed by block shear:

 Avg = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2

Avn = 2 × 75 × 10 = 1500 mm2

Atg = 60 × 10 = 600 mm2

Atn = 60 × 10 = 600 mm2

A vg f y 0.9 f u Atn 1500 × 250 0.9 × 410× 6 0 0

T db1= + = +
√3 γ m0 γm 1 √3 ×1.1 1.25

= 373.9 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 29:52)

0.9 A vn f u f y A tg 0.9× 1500× 410 250× 60 0

T db2= + = +
√ 3 γm 1 γm 0 √ 3× 1.25 1.1

= 392 kN

So, Tdb = 373.9 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 31:59)

Thus, the design tensile strength of the angle = least of (i), (ii) and (iii) = least of (196.36, 184
and 373.9 ) = 184 kN.

But in this case we could see that the critical strength are coming due to rapture of the net
section that is 184 kilonewton, right. Moreover, we could see that this critical strength is less
in this case, means, when shorter length is connected with the gusset plate with respect to the
earlier one where longer leg is was connected to the gusset plate.

So in this example means through this workout example we could see that efficiency of the
same angle can be increased if the connection is done properly connection can be done
properly in a sense that when the longer leg of the angle section is connected with the gusset
plate then we could increase the efficiency of the section. Also from earlier lecture if we
compare with the earlier calculation then we can find that weld connections is taking little
higher load then the bolt connection.

So from these two examples means examples from the strength calculation of bolt connection
and weld connection for the connection with longer leg, connection with shorter leg, four
permutation combination we could see the best option is connection should be done with
longer leg and if possible with the weld connection. In that case maximum efficiency can be
obtained.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 24
Module 5
Steps for Design of Tension Members

Now I am going to discuss about certain steps which we should follow in case of design of
tension member. So in last few lectures we have seen that how to calculate the design
strength of the tension member and we have seen that tension member may fail due to its
gross yielding, it may fail due to rupture of the net section, also it may fail due to block shear.
So these three aspects we have to see as well as one another thing we have to that is the
slenderness ratio means radius of gyration and allowable slenderness ratio.

The member which we are going to consider whether it is exceeding its limiting value or not
that is necessary from serviceability criteria point of view. Therefore these four aspects we
have to keep in mind while designing the things. So if we can develop methodology
methodology means the steps that what are the steps we will follow whether we first calculate
the slenderness ratio and we will try to find out the section or we will calculate the design
strength due to block shear, then we will find out the section that we have to decide, right.

So in today’s lecture I will give an overview of the steps to be followed and then I will come
to the some flow chart that how if I write a program then how flow chart can be developed
and how algorithm we can develop at our own, so that we can make a program and we can
make it useful we can make it useful in the sense that we have seen that design calculation
Tds we have to calculate lot of things, lot of complicated expressions are there.

So when we are going to design means it is a repetitive process repetitive process means we
can start with certain angle section or certain other section but that may fail or may be
overdesigned. So we may have to reiterate again, right. So doing all the things for every
member it is Tds job. So if we can develop a program at our own in an customized manner
then it will be useful and easier and helpful for us for designing a tension member in an
economic way and in a short time, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:20)

So if we come to the steps we will see that first step is we have to find out the gross area
because the design because the load acting on the member is given that is Tu the ultimate
load means the factor load that is given if the factor load is given then how do I decide the
member, right. For a particular member if some factor load is given then how to start that can
be started with the use of gross yielding of the section from that we can find out a
approximate area because in our experience we have seen you can see in the previous
example also we have seen that the least strength comes generally due to yielding.

So first we will try with yielding, we will try to find out the gross area then we will choose a
section and then we will go for other sent criteria we will see whether it is fulfilling the
criteria of not if it is not fulfilling then we have to go for higher section otherwise we can
make use of it, right.

So first we will find out the gross area to carry given factor load Tu considering the strength
in yielding from the following expression that is we know Tu is the means Tdg is the Agfy by
gamma m0. So from that equation I can write that Ag is equal to Tu into gamma m0 by fy,
right here Tu is the factor load that load coming in the member with certain factor.

Then from this Ag the gross area we can find out the suitable shape of section means first we
have to design whether we are going for angle section, or channel section, or some other
section, right. So depending on the shape of section we will go to the IS handbook and then
we will find out what is the gross area available for a particular section, right.
So first we will find out the shape of the section whether it is I section, or channel section, or
angle section then we will find out what should be the section size, right. So that section size
can be found from this gross area if we know the gross area then we will go to corresponding
area of that angle section or other section and then we will choose a section whose gross area
is slightly more than the gross area obtained in step 1, right.

So member what we will be choosing its gross area will be more than the gross area obtained
in step 1, because it has to satisfy this criteria, right and I mentioned already that usually if
minimum edge and pitch distance is maintained, strength in yielding gives least value, right.
So design will be safe if gross area provided is greater than the gross area required so here
gross area required is this and we will provide slightly higher gross area and accordingly we
will choose a particular section depending on the requirement, right.

Then what we will do one section is chosen section is chosen means two things we are
choosing one is shape and its size, shape means whether it is angle section or channel section,
or some built up section this is one thing and then size what should be the size, size of the
section should be in such a way its area should be more than this area required area, required
gross area, right.

And then we can find out the number of bolts or the welding length required and we can
arrange the bolts.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:00)

So what we will do next that we can find out a particular bolt means we can choose a
diameter of bolt and then we can find out the pitch, edge distance, right and then we can find
out what is the shear strength of this bolt Vdsb shear strength of the bolt, then bearing
strength of the bolt Vdpb, right.

So from this we can find out the bolt strength and then we can go to find the number of bolt
required, right and this number of bolt we can find out from the total load coming that Tu by
the shear strength, ok. So shear strength oh sorry strength of the bolt so say Vb, so if Vb is the
strength of the bolt and Tu is the factor load then I can find out the number of bolt if we are
going to use bolt connection.

And if we are going to use weld connection then also we have to find out the weld length
assuming size of the weld, we can assume certain size of the weld depending on the plate
thickness or angle thickness we can assume certain size of the weld and according to the size
of the weld we can find out the strength depending on the material properties of the weld we
are using. And then we can find out the length required to withstand that much tensile load
that is Tu, ok.

So in second step what we can do sorry in third step what we can do we can find out the
number of bolts and its positions that means how we are going to make it whether it is chain
bolting or zig-zag bolting, so those things we will see and what will be its pitch distance,
what will be edge distance, so all these things we will fix or if we go for weld connection
what will be the weld length distribution in top and bottom and what will be the size of weld,
what will be the length of weld so everything will be decided, right.

So in step three we have to do that because if we do not do that we will not be able to
calculate Anc value and Ago value, net area of the connected leg and gross area of the
outstanding length also we cannot find out the shear lag width unless we know shear lag
width we cannot find out the factor beta then we cannot find out the strength due to rapture
that is Tdn, also later we cannot find out the block shear strength.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:02)

So to find those things we have to make detail of the connections, right. So once we do that in
step 3 we can go further to step 4 that is in step 4 we can find out the yielding of the gross
section that means Tdg, then rapture at critical section we can calculate this also, then
strength in block shear, right. So these three we will consider and we have to see the Tu value
the load acting on the member the tensile load that should be less than these three, this Tdg,
Tdn, and Tdb, ok this has to be less.

That means so it has to be less if it is not less then what we will do we have to increase the
size of the section, right. So if any of the above strength become less than the factored tensile
force so so if if any of the strength become less than the factored shear force Tu then we have
to increase the size of the section, right if it is more than the Tu then find that means if design
strength is more than the applied load then it is fine otherwise we have to increase the size of
the section and we have to repeat 3 step 3 we have to repeat, that means step 3 we will do
again and again we will go for step 4, right.

So what we could see here that we have to find out the yielding of gross section, rapture of
critical section and strength in block shear and these three strength should be greater than the
Tu otherwise we have to increase the section size and we have to repeat the steps so that this
this criteria is fulfilled.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:12)

Next what we can do in step 6, that if we see the if the design strength that means minimum
of these three in step 4, is too high compare to factored load then also we can decrease the
section size suitably and repeat from step 3. That means if we see the design strength is quite
higher than the applied load applied load means the Tu the axial tension if the design strength
is quite high design strength means least of Tdg, Tdn and Tdb that is the design strength, if
design strength is quite high then the Tu value that applied load then it will be a conservative
design that means it will be uneconomic whatever section is required we have consider bigger
section.

So what we can do we have to means we can go with this one or if we make if we want to
make economic design then we have to reduce section size and again we have to follow from
step 3, right.

And once it is over we can check the slenderness ratio of the member and the limiting value
is given in table 3 of IS: 800-2007. Now if the value of slenderness ratio exceeds the value of
given in the code, then this is not ok that means what we have to do then we have to increase
the size of the section and redesign redesign means again we have to go to step 3 and we have
to check all the things, right. So these are the steps which we have to follow for designing a
tension member.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:18)

Next I will show uhh the flow chart diagram of the of the developed algorithm and I will
show some screenshot of the developed code and one program I will run and I will show how
the things are means outputs are coming and how we can make it useful, right. So it has been
developed in MATLAB program and also it is graphical user interface based program, so as it
is GUI based so it will be user friendly means user can easily make useful of this program
and they can find out the intended section due to a particular load.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:10)

So in flow chart if we see the flow of the program will be like this this is basically based on
the steps whatever I have discussed in earlier slides that is first what we will do is the
calculation of cross section require that is from the gross yielding we can find out what is the
gross area require that is Ag once that is find out then what we can do we can decide means
we can we have to decide whether we are going for bolt connection or weld connection.

So from gross area we can find out the smallest angle with cross section area greater than the
cross section area calculated or taken before and thickness of length of connected leg larger
than taken before, ok.

So as per the requirement with there we are going for bolt connections or for weld connection
the program will flow accordingly if we go for (weld) bolt connection then we have to see
whether length connected leg is bigger enough to fit the bolt if not then we have to go and we
have to again increase the section size otherwise we can go for calculation of number of bolt,
ok.

So after that we will go for calculation of design strength of angle due to net section rapture.
So (net) rapture of net section we can calculate the design strength in other way also we can
start with welding. So from that we can find out the minimum weld length require and weld
distribution also we have to do then we will find out the rapture strength. That means once
the section is selected either we will go for weld connections or we will go for bolt
connections accordingly number of bolts and its distribution can be decided and then rapture
strength can be calculated or if we use weld connection then also we can distribute the
requirement of weld length properly and then we can find out rapture strength.

So as per the necessity we will follow the path, that means when we will right the program
we will right in such a way that as per the choice of the user it will flow the path.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:54)

Next is we will calculate that is angle safe in next section of rapture that means the rapture
strength we calculated in earlier step. Now if rapture strength is less than the applied force
applied tensile force then we have to go to the earlier step to increase the section size, right. If
it is not less than we will go for either welding or bolting as we have decided, that means if it
is bolt then what we will do that we will find out the gauge distance and other things to find
out the block shear so we will calculate the block shear.

And then if block shear due to block shear it is going to fail then what we can do we can
change the gauge distance and we can redesign it, right means without changing the size of
the section otherwise if it is not going to fail then we will go next step. Similarly here also in
case of welding we check for block shear then if angle is safe then fine if not then either we
will increase the length of the weld and then we will recheck or we will go for higher section
whatever we feel we can do and if it is safe then we will go to next step next step means for
bolt case also we will go to next step, for weld also we can go to next step.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:46)

So in next step so what we have seen that the strength due to block shear, strength due to
rapture is more than the the applied load, if it is so then it has come to this step, if it is no then
it has gone to the earlier step to increase the section size, so once it is over the strength
calculation is over we will go for check for slenderness ratio. So the slenderness ratio limit
we know from the codal provisions and if the slenderness ratio is less than the allowable then
it is fine if it is no then we have to go for increase of the section size, so that the slenderness
ratio is becoming more, right.

And if slenderness ratio is less than allowable then we can say that angle is ok. So in this way
one can flow its program so that he can write the program and find out the intended
calculations.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:06)

Now I will show some snapshot of the developed program as I told that develop program was
done using MATLAB and in MATLAB you have options so this programs were developed by
some of my students during summer summer intensive course. So in fact you can develop in
other way means according to your requirement in the industry or in your case, so you can
decide what should be the GUI and what are the options you want, right. Here we have given
certain options like if you see option is that one is single angle section with bolt connections
and single angle section with weld connections that means according to our option chosen we
can find out the design calculation, so one is the single angle section with bolt connections or
single angle section with weld connections.

Another option is two angle sections placed back to back on the same side of gusset plate,
right and two angle sections placed back to back on the opposite side of gusset plate. So these
are four options at that time we have considered you can choose any other type also like here
only we have considered the angle sections, you can consider channel sections and you can
find out its design strength also, you can consider any other sections also as you wish, just for
demonstration purpose we have used this and then once you choose a particular type then you
click on this give input values. So once if you click then you can go to next one, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:15)

So here another snapshots I have shown that is if you choose this one that is that is if you
choose two angle sections placed back to back, so it will be like this on the same side of
gusset plate. Again if the angle sections are chosen on the opposite side of gusset plate it will
be like this. So for different options different pictures have been given, so that the user can
understand properly.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:01)

Now when we go next we can see that different inputs are asked by the program, one is the
factor load in kilonewton, ok so you have to provide certain factor load, right. Then length of
the tension member that is effective length effective length also you have to consider and you
have to put the allowable slenderness ratio that is available in code. So allowable slenderness
ratio in particular case what is the allowable slenderness ratio that (())(25:37) also enter by
the user, right. So these three inputs you have to give, one is the factor load and then effective
length and also the allowable slenderness ratio, right.

So next the properties of steel we have to enter, properties of steel means what type of what
grade of steel we are going to use what grade of steel means you can use that ultimate tensile
stress that is fu, what is the value of fu in MPa and yield stress in MPa, right. So these two we
have to enter or what we can do if we check this box if we make a tick to this box then
automatically it will take the ultimate tensile strength value of Fe410 grade of steel. So one
automatic value is given otherwise if you want other type of properties you can enter this.

Then again partial safety factor partial safety factor can be chosen as per the IS code in table
5 whatever given if we choose this then partial safety factor can be obtained automatically
otherwise we can provide our own partial safety factor gamma m1 and gamma m0 is here, in
place of 1.25 and 1.1 we can provide other partial safety factor also, right. So to make it
generalize it has been made.

Next is the properties of bolt, if bolt connections are there then these these things will come,
if it is not bolt connection then this screen will not come, right. So properties of bolt either we
can use 4.6 grade bolt or 8.8 grade bolt these are means if you can choose this radio button
then automatically its properties will be taken, otherwise we have to provide the tensile
strength in MPa here that option is also available, right.

Then diameter of bolt you have to choose a particular diameter of bolt which you are going to
use and then you can provide the pitch distance and edge distance pitch, distance and edge
distance can be taken different way that is either you can provide the pitch distance means
user can make definition of means make some value of pitch distance and edge distance or it
can allow the program to calculate the values or means that is P is equal to 2.5d and 1.5d,
right as per IS code it can take.

Then partial safety factor gamma mb of the bolt, partial safety factor also as per table 5 you
can choose or you can customize means in place of gamma mb 1.25 you can provide some
other value also, ok that is also possible. Then as we have chosen angle section because this
program are developed only for angle section, so in case of angle section we have to define
whether it is equal angle or unequal angle. If equal angle fine otherwise if it is unequal angle
then you have two options that outstanding leg will be larger or outstanding leg will be
smaller because which leg is being connected depending on that its shear lag width will be
calculated and other things also will be calculated accordingly that is why you have to give
input to the program here that outstanding leg is larger or smaller and then you can go to
next, ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:46)

So after putting the value you can go to next so in next you can see that some values have
been put here like factor load 180 kilonewton we have given, effective length we have given
2500 in millimeter, allowable stress we have given. Then we have check the that we have
used the Fe410 grade steel, so it has come accordingly means ultimate tensile stress and yield
stress has come accordingly.

And partial safety factor also has been consider as per the IS code and 4.6 grade bolt has been
consider, so accordingly the ultimate tensile strength has been obtained. Then diameter of
bolt then as per IS code we have consider pitch value. So in this way we have consider the
input values, right like here we have told that connected leg larger, so connected leg is larger
we have considered, right. So once these inputs are given you can go back to means you can
go to next ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:01)

If you put next so all the data whatever we have put is giving here, ok all the data. Also so
data means that what are the load and length, so partial safety factor and stresses, bolt
properties, so everything is given and section is means which one is going to be connected
larger leg or smaller leg, ok. So these are already given.

Now another option we have to tell that design for economical section or check for a
particular section that means if you tell that check for a particular section then you have to
give a particular section size say 90 by 60 by 6, if you give that then it will means program
will tell you whether this section is safe or not, ok. And if you say design for economic
section then the program will start with the minimum one and it will go on increasing then it
will give you the just the section size which was which is going to pass, that means the
minimum section size which is safe that will be given, which is called economic section.

So the beauty of this program is you can find out a economic section and you do not have to
do manual calculations means n number of iterations you do not have to go program will do
automatically and accordingly you can find out the most suitable section in terms of
economy, ok. Or if a particular sections you have to provide you do not have other option
you have you should you have to know only only that particular section which is available
whether it is safe or not, that also can be done by giving this option, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:08)

So according to the requirement either you can choose a section, right then if you click on
this check then it will tell you that whether it is ok or not, means when you are giving a
particular section and if you are putting a check means you can click in check then it will give
you a dialogue of check that section is safe or section is unsafe, ok if it is unsafe again you
can click another section then you can try that whether it is you check if it is ok fine, if it is
not ok then you can go for again next one.

So by this way you can check for particular section and we can find out, right and you see
here in drop box different sections are given as available in the IS code as SP6 as available in
the SP6 we have made in database means all the properties of the say angle sections or
channel sections are fit in database so all the things will come if you select a particular
section is all properties are as per the codal provisions or properties are stored that will be
used in the program, right.

And if you say that economic section then it will find out the economic section particular
economic section then again you may act means you may want to find out what is the
intermediate calculation, right. So what are the calculations happen that can be found if you
use this the open output file if you open output file then the number of iterations the what are
the things have been done all outputs will be is written in the program, means in the output
file so all outputs will be displayed there, right in a file in a word file. So in word file you can
get the output and you can check manually or means one or two you can check to get
confidence that program is ok, right.
And also help file is there where if you click you will get the theory whatever has been used
how it has been used all the things it has been made and if you are not satisfied with this, then
you can go to again redesign means if you go to redesign then the earlier page will show and
you have to change the design parameter, if you change the design parameter, then again if
you redo then you can find out the new sections and you can make it.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:13)

So this is a sample input and output if you see this we have done in the program, these are the
(output) means input we have taken if you remember the screen we used this as input, right.
So after providing this input one can get the output.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:40)

Output means so step by step this intermediate calculations should be shown like required
area of the section as per the applied load that has been given, then it has started with this the
section 65 by 45 by 8, so whose sectional area is 817 millimeter square and if you
(remember) if you see we want this one and we have just given 817 that means just next to
this value, right. So what computer has that means the algorithm has done that it has searched
the value which are more than 792 section, ok. So according to that it could find that ISA 65
by 45 by 8 is coming immediately above this 792 millimeter square.

Then it has calculated the shearing strength and bearing strength of the bolt and then number
of bolt also it could find out, right and then the gross yielding of the section it could find if
you see 185 where 180 was the Tu value that applied load. Then check for net section in case
of net section it has calculated that has number of bolts are 4, so alpha value has been taken
as 0.8, so An value Tdn value has been calculated and it has seen that Tdn is 167 kilonewton
that means it is less than the value given Tu that is 180. So as it is less than 180, so section is
not safe that means it is going to next section, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:45)

So it will go to next section next higher section is sorry next higher section is this one the 70
by 45 by 8 and its gross sectional area is 858 that means just for next higher section it has
calculated all all the things and then it found that Tdn value is coming 178 kilonewton that
means still it is not ok that means we have to go again next higher section, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 39:28)

So for next higher section in test case 3 Tdn value is coming 192, which is more than 180 that
means this time it is ok. So every time it is iterating all those calculations, repeating all those
calculations and then finding the value, right. So in this case Tdn value it is getting 192, so
what it can go it can go for next calculation that is Tdb block shear strength, ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:00)

So block shear failure calculation should be done, so for block shear again Avg, Atg, Avn, Atn
all these things should be calculated and then it is calculating the Tdb2 value is coming just
180, right so this is ok just 180.329, ok. That means from here we can see that the just
minimum section which is required has been found, right and then slenderness ratio point of
view also it is ok that means this is (ok) this section is safe, right. So it is the optimum
sections or economic section and under present load and configuration this is the best suitable
sections we can tell, ok.

Now we can means we can imagine that if we have to do calculations of all manually it
would take lot of time, right to get the economic sections because we do not know which
section is going to be safe. So we have to try with different sections, so for so many
repetitions it takes lot of time so that can be saved if once we can develop a algorithm, if once
we can provide a program then means while writing a program it will take little time but once
it is written and tested then n number of times we can use it without wasting any time and
confidently we can make it useful, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 41:57)

Now again I will show for fillet connection very quickly I will go through this that if we use
fillet weld then in case of bolt these will come these properties will come, right like sorry in
case of bolt in case of fillet weld that whether it is shop welding or site welding accordingly it
can consider the partial safety factor then on two sides parallel to axis of the load or three
sides that you have to decide accordingly this can be calculated, weld thickness you have to
give and then again similar things that equal or unequal section and other properties of steel
which earlier has been given same thing we can give. So accordingly all entries can be made
through this GUI and we can make it useful.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:01)

And then if we see for the same value whatever we have consider in case of bolt connections
we have used same for weld connection then we can see that output is coming like this in test
case 1 we could see that the total weld length is coming 272 millimeter and Lw1 and Lw2 we
are getting this means weld length distribution that is necessary for calculating the weld
strength, shear leg distance and other things, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 43:43)

So once weld distribution is over we can find out Tdg value now in this case you can see Tdg
value is coming ok and then Tdn value is also coming ok unlike bolt connections in case of
bolt connection it was going to fail but in this case it is ok and Tdb value also we could see
that Tdb value are also quite high, right. So here you see that in one iteration we could find
out that the section 65 by 45 by 8 is ok under the present load and configuration, so this is
how one can decide.

So in short what we can see that this is a sample algorithm and program we have developed
and it was developed by my students during summer (intern) intensive and this program may
have certain mistakes means we have to rectify that also however I have checked with details
I could not find mistakes so however means when you will be writing program you do
program as you feel means comfortable that means either you can write program only for bolt
connection then separately only for weld connection, or a same program in which you will
make bolt connection, weld connection together.

Similarly you can make the connections where angle sections means two angles are placed
back to back of the gusset plate or at the same side of the gusset plate. So either different
programs you can make or in same program different functions you can made and you can
make a single program, right and then as per your requirement and choice you can make
useful means GUI means in the GUI you can provide certain inputs, ok and then from those
input you can provide output of intermediate calculations so that the user can get confidence
on the use of this and we can (remem) we can feel that whatever calculations are doing by the
program is ok because manually also it is coming same.
So that options you have to give so that the user can whenever he feels doubtful he can check
that means he can check a program and make sure that your program is correct, right. So once
you make the program then means for example for tension member then you do not have to
means waste more time for this once you have developed n number of times use this and
every time you can use you can get, you can safe your time and you can get an economic
sections, right.

So I will encourage participants or those who are listening this video to develop their own
program whatever language they find comfortable that whether C, Fortran, or MATLAB or
any other Python program whatever you feel you can develop and it may not be possible to
make GUI but you can make in other way GUI may not be possible you enter the program in
screen and find out the results so that way also one can make it, right and when you will be
writing program it will be more clear to you how the programs are running, how the logics
are going to be developed and how you are applying a logic one by one to satisfy the design
criteria of all the things that will be clear, right. So with this I would like to conclude todays
lecture, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 25
Module 5
Design Calculation of Tension Members

Hello today I am going to solve a design example manually. In last class we have discussed
about the steps followed for design of tension also computer algorithm has been shown

(Refer Slide Time: 1:33)

Example:
A tension member 3 m long carries a factored tensile load of 200 kN. Design a suitable
single angle unequal section when connection is made with (i) 20 mm diameter bolts of
grade 4.6 and (ii) fillet weld. Assume longer leg to be connected with plate.
Solution:
Step 1:

P 200× 103
Approximate gross area required = A g= = = 880 mm2
f y / γ m 0 250/1.1

Let use ISA 75 × 50 × 10 with gross area, Ag as 1152 mm2

Anc = (75 - 10/2 - 22) × 10 = 480 mm2
Ago = (50 - 10/2) × 10 = 450 mm2
An = 480 + 450 = 930 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 2:16)

Design strength due to yielding of gross section

f y × Ag 250 × 115 2
T dg= = = 261.8 × 103 N = 261.8 kN > 200 kN;
γ m0 1.1

so ok.
Step 2:

a) For bolt connection

Cross sectional area of 20 mm diameter bolt

= 0.78 × π/4 × 202 = 245 mm2.

f ub
(n A +n A )
Shear strength of M20 bolt in single shear = √ 3 n nb s sb =
γ mb

(400 / √ 3)×(1 ×245)

1.25

= 45.3 × 103 N = 45.3 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 6:59)

Bearing strength of bolts = 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb

Here, thickness of the angle is 10 mm;
Let the edge distance = 30 mm and pitch = 50 mm
Thus, kb = lesser of [30/(3 × 22), 50/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1] = 0.454
Bearing strength of bolt = 2.5 × 20 × 10 × 0.454 × 400/1.25 = 72.64 × 103 N = 72.64 kN
So bolt value = 45.3 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 10:38)

Step 3:
No. of bolts required = 200/45.3 = 4.4
Thus, use 5 bolts of 20 mm diameter in one line at pitch of 50 mm and edge distance of 30
mm.
Step 4:
Design strength governed by rupture of net section
Here, length of outstanding leg is: w = 50 mm and w1 = 40 mm.
So the shear lag width, bs = w + w1 – t = 50 + 40 – 10 = 80 mm.
Distance between end bolts , Lc = 4 × 50 = 200 mm.
bs w f y 8 0 50 250
β=1.4−0.076 × × ¿ 1.4−0.076 × × = 1.307
Lc t f u 200 10 410

f u γm 0
Again, β≤ and ≥ 0.7
f y γm1

f u γ m 0 410 ×1.1
= =1.443
f y γ m 1 250 ×1.25

Thus, satisfying above criteria, β=1.307

(Refer Slide Time: 12:45)

 0.9 f u A nc βf y A go 0.9 × 410 × 480 1.307 ×250 × 450
T dn= + ¿ +
γ m1 γ m0 1.25 1.1

= 275.37× 103 N = 275.37 kN

α × An × f u 0.8 × 930 ×410

Also, T dn= ¿ = 244 × 103 N = 244 kN
γ m1 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 15:42)

Design strength governed by block shear

Avg = 10 × (4 × 50 + 30) = 2300 mm2
Avn = 10 × (4 × 50 + 30 – 4.5 × 22) = 1310 mm2
Atg = 10 × 40 = 400 mm2
[assuming gauge g = 35 for 75 mm leg; p = 75 – 35 = 40]
Atn = 10 × (40 – 0.5 × 22) = 290 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 18:48)
 0.9 A vn f u f y A tg 0.9× 1310× 410 250× 400
T db1= + = + = 314.2 kN
√ 3 γm 1 γm 0 √ 3× 1.25 1.1

A vg f y 0.9 f u Atn 2300 × 250 0.9 × 410× 290

T db2= + = + = 387.4 kN
√ 3 γ m0 γ m1 √3 × 1.1 1.25

So, Tdb = 314.2 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 21:23)
Thus, the design tensile strength of angle = 261.8 kN > 200 kN.
Hence, the selected angle is safe.
Again, the minimum radius of gyration (rmin) of the angle ISA 75×50×10 = 10.6 mm
The maximum slenderness ratio, λmax = Leff / rmin = 3 × 103 / 10.6 = 283 < 350.
So, the angle is safe.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:19)

Solution (Connected with fillet weld):

(a) Strength due to yielding of gross section

P 200× 1000
Approximate area required = A g= = = 880 mm2
f y / γ m0 250 /1.1
Use ISA 75 × 50 × 10 with Ag = 1152 mm2 and cx = 26 mm
Anc = (75 - 10/2) × 10 = 700 mm2
Ago = (50 - 10/2) × 10 = 450 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 25:04)

f y × Ag 250 × 1152
T dg= = = 261.8 × 103 N = 261.8 kN > 200 kN;
γ m0 1.1

So, section is safe.

(b) Strength governed by rupture of net section

Here, shear lag width, bs = 50 mm. Assuming average weld length, Lw as 165 mm
 bs w f y 50 50 250
β=1.4−0.076 × × ¿ 1.4−0.076 × × = 1.329
Lc t f u 165 10 410

(Refer Slide Time: 27:42)

0.9 f u A nc βf y A go 0.9 × 410 ×700 1.32 9 ×250 × 450

T dn= + ¿ + =342.56 kN
γ m1 γ m0 1.25 1.1

An = Anc + Ago = 700 + 450 = 1150 mm2

α × An × f u 0.8 × 1150 × 410

Also, T dn= ¿ = 301.8 kN
γ m1 1.25

(c) Strength governed by block shear

 Avg = 10 × 165 × 2 = 3300 mm2
Avn = 10 × 165 × 2 = 3300 mm2
Atg = 10 × 75 = 750 mm2
Atn = 10 × 75 = 750 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 30:53)

0.9 A vn f u f y A tg 0.9× 410 ×3300 250× 750

T db1= + = +
√ 3 γm 1 γm 0 √ 3× 1.25 1.1

= 732.88 × 103 N = 732.88 kN

A vg f y 0.9 f u Atn 3300 × 250 0.9 × 410× 750

T db2= + = +
√ 3 γ m0 γ m1 √3 × 1.1 1.25
= 654.41 × 103 N = 654.41 kN

Thus, Tdb = 654.41 kN

Design tensile strength of angle = 261.36 kN > 200 kN, hence safe

Again, the minimum radius of gyration (rmin) of the angle ISA 75×50×10 = 10.6 mm

The maximum slenderness ratio, λmax = Leff / rmin = 3 × 103 / 10.6 = 283 < 350.

Therefore, the angle is safe.

That means the section which we have considered that is 75 × 50× 10 in case of bolt
connection as well as in case of weld connection it is safe, ok so this is how we can design a
section under tensile load. Now this is not the end of the design because in case of weld
connection, we have to calculate the weld length and we have to distribute the weld length
properly. We know that this section is ok but what should be the weld distribution, what
should be the weld length, we have to find out.

Weld distribution:

75−26
Force resisted by weld at lower side of angle P1 = 200 × = 130.7 kN
75

26
Force resisted by weld at upper side of angle P2 = 200 × = 69.3 kN
75

Let use 6 mm weld. So the throat thickness of the weld will be (te) = .707 × 6 = 4.24 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 35:11)

 P1 1 30 .7 ×103
Length required at lower side Lw1 = te f u = 4.24 ×410 = 163 mm
√ 3 γ mw √3 × 1.25
P2 69.3 ×10
3

Length required at upper side Lw2 = te f u = 4.24 ×410 = 86 mm

√ 3 γ mw √3 × 1.25
Here, average length of weld = (163+86)/2 = 124.5 mm
bs w f y
Thus, a ctual β=1.4−0.076 × ×
Lc t f u

50 50 250
¿ 1.4−0.076 × × = 1.307
124.5 10 410
 0.9 f u A nc βf y A go 0.9 × 410 ×700 1.307 × 250× 450
T dn= + ¿ + =340.31 kN
γ m1 γ m0 1.25 1.1

And T dn > T u =200 kN . So ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:26)

So, this is how we can design a member due to axial tensile force and when we are going to
design, at the end we have to draw a diagram showing the distribution of the bolt or
distribution of the weld length. The total length of the gusset plate, what we are using
according to the required pitch and edge distance should be shown in terms of diagram so that
it will be easier to understand by the site engineer, ok. So, with this I like to conclude todays
lecture thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 26
Module 6
Design of Gusset Plate

Hello today I will restrict my lecture on design of gusset plate, gusset plate is a plate which is
used to connect several members meeting at a joint, gusset plates are provided when more
than one member, means, at least two members are joined.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:45)

Gusset plate if we see in the picture it looks like this, say for example in a truss member when
more than two or more than one member are joined, here four members are joined together.
Now in this figure we can see several aspects. First of all these are angle sections so its C g of
all the members should meet at a particular point so that the eccentricity does not generate, so
that we have to keep in mind.

The size of the gusset plate actually depends on the number of bolts used or weld length of
weld used to join the section. Say for example suppose for this case we are seeing that four
number of bolts are there, right so the length of gusset plate on this direction we have to
decide on the basis of the number of bolts and number of bolts are decided on the basis of the
nominal diameter of bolt & magnitude of the force.
While designing we have to keep in mind that the gusset plate length should be as less as
possible so that the material for gusset plate is minimized. Another point is that as I told that
gusset plate thickness of the gusset plate should be little more than the member itself.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:18)

So if I look back to the design criteria we can see first is the shape and size of a gusset plate is
decided on the basis of direction of members meeting at the joint. Then the plate size is
decided to meet specification of pitch and edge distance.

Another thing is, the gusset plates are designed actually to resist shear mainly shear and direct
and flexible stress acting on the critical section. So when we will be going for designing we
have to keep in mind that the gusset plates should not fail due to shear which are resisting
shear and the direct tensile forces coming into the gusset plate. And I told that it is a usual
practice to provide thickness of gusset plate equal to or higher than the members that have to
be connected by the gusset plate that also we have to keep in mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:36)

Example:

Design the gusset plate of thickness 12 mm at the joint O of a lower chord of truss as
shown in the figure below. Use M20 grade 4.6 bolts.

Solution:

Forces on members OA, OB, OC and OD are:

FOA = 300 kN

FOB = 140 kN

FOC = 180 kN

FOD = 200 kN

Shear strength of M20 bolts in single shear

f ub
(n A +n A ) (400 / √ 3)×(1 ×245)
= √ 3 n nb s sb =
1.25
= 45.3 kN
γ mb

Shear strength of M20 bolts in double shear = 45.3 × 2

= 90.6 kN.

Assume pitch as 60 mm and edge distance as 40 mm.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:43)

Member OB:

kb = 40/(3 × 22), 60/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1 = 0.606

Bearing strength of bolts on 8 mm thick angles,

= 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb

= 2.5 × 20 × 8 × 0.606 × 400/1.25 = 77.57 × 103 N = 77.57 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 10:13)

Strength of angle per pitch length

0.9 × f u × An 0.9 × 410 ×[( 60−22 ) ×8]

¿ T dn= ¿
γ m1 1.25

= 89.74 kN

So the bolt value = 45.3 kN (lesser of 45.3, 77.57 and 89.74)

No. of bolt required = 140/45.3 = 3.1 ≈ 4

The length of gusset plate = 3 × 60 + 2 × 40 = 260 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 13:25)

Member OC:
Here, the value of kb will be same as derived for member OB as pitch and edge are same.
Bearing strength of bolts on 6 mm thick angles = 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
= 2.5 × 20 × 6 × 0.606 × 400/1.25 = 58.18 kN
Strength of angle per pitch length
0.9 × f u × An 0.9 × 410 ×[ ( 60−22 ) ×6]
= T dn= ¿
γ m1 1.25

= 67.31 × 103 N = 67.31 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 16:33)
So the bolt value = 45.3 kN (lesser of 45.3, 58.18 and 67.31)

No. of bolt required = 180/45.3 = 3.97 ≈ 4

Length of gusset plate = 3×60 + 2×40 = 260 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 19:16)

Member AD:

Net force in member AD = 300 – 200 = 100 kN

Bearing strength of bolts on 12 mm thick gusset plate

= 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb
= 2.5 × 20 × 12 × 0.606 × 400/1.25 = 96.9 × 103 N = 116.4 kN

0.9 × f u × An 0.9 × 410 ×[ ( 60−22 ) ×16]

Strength of angle per pitch length = T dn= ¿ =
γ m1 1.25
179.5 × 103 N = 179.5 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 22:57)

So the bolt value = 90.6 kN (i.e., lesser of 90.6 kN, 116.4 kN and 179.5 kN)

No. of bolts required = 100/90.6 = 1.1 ≈ 2

Length of gusset plate = 60 + 2 × 40 = 140 mm

Bolt arrangements are shown in following figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:45)

We can see here, this will be the arrangement, here if you see we have considered 4 bolts
here, these are 4 bolts along member OB, this is O, this is B, this is A, this is C, this is D. So
if we see that for member OB we need 4 bolts, so we could find out the length accordingly.

Similarly, this length also will be 260 mm 260 mm, right because 4 bolts are required for
member OC. For member AD we need 2 bolts therefore this length we calculated as 140 mm,
right. So in this way the gusset plate dimensions have been decided.

So length of the gusset plate in different directions can be reduced by increasing the bolt
diameter and if we increase the bolt diameter the number of bolts will be reduced and as a
result we can find out lesser length of the gusset plate towards that member. So this is how
one can find out the gusset plate dimensions.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:04)

Here before going to end again I am just giving importance that suppose this is a angle
section in this directions whose Cg is this and this is another angle sections whose Cg in this
direction. So what I wanted to tell that Cg of all the members should coincide at a particular
point, if it does not coincide then eccentricity will develop and as a result additional moment
will come into picture. To avoid that moment or eccentricity we have to make the alignment
in such a way, we have to place the angle sections in such a way that all the C g of the sections
are meeting a particular point, that we have to keep in mind.

And if gusset plate becomes larger that means if length of gusset plate become greater than
the weight of gusset plate will be more and if the weight of gusset plate become more then
the structure the dead load coming to the structure will be more and it will not be economic.

So the dead load due to the gusset plate can be reduced if we properly make use of number of
bolts. If we properly reduce the number of bolts so that the gusset plate size can be reduced
and if it is reduced then we can reduce the weight of the gusset plate and as a result the dead
weight of the structure will be less.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 27
Module 6
Lug Angles

Hello today I am going to discuss about Lug Angle. Lug Angle is an angle with short length
which is required to share the load of the main angle. Sometimes the main angle carries a
huge amount of load and to make connections of this type of angle section with the main
member, we need a large number of large number of bolts. So if we use a large number of
bolt or large length of weld then the size of the gusset plate become very high and if size of
the gusset plate become high material required for gusset plate will be large and it will be
uneconomic.

So to reduce the length of the joint or the size of the joint to a certain amount sometimes we
provide lug angles at the beginning of the joint to share the load from main angle to the
gusset plate. So basically lug angle is connected with the outstanding leg of the main angle
and some percentage of load main angle is transferred to the lug angle and then that load
again is transferred to the gusset plate through connected leg of the lug angle.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:17)

I can show a diagram, say suppose an angle sections are connected with a gusset plate, right
suppose this is an angle section. Now if this angle section carries a huge load then I need lots
of bolts and thus gusset plate size is increased. Now to save the material sometimes we may
be able to reduce this length by putting an additional angle connected with the main angle in
this directions.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:55)

Therefore, in place of sharing whole forces as it is sharing a percentage of load, so number of

bolts required for this section will be less and therefore we can reduce the length. However
sometimes it may not be possible because as we are providing extra angle, so some extra
materials we are going to use here and also eccentricity may generate because of the
connections. Therefore, it has certain disadvantages but sometimes we use.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:13)

So before going to design, I am going to provide the codal provisions. In clause 10.12, IS
800:2007, general procedure of design of lug angles are provided.. So when we will be going
for designing we have to keep in mind these codal provisions. It is two type one we can
provide angle section, another is we can provide channel section. The main member may be
angle or main member may be channel sections.

So if main member is angle section then it is told that lug angle is connected to the
outstanding leg of the main angle. Then when unequal angle is used the load gets distributed
in the ratio of gross areas of connected leg to the outstanding leg.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:15)

That means if an unequal sections are used say suppose this is 75 and this is 50, then load to
this leg will be in the ratio of 50 : 75. So less load will be shared by this angle and more load
will be shared by this angle. So with this ratio it will be shared, this is what codal provisions
say.

Then it says that lug angle and their connections to gusset or other supporting member shall
be capable of developing strength not less than 20 percent in excess of force in outstanding
leg of main members. So, whatever load is coming here excess to that 20 percent more load
has to be carried by this.

So when we are going to design a lug angle we have to take the load coming according to the
proportion plus 20 percent of that. The attachment of lug angle to the main angle shall be
capable of developing strength not less than 40 percent in excess of the force in outstanding
leg angle, this also we have to keep in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 9:07)

If the main member is channel section, then we should remember that the lug angle, as far as
possible should be disposed symmetrically with respect to the section of the member. So lug
angle should be provided at the top and bottom in a symmetric way. Then lug angle and their
connection to gusset or other supporting member shall be capable of developing strength of
not less than 10 percent excess of the force in flange of the channel. And similarly attachment
of the lug angle to the members shall be capable of developing strength of not less than 20
percent in excess of that force. So this is what we have to keep in mind while designing the
lug angle.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:27)

And then other few criteria we have to remember that is in no case fewer than two bolts,
rivets or equivalent weld length be used for attaching lug angles to gusset plates or other
supporting member. That means when we are attaching the lug angle with the gusset plate or
any other supporting member at least two number of bolt or rivet has to be provided, right.

And the effective connections of the lug angles should as far as possible be terminated at the
end of the member connected. The fastening of lug angle to the member shall preferably start
in advance of direct connection of member to gusset or other supporting members, so these
things we have to keep in mind when we are going to design this lug angle.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:39)

Example

A tension member carrying a factored tensile load of 180 kN has to convert through a gusset
plate of 10 mm thick using 16 mm diameter of ordinary bolt of grade 4.6. The available
length of the gusset plate for making connection is 250 mm. Design the member & its
connection. Also design the lug angle if required.

Solution:
T 180 ×10
3
Gross area required ¿ ¿ =¿ 792 mm2
f y /γ m0 250 /1.1
Select angle ISA 75 × 75 × 6 with Ag = 866 mm2 and rmin = 14.6 mm
Anc = (75 - 6/2 - 18) × 6 = 324 mm2
Ago = (75 - 6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2
An = 324 + 432 = 756 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 13:02)

Strength governed due to rupture of net section

α × An × f u 0.8× 756 ×410
T dn= = =198.4 × 103 N = 198.4 kN > 180 kN
γ m1 1.25

Hence, the chosen section is safe.

End connection
Strength of M16 bolts in single shear,
 fu
(n A +n A ) (400 /√ 3)×(1 ×157)
= √ 3 n nb s sb =
1.25
= 29 × 103 N = 29.0 kN
γ mb
(Refer Slide Time: 15:27)

Assume pitch as 40 mm and edge distance as 30 mm.

kb = least of [30/(3 × 18), 40/(3 × 18) - 0.25, 400/410, 1]= 0.49

Bearing strength of bolts on 8 mm thick angles,

= 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb

= 2.5 × 16 × 6 × 0.49 × 400/1.25 = 37.63 × 103 N = 37.63 kN

Therefore, bolt value = 29.0 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 17:38)

No. of bolts required = 180/29.0 = 6.2 ≈ 7

Length of gusset plate = 6 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 300 mm > 250 mm, therefore lug angle should be
used.

Lug Angle

Gross area of connected leg, Agc = (75 - 6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2

Gross area of outstanding leg, Ago = (75 - 6/2) × 6 = 432 mm2

Load on outstanding leg of main angle = 180 × 432/(432 + 432)

= 90 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 19:25)

Load on lug angle = 1.2×90 kN = 108 kN [Cl. 10.12.2, IS 800-2007]
T 108 ×10
3
Net area required for the lug angle =
f y /γ m 0 ¿ =¿ 475 mm2
250 /1.1
Select ISA 60 × 60 × 5 as lug angle with Ag = 575 mm2
Let assume that the section is weakened by one row of 16 mm diameter bolt.
So, the net area available = 575 – 16×5 = 495 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 22:21)

Connection of lug angle with gusset plate

No. of bolts required = 108/29.0 = 3.72 ≈ 4

Length of gusset plate = 3 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 180 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 24:22)

Connection of lug angle to main angle

No. of bolts required to connect outstanding leg of two angles =1.4× 90/29.0 = 4.34 ≈ 5
Length of gusset plate = 4 × 40 + 2 × 30 = 220 mm.
The arrangement of bolts for connecting lug angle is shown in following Figure
(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)
(Refer Slide Time: 27:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:34)

 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 28
Module 6
Splices in Tension Members

Now I am going to discuss about splices with respect to tension member, in fact splices are
used if the available length is less than the required length of a tension member. When the
single pitch of tension member of requisite length is not available then we may have to
connect with another pitch of member with the use of splices.

So different type of tension members we have, so when we are joining those tensions member
with the use of splices we may face different type of problem like if we do not join two sides
properly then eccentricity of the joint will come into picture and because of eccentricity
moment will come into picture.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:32)

So we have to design the splices such a way that no eccentricity is developed, say for
example if we consider a member, we need to join this member with another member, right.
So if we want to join these two members, now if I provide a splice here, then it will not be
symmetric. So transfer of the load through splice to another member will not be done
properly means eccentricity will develop.

So to avoid that we always try to provide another splice in this direction, so that the
symmetricity is maintained, this is what we need to do. However this is a problem when one
angle is to be joined with another angle, right. So if we have unsymmetrical joint like this
then the forces will develop here and because of that eccentricity will come into picture, so
we have to keep in mind that eccentricity does not take place that how can we do, say for this
angle section say angle is like this right so if we see.

Now we can join a splice here in two section, right and to make the system concentric what
we can do, we can join a splice here and we can join another splice here. So this is the way if
we do then the problem can be avoided. So while making splice design we have to try to
make joint in such a way that eccentricity does not occur.

Another case can happen if two members of different thickness are joined. So in such cases
what we can do we can make a splice in this place but here we have to provide a packing
plate. So we have to provide a packing plate to fill up the gap and then we can provide a
splice like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:47)

So what I discussing let me tell in short once again that the strength of splice plate and the
bolt which are joining them should be able to develop strength equal to design load. That
means the strength of the plate whatever we are joining should be same to the strength of this
plate and this plate, right.

Then when tension members of dissimilar thickness are to be connected, packing or filler
plates are introduced what I discussed earlier that if thickness are different then we have to
use packing plate or filler plate. Now the design shear capacity of bolts carrying shear
through a packing or filler plate in excess of 6 mm shall be decreased by a factor as given by
βpkg = 1 – 0.0125tpk

Where, tpk = thickness of the packing plate in mm

Another thing is, as per IS specification, the splice connection should be designed for a force
of atleast 0.3 times the member design capacity in tension or design action whichever is
more.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:03)

Example: Design a tension splice to connect two tension member plates of size 200  10
and 220  12. The member is subjected to a factored tensile force of 280 kN. Use M20
grade 4.6 ordinary bolts for the connection.

Splice will be provided in both sides of the tension members. Therefore, bolt value needs to
be calculated for double shear.

Shear strength of M20 bolts in double shear

fu
(n A +n A ) (400 /√ 3)×(2 ×245)
= √ 3 n nb s sb =
1.25
= 90.6 × 103 N = 90.6 kN
γ mb

Assume pitch as 50 mm and edge distance as 30 mm.

kb = 30/(3 × 22), 50/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1 = 0.454

(Refer Slide Time: 9:30)

Bearing strength of bolts on 10 mm thick plate = 2.5 × d × t × kb × fub/γmb = 2.5 × 20 × 10 ×

0.454 × 400/1.25 = 72.64 × 103 N
= 72.64 kN
So the bolt value = 72.64 kN
No. of bolts required = 280/72.64 = 3.85 ≈ 4
(Refer Slide Time: 12:54)

Thickness of packing required = 12 – 10 = 2 mm

Since the thickness of packing is less than 6 mm, no additional bolt will be necessary to
connect it with the plate.

Thus, 4 nos. of bolts will be required on the splice with a pitch of 50 mm as shown in the
figure below.

Check for strength at critical section:

Strength of main plate at critical section

0.9 × f u × An 0.9 × 410 ×[ ( 200−22× 2 ) × 10]

= T dn= ¿ = 460.5 × 103 N = 460.5 kN >
γ m1 1.25
280 kN

Thus the section is OK.

Design strength due to yielding of gross section:

f y × Ag 250 × 200× 10
T dg= = = 454.5 × 103 N = 454.5 kN > 280 kN.
γ m0 1.1

So the design tensile strength of the member will be 454.5 kN.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

Thickness of splice plate:

Let the thickness of splice plate is t.

Thus the strength of splice plate will be:

0.9× 410 ×[( 200−22 ×2 ) ×t × 2]

=¿ 92.1024t × 103 N = 92.1024t kN
1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 18:11)

The splice will be designed for 0.3 × 454.5 kN = 136 kN or the factored tensile load of
280 kN which ever is more.
Thus the thickness of the splice plate will be:
280
t= = 3.04 mm
92.1024

Let use 4 mm thick splice plate on both side of the member.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:26)
(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

Now it is interesting to note that the splice plate is provided in such a way that it is becoming
symmetric, so we are maintaining the symmetric of the section so that the eccentricity does
not develop in the member.

So this is all about the design of splice plate as well as I am completing today the design of
tension member. In case of tension member we have seen how to find out the design tensile
strength from different criteria like yielding of gross section, rupture of net section, block
shear failure. So from those three points of view we have to design the member, also we have
to consider the slenderness ratio value so that the it does not exceed the limiting value of the
slenderness ratio.

Also we have seen that when the required length is not available in case of tension member
then we have to join 2 members with the use of splice that also we have discussed today and
also we have discussed about the lug angle, how to provide lug angle that also we have
discussed. So with this I would like to conclude the tension member design, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 29
Module 6
Compression Members

This new module which will deal with compression member. A structure member when
subjected to axial force only then such type of structure member is called compression
member.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:36)

Now the different type of compression members is termed as different way like in case of
RCC building such type of compression member is called column, which is basically a
vertical member which carries the load from beam or from the floor and transferring from
upper floor to lower floor.

Similarly, in case of steel building this type of compression member is called stanchion, again
the compressive member in a roof truss or bracing is called strut. Similarly, the principal
compression in a crane is called boom. So what we could see that the same compression
member is termed in different names for different cases.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:41)

Now when we will go for calculation of strength of the compression member or when we will
go to design a compression member then we have to see that what are the types of failure
may come for a compression member, depending on the type of failure we have to find out
what is the strength can be carried by that particular member.

So in case of compression member, there are different type of failures occurs out of them one
is called squashing. Squashing basically happens when the length of the compression member
is quite less compared to its transverse direction cross section area. Say for example if a
member is short and under compression load then in such case, the crushing will come into
the picture and full strength will attain at its yield strength and therefore the failure load can
be calculated in strength into the cross sectional area. Failure load will be calculated simply
the yield strength into its cross sectional area. So in such cases, we could see that the member
fails due to crushing of the material that is what one type of failure we could observe.

Another failure is the local buckling and it happens due to its cross sectional configuration in
case of a steel building. Say, for example, we oftenly used the channel section, so in such
case what will happen that due to compression this web may buckle individually, this flange
may buckle individually or some other part of the member may buckle which is called local
buckling. So it has to be taken care while calculating the compressive strength of the member.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:17)

Then another type of failure will be that overall flexural buckling. When the member length
along its axis is quite high compared to its cross sectional dimension then such type of
buckling occurs which is called flexural buckling. Say for example we have a long column
means compared to its lateral dimension, so in such cases, it may buckle in this way. So
before going to fail due to crushing it may fail due to buckling.

So such type of buckling phenomena has to be taken care while considering the strength of
the compression member. Again if we see the cross section say for example if the cross
section is something like this then we can see it may buckle about this axis, it may buckle
about this axis. So we have it will buckle in which direction, it will buckle about the weaker
section.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:28)

So, in this case, it will buckle about this then another failure may come due to torsional
buckling. Torsional buckling failure occurs due to torsional moment, the member gets twisted
about the shear centre in the longitudinal axis. So torsional buckling may occur may be in
case of angle section or channel section depending on the type of load means acting in a
particular place means load will be compressive but where it is acting whether it is acting in
the member axis or it is Cg depending on that the torsion will come into the picture.

Another scope of buckling is called flexural-torsional buckling. This is nothing but the
buckling which occurs when the member bends and twists simultaneously, that means
member will bend again it will twist means it may twist like this may be like this. Such type
of failure happens generally in case of unsymmetrical cross section. So unsymmetrical cross
section means say for example channel section it is symmetrical in one direction but it is
unsymmetrical in another direction. So in which direction it is unsymmetrical depending on
that we have to consider whether it is an unsymmetrical cross section or symmetrical cross
section and accordingly the torsional buckling will come into the picture.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:56)

Now while calculating the compressive strength of a compression member we have to find
out means what type of effect is coming on a particular compressive member. This effect
depends in length of the compression member like one is called short compression member,
short compression member means what I told earlier that suppose a member is length is quite
short compared to its width and thickness means if its width and thickness is substantial with
respect to moment that means the L by R ratio is quite low in that case the failure stress will
be equal to the yield stress and there will be no buckling, buckling will not happen in this
case.

So here it will fail due to yielding of the material so this happens when short compression
members are means when the members have short compression.

And another type of member which is called long compression member. In this case, stress
will occur due to buckling due to the long length of the member and quite less cross section
area. So in this case buckling may happen before yielding of the stress that is why we need to
consider whether it is long compression member or not and accordingly we have to find out
what type of means stress is developing due to buckling or due to due to yielding accordingly
the compressive strength of the member will be consider.

Another case is an intermediate compression member. In case of intermediate compression,

member failure occur due to the combined effect of crushing and buckling. Intermediate
compression means in practise most of the members are considered as intermediate
compression member because in this case, the member will undergo both the stress, one is
due to crushing, due to compression of the member it will shorten its length and it will crush
and another is due to its length it will buckle something like this.

So buckling stress will come into picture as well as crushing stress will come into picture. So
both the effect we have to consider and we have to find out the failure strength of the member
and most of the cases the compression member acts as intermediate compression member
where both the effects will be will have to be taken care.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:39)

Now for finding out the compressive strength of a member as we see that one is the crushing
value we have to find out the yield strength of a particular material and accordingly the
strength of the compression member can be calculated.

Another case is it may buckle due to buckling then what will be the buckling force and what
will be the stress that we have to find out and for that Euler has considered an ideal column
and has found out a critical load for buckling that critical load which has been obtained due to
buckling are derived on the basis of this few assumptions. That is one is the material is
homogeneous and isotropic, that means the material along the throughout its length will be
homogeneous and isotropic, there will be no change of material properties.

Then another assumption is material is perfectly elastic that means upto elastic limit this
buckling theory will be will be considered and this will be true for upto elastic limit. Then no
imperfection that means member will be perfectly straight as its initial state and there will be
no flaw of the geometry and material across the member.
Then there should not be any eccentricity of loading, in case of Euler theory the derivation
has been made considering the concentric loading that means there will be no eccentric
loading acting on the member. And another is column ends are hinged while developing this
theory it has been considering that column ends are hinged and column has no flaw.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:42)

With these assumptions, Euler has suggested a buckling theory which is given here that is if a
compressive load, P is acting along this member and if buckle happens like this then at a
distance of x the displacement will be y and the governing differential equation will be

That Pcr is the critical load which can be found from this governing differential equation and
from the governing differential equation the lowest value can be found as

Where l is the effective length and EI is the modulus of rigidity.

Now effective length will nothing but the length where the two moment contra flexures are
occurring distance between that two like in case of if it is fixed it will buckle like this, so
effective length will be l.

Therefore the critical stress can be found as

Where A is the cross sectional area of the column

Further,

Where r is the radius of gyration and λ is nothing but the slenderness ratio.

The radius of gyration means the minimum radius of gyration. In two direction radius of
gyration will occur and about minimum radius of gyration, it will fail first that is why the
minimum radius of gyration will be considered.

Thus, the critical stress is inversely proportional to the slenderness ratio (�). So critical stress
will be increasing if the value of λ is less or reversely I can say the critical stress will be less
if the slenderness ratio will be more. So the critical stress using Euler buckling theory can be
found from this, which will be used for deriving the compressive strength of the column.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:14)

Now for an ideal strut, the strength curve of a column can be derived if the strut is axially
loaded and initially straight with pin-ended then this can be derived in this way where x axis
will be the slenderness ratio that is l/r and y axis will be the compressive strength of the of the
material. So here we see the path is varying from A to C and then C to B, right. So column
fails when the compressive strength is greater than or equal to the values defined by ACB that
means this is the path defined and if column stress is coming somewhere here or here that
means it is failed.

So if the column stress is going to be greater than the stress defined by this path ACB then I
can say that column is going to fail and this AC is basically failure by yielding and if we
consider low slenderness ratio then failure may happen due to yielding and failure may
happen due to buckling for high slenderness ratio and you see failure will happen due to
buckling if λ is greater than λc.

Now plastic yield defined by f c =f y and this is defined by the elastic buckling stress.

f c =σ cr =f y =250 MPa

λc =π
√ E
fy
=88.85

This constant is for a particular value of E and fy.

So what we could see from this curve that if the slenderness ratio value becomes more than
88.85 then it will fail by elastic buckling and if it is less than that it will fail by plastic yield.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:10)

Now the same can be written in a non-dimensional form as well, which is shown here where
in y axis it is fc/fy and it will be 1 because f c and fy will be equal here and λ c will be 1 here

1 /2
fy
means λ́ will be 1 and in the x direction λ́=
( )
σ cr
have been plotted.

So the non-linear curve will be elastic buckling and the linear curve will be plastic yield. So
this is how the strength curve for an ideal strut can be developed by Euler’s theory.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:12)

But this cannot be applied for a practical case because there are certain parameters which will
effect on the compressive strength of the member. Therefore we will consider a different
formula however this formula is based on the Euler buckling theory as well as some other
factor also has been included so that we will discuss later.

Now if we see the factors which are going to effect the strength of compressive member we
can see that first is the material property of the member. So the design compressive strength
fcd depends on fy.

Another factor is the length of the member because we have seen the Euler critical load is
inversely proportional to the radius of gyration and there by the length. So if the length is
more than definitely compressive load carrying capacity will be less.

Then another factor is cross sectional configuration means in case of RCC member there is
no problem because there will be no local buckling because generally in case of RCC
member either rectangular section, square section, or circular section we use in general. But
in case of steel member we use different type of built up section say for example built up
section or rolled section, this is a built up section we are using channel facing each other
channel face to face or we can make some I section also say I section also we can use. So
here what we can see that due to cross sectional configuration local buckling of the flange or
web may happen so that has to be taken into consideration.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:33)

Another factor is the support condition because in case of hinge support the effective length
(l) will be simply the overall length (L), but if both support is fixed support then its buckling
curve will be like this and we know that l will be basically L/2, right. So effective length is
going to reduce. So as the length of the member effects on the compressive strength in the
member, therefore, supports conditions also effects on that.

Next factor is the imperfection. Now imperfection means that material may not be isotropic
truly and homogeneous then geometric variation of the column may be there, that means
cross sectional cross section throughout the length of the column may not be same exactly
then eccentricity may not have exactly eccentricity. So these imperfections also effect on the
strength of the member therefore that has to be also taken care in our design.

Another is the residual stress, if residual stresses are there in the member then the
compressive strength is going to be different so that aspects also have to keep in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:57)

Now coming to the cross section of the member if we see that in case of column or
compression member different type of steel rolled sections which are available in the market
can be used for compression member, like we can use single angle section however while
using single angle section if the load act on a leg of a member then the eccentricity will
develop and therefore the torsional buckling will come into picture. So we have to take care
the strength of the member accordingly.

Similarly for double angle also we can use in this way or T sections can be used for
compressive member, most popularly used compressive member is channel section which we
oftenly used for compressive member. The hollow circular section also we use, rectangular
hollow sections also are used. So these are few steel rolled section which is commonly used
for compressive member.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:08)

Then some built-up sections are also used, like channel face to face this is one type of built-
up section we use, then channel back to back this also use. So now suppose channel face to
face or back to back if we use say for example this, now we cannot use simple like this
because if we see in the elevation it will be something like this, right. So unless we tie then
unless we provide some lacing then it will not act as a monolithic. Therefore we have to
provide some joint means in terms of batten plate or some lacing has to be provided, so that
throughout the length it acts as a monolithic member. So this has to be taken care.

And another is built-up box section means with four plates one can make built-up box
section. Then plated I section, then built-up I section like this some of the commonly used
built-up compression members are there.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:40)

Then we will come to the effective length factor, effective length factor means here we see
the le as we have written the effective length is equal to K×L, where K is the effective length
factor. Now this K depends on the restrained condition of the member, as I have told that in
case of say suppose fixed-fixed column it will buckle like as shown in the above figure, so
two points of contra-flexure will be developed as shown in the figure, the point of contra-
flexure means where the moment is becoming 0.

Now the distance between two points of contra-flexure becoming as effective length le, right
where capital L is the total length of the member, right. So what will be the value of K, so
here theoretically we got K value as half, that means le is equal to L/2.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:44)

However in IS code, this is considered as 0.65 because it will not be perfectly fixed and it
will not be perfectly 0.5, theoretically, though we are getting 0.5 we are going to consider as
0.65 with a certain conservative factor of safety, right. Similarly when columns with both
ends are pinned we are considering K value as 1 that means l e is equal to L. Again columns
with one end fixed and other end pinned in this case theoretical value though it is coming 0.7,
in codal provision, it is 0.8.

Again column with one end fixed and other end free means like cantilever column theoretical
value is 2 also we are considering 2, means in IS code also it is considering 2. Columns
partially restrained at each end will be 1, however, it is considered as 1.2. Similarly columns
with one end unrestrained and other end rotation partially restrained, it is 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 28:15)

So when we are going to consider the effective length of a member we have to go to table 11
of IS 800:2007 and as per table 11 of IS 2007, we have to find out the effective length of the
member. This snapshot of the code of table 11 of IS 800:2007 has been shown here, the
effective length factor has been given here.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:29)

Now another thing we will discuss here that is the effective length of column in the frame
because in practical cases we have to calculate the effective length in a frame and it is not a
separate member column member is not a separate or compressive member is not separate, it
is inside the frame. So what should be the effective length of the column in a frame that we
have to know and that is given in annexure D of the IS 800:2007 in clause 7.2.
For non-sway frames (braced frames):

K=
[ 1+ 0.145 ( β1 + β 2 )−0.265 β 1 β 2
2−0.364 ( β 1+ β 2 ) −0.247 β 1 β 2 ] (D-1 IS 800:2007)

For sway frames (moment – resisting frames):

0.5

K=
[ 1 – 0.2 ( β 1+ β2 ) −0.12 β 1 β2
1−0.8 ( β 1 + β 2 )+ 0.6 β 1 β 2 ] (D-1 IS 800:2007)

So this is how we have to find out the effective stiffness of the beam and column connecting
at that point. Then we have to find out β1 and β 2 , right so once we find β1 and
β 2 we can find the value of K. So this is how effective length of column in frame whether
it is sway or non-sway based on that we can find out the effective length of column, right.

So this is what in today’s lecture I would like to discuss I wanted to discuss so in short again I
am repeating the gist of today’s lecture that in a compression member the compressive
strength depends on different factors like length, restrained condition, imperfection, residual
stress, then material properties. So all these considerations have to be done also the cross
sectional configuration is an important part which comes into picture for considering the
strength of the member. So again the slenderness ratio which depends on the length effective
length and the radius of gyration.

So as per the means slenderness ratio, the compressive strength will vary, we have seen that it
is inversely varying with slenderness ratio. So those are some parameters which have to be
taken care and then while finding out the slenderness ratio we need to know the effective
length and effective length for different restrained condition that has been given in the code.

So as per codal provision, we have to find out the effective length of a particular member and
also in case of the frame depending on the basis on sway or non-sway the K value the
effective length factor can be found. So this is how we can decide the effective length of a
column or a compression member which will be required for calculating the column strength
or compression member strength. In the next class we will try to find out the compressive
strength of a compression member, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 30
Module 6
Design Strength of Compressive Member

Hello, today I am going to discuss the calculation of the compressive strength of a

compression member. So in last lecture we have seen the strength calculation formula of the
compression member as per the IS code and we have seen this strength depends on three
main factors one is the yield stress of the material that means the material properties, then the
length of the member from which we can find out the slenderness ratio and because of
buckling the reduction of the strength occurs and then another is imperfection factor which
depends on the buckling class of the member.

So three factors are introduced in the design strength calculation of the compressive member,
these three factors are the slenderness ratio, then buckling class and the material properties
that is yield strength. So based on that the formula has been derived which is basically similar
to the British code. And today I am going to solve a workout example through which we will
understand that the formulas that are used in the IS code, how to make use of those while
calculating the compressive strength of a compression member.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:10)

Example: Determine the design axial load on the column section ISMB 400, given that the
height of the column is 3.5 m and that it is pin-ended. Also assume the following:
�� = 250 N/mm2, �� = 410 N/mm2; E = 2×105 N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 2:46)

Solution:

That means from this what we could see that ISMB 400 members are used. So from this we
can find out what is the buckling class where ISMB 400 we know the thickness of the
member that means thickness of the flange, width of the flange and the depth of the cross
section those things we know, so from this we can find out the buckling class then another
thing we can find out that is the slenderness ratio, slenderness ratio here the length is given
3.5 meter.

So we know the radius of gyration of the section ISMB 400, so from that, we can find out
slenderness ratio ofcourse the slenderness ratio to find out slenderness ratio we have to know
the effective length. So effective length depends on the end connections, here ends are
connected by pin-end joint, so effective length here will be will not be reduced that will be 1
into 3.5 because here K will be 1 as per the IS code, right.

So one is buckling class then slenderness ratio and grade of steel fu means fe250. So fy value
is 250 it was given. So based on these three we can find out the value of fcd.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:30)

Properties of ISMB 400 [Table I SP: 6(1)-1964]

Depth of section, h = 400 mm

Flange thickness, �� = 16 mm

Thickness of web, �� = 8.9 mm

Flange width, b = 140 mm

Cross-sectional area, A = 7846 mm2

�� = 161.5 mm, �� = 28.2 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 5:24)

 a) Buckling curve classification (Table 10, IS 800 :2007):

h 400
= =2.86>1.2 ; t f =16 mm<40 mm
b 140

Hence, we should use buckling curve ‘a’ about z-z axis and ‘b’ about y-y axis.

So z-z axis means if this is the I section this is called z-z, this is z-z and this is y-y, right. So
about z-z axis, it is class a, about y-y axis it is class b, as per the table 10 definition. The
buckling curve classification has been defined in table 10 from which we can take the class a
or class b.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:56)

b) Effective length:

Since both ends are pinned effective length, K L y =K Lz=3.5 m

c) Non-dimensional slenderness ratio:(7.1.2.1 of IS 800 :2007)

About z-z axis: α =0.21 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

√(
λ z= √ f y /f cc = f y
K Lz 2 2
rz ) /(π E)

√
2
3500

¿ 250 ×
( 161.5 )
2
π ×2× 10 5
¿ 0.2439
(Refer Slide Time: 8:39)

ϕ=0.5 [ 1+α ( λ−0.2 )+ λ ]

2

¿ 0.5 [ 1+ 0.21 ( 0.2439−0.2 ) +0.24392 ]=¿ 0.534

f y /γ m0
f cd =
ϕ+[ ϕ2 −λ2 ]0.5

250/1.1
¿ =225.2 N/mm2
0.534 +[0.534 2−0.24392 ]0.5

(Refer Slide Time: 10:45)

About y-y axis: � = 0.34 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

 √(
λY = √ f y /f cc = f y
K Ly 2 2
ry ) /(π E)

√
¿ 250×
3500 2 2
(
28.2 )
/(π ×2 ×10 5)

¿ 1.3968

(Refer Slide Time: 12:12)

ϕ=0.5 [ 1+α ( λ−0.2 )+ λ2 ]

¿ 0.5 [ 1+ 0.34 ( 1.3968−0.2 )+1.3968 2 ]=¿ 1.679

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

 f y /γ m0
f cd = 2 2 0.5
ϕ+[ ϕ −λ ]

250
1.1
¿ 0.5
1.679+ [ 1.6792 −1.39682 ]

¿ 87.06 N/mm2

So the design compressive stress will be taken as 87.06 because it will fail about y-y axis
first.

The same may be obtained by using Table 9b of IS 800:2007.

K L y 3500
Thus, for = =124.11 and f y =¿ 250 Mpa, from Table 9b,
ry 28.2

91.7−81
We get f cd =91.7− × 4.11=87.3 N/mm2
10

(Refer Slide Time: 14:11)

The design strength,

−3
Pd =7846 ×87.06 ×10

¿ 683.07 kN
So this is how we can find out the design compressive strength of the member, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:23)

So using the formula we can find out the design compressive strength of the member of the
given member and we could see that about y-y axis it is going to fail first that means y-y axis
is the weaker section and the same can be made by the use of table 9, means in place of
calculation of all these by fcd we simply can find out using table 9 from where fcd we can
get.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:07)

Example: Calculate the compressive strength of a compound column consisting of ISHB 250
@ 54.7 kg/m with one cover plate of 300×16 mm on each flange (as shown in the figure) and
having a length of 4 m. Assume that the bottom of the column is fixed and the top is hinged
and �� = 250 N/mm2

y Cover plate-300×16

ISHB 250
z z
125 mm

16 mm
y

So here the cover plate of 300 by 16 are used in both the flange, right, and the columns cross
sections is ISHB 250 at 54.7.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:05)

Solution:

Properties of ISHB 250 @ 54.7 kg/m [Table I SP:6(1)-1964]

C/S area, A = 6971 mm2
 I zz =¿ 7983.9 ×104 mm4
I yy =¿ 2011.7 ×104 mm4

t f =9.7 mm
(Refer Slide Time: 20:26)

a) Determination the radii of gyration for the compound section:

I z for plates ¿ 2 [ I a + A p y 21 ]

¿2 [ 300 ×16 3
12
+300 ×16 × (125+ 8 )
2
]
¿ 17001.92×10 4 mm4

Total I z=7983.9 ×10 4+17001.92× 104

¿ 24985.82× 104 mm4

(Refer Slide Time: 21:38)

Area of the built-up section ¿ 6971+2× 300× 16

¿ 16571 mm2

r z=
√ √
Iz
A
=
24985.82× 104
16571
=122.79 mm

3
I y of plates ¿ 2× 16 × 300 =7200× 104 mm4
12

Total I y =2011.7 ×10 4 +7200 ×104 =9211.7 × 104 mm4

r y=
√ √
Iy
A
=
9211.7 ×10 4
16571
=74.56 mm

∴r min =74.56 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 23:53)

b) Buckling curve classification:

From Table 10 of IS 800:2007, for built up section buckling class, is ‘c’ about any axis.

c) Design strength:

The effective length of the column (Table 11 of IS 800:2007)

3
¿ 0.8 L=0.8 × 4 ×10 =3200 mm

KL 3200
∴ λ= = =42.92
r min 74.56

From table 9c of IS 800:2007, for f y =¿ 250 MPa and λ=¿ 42.92

198−183
f cd =198− ×2.92=193.62 N/mm2
10

Hence, design strength ¿ 193.62× 16571×10−3

¿ 3208.48 kN

Therefore we do not need to calculate f cd value for both the direction, because the buckling
class is the same for both the direction. So we will consider r minimum in which direction it
is coming, the r minimum will be the failure criteria. So we will straight calculate the r
minimum value and then we will find out λ and then according to buckling class we will find
out the fcd value and once we get f cd value we can find out the value of compressive force
which can be carried by that particular member.
So this is how we can calculate the compressive strength and compressive force of a
compression member using IS 800:2007, ok this is all about the calculation of compressive
strength of the member, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 31
Module 7
Compressive Strength

Hello, now I am going to discuss about the design strength of compression member, in last
class I have discussed different factors effecting compressive strength in a compression
member. So from the earlier discussions we have seen the main three parameters which are
effecting on the on the compressive strength of a member, one is the material strength of the
member that means what is the yield strength of the member depending on that the
compressive strength will vary.

So while calculating the compressive strength or while developing the expression for
compressive strength we need to consider the material strength that is yield strength.

Next factor is the slenderness ratio, we have seen from the Euler’s critical load and Euler’s
buckling formula that the compressive strength varies inversely with the slenderness ratio. So
while developing the compressive strength formula means the expression for compressive
strength we need to incorporate the slenderness ratio in that also, so this has to be taken care.

Another aspects which are of the importance we have to give that is the local buckling
because one is crushing, another is overall buckling, and another is local buckling. So
because of the configuration of the member cross section of the member the local buckling of
the flange or web may happen. So that aspects has to also be taken care in the derivation of
the expression for compressive strength.

So these three aspects has to be considered and we have to develop a reasonable accurate
formula and that formula should be capable of reflecting the actual behaviour.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:50)

So let us see how people have started developing formula and what we are adapting. So four
different approaches have been considered for finding the design column formula. So one is
the formula based on the maximum strength, this is one approach in which people have tried.
Another is formula based on the yield limit, which is called Perry-Robertson formula and
basically this approach is considered by our Indian Code the IS 800:2007 has also adapted the
multiple column curves based on the Perry Robertson formula and this is basically similar to
the British code BS 5950 (part-1) 2000.

This the formula which have been derived is similar to the British code and the formula was
prescribed by Perry-Robertson who has proposed. So this has been adapted but we will
discuss about this in details and another two formula are also adapted to establish column
design formula that is formula based on tangent modulus theory and Empirical formula such
as Merchant-Rankine formula. So these four basic approach are observed to establish column
design formula and we may recall the earlier code that is IS 800:1984, which was established
as per Merchant-Rankine formula.

So before going to this new version we will shortly discuss about the Merchant-Rankine
formula, how the earlier code was adapted and then we will come to this formula.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:53)

So in IS 800:1984 Merchant-Rankine formula was adapted where we know the basic formula
is as follows:

1 1 1
= n+
( f ) ( f e) ( f y) n
n

Where, fe is the elastic stress and fy is the yield stress. So considering two stress, one is elastic
stress and yield stress the equivalent stress f can be related as this formula.

So from this we can write

f e×f y
f= 1

( ( f e )n+ ( f y )n )n
π2 E
Here, f e is the elastic critical stress in compression = f cc = 2
λ

n is a factor as 1.4

So considering this the allowable compressive stress in IS code has proposed as follows:

f cc × f y
σ ac =0.6 1
n n n
(( f cc ) +( f y ) )
Now this 0.6 has been taken as a factor of safety and n we can consider as 1.4.
Here we can see that two things has been taken care, one is the material property which is the
yield strength as fy and another is the fcc that is elastic critical stress which comes from
buckling.

So global buckling and the squashing effect has been taken into consideration but another
important parameter which has not been considered is the geometrical configuration of the
cross section of the member.

So before crushing or global buckling due to local buckling the member may fail from which
it is not possible to capture this formula.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:45)

Therefore this formula we are no longer using, we are using the new developed formula
which is based on Perry-Robertson formula.
(Refer Slide Time: 9:00)

According to Perry-Robertson formula the multiple design curve has been adapted by the IS
code, in IS code figure 8 these column buckling curves are given and this is based on the
Perry-Robertson theory. According to Perry-Robertson theory three things has been
considered as I told one is the material strength fy, another is the elastic critical buckling fcc
and another is the local buckling and this local buckling has been considered in terms of this
class a, b, c, d. We can see here four type of graphs have been proposed depending on the
buckling class and in table 7 this buckling class have been defined. We can see here that
according to buckling class a, b, c, d that imperfection factor α has been introduced and this α
value is 0.21 in case of class a, 0.34 in class of b, 0.49 in case of class c and 0.76 in case of
class d.

So according to buckling class the imperfection factor has been proposed and according to
that imperfection factor the column buckling curve for class a, b, c, d have been derived. Here

you can see that along X direction it is λ́=

√ fy
f cr
, non-dimensional and along y direction

fcd/fy where fcd is the design compressive stress and fy is the yield stress and here fy is the yield
stress and fcr is the elastic critical stress, right.

So we could see here that based on Perry-Robertson theory we have considered three means
we have taken into consideration three effects one is due to material f y, another is due to
global buckling and other one is the new component which has been adapted in this code is
the class of the structure means buckling class a, b, c, d so according to buckling class this
has been changed, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:47)

Now coming to the buckling class of cross section we can see that which is given in table 10
of IS 800:2007. In table 10 of IS 800:2007 the different buckling class have been defined
according to the cross sectional dimension. Say for rolled I section, if h/b f is greater than 1.2
and where h is the total depth and bf is the flange width.

So if h/bf is greater than 1.2 and thickness of flange tf is less than or equal to 40, then about z-
z, buckling class will be a and about y-y, buckling class will be b. Here you see that buckling
class about y-y and about z-z is different.

So for the same member the buckling class will be different and therefore the value of α the
imperfection factor will be different for different direction and in case of I section if the
thickness of flange varying from 40 to 100, then about z-z it will be b and about y-y buckling
class will be c. Similarly if h b/bf is less than 1.2 and tf is less than or equal to 100, then
buckling class will be b about z-z axis and c about y-y axis.

And similarly if tf is greater than 100, then buckling class will be d about z-z axis and d about
y-y axis as well. So this is how the buckling class have been defined by the code and
according to that the imperfection factor has also been mentioned in the code, which will be
used while developing the design curve of the column, right.
Similarly for weld section weld I section, if t f is less than equal to 40, then buckling class will
be b about z-z axis, c about y-y axis and if tf is greater than equal to 40, this will be c and
about y-y will be d. Similarly for Hollow section for hot rolled about any axis it will be a and
for cold rolled cold formed section it will be b.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:15)

Now coming to weld box section, here also buckling class has been defined. Similarly I am
not going into details, we can find out in the code, in table 10. The only thing I want to
mention that when we are using channel section, angle section, T section or some solid
section, solid section means rectangular section or circular section then the buckling class
will be c about any direction about any direction, say for angle about y-y axis, about z-z axis
it will be c for both the direction.

Similarly for channel section also it will be c, for T section also it will be c and for built-up
member any direction the buckling class has also been considered as c.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:15)

So these are the thing we need to find out from table 10 of IS 800, for calculating the
imperfection factor α. Now this imperfection factor will be used in the formula given in the
clause 7.1.2 of IS 800:2007, where it is mentioned that P should be less than P d where P is the
external compressive load and Pd is the design compressive load, so design compressive load
should be greater than the external load. The design compressive load P d can be found from
the following formula:

Pd =A e f cd

Where Ae is the effective sectional area effective sectional area which is defined in clause
7.3.2.

Unlike tension member in case of compression member effective sectional area will be the
gross area in general. If generally we do not deduct the whole area because considering the
bolt or rivet whatever we provide are intact with the member. So the gross area will become
the effective sectional area. And fcd is the design compressive stress of axially loaded
compressive member. So we have to find out fcd the design compressive stress.

Now design compressive stress has been given in the code which is written as

f y /γ m 0 fy fy
f cd = 2 2 0.5
=χ ≤
ϕ+[ϕ −λ ] γ m 0 γm 0

χ is basically stress reduction factor which depends on the radius of gyration, length and
imperfection factor that means basically the slenderness ratio and imperfection factor, right.
So fcd value we can find out where phi can be calculated from the following formula,

ϕ=0.5 [1+ α ( λ−0.2 )+ λ2 ]

√
λ=√ f y / f cc= f y
KL 2 2
( )
r
/( π E)

Here K is the length factor to find out basically KL means the effective length and r is the
radius of gyration, fy is the yield strength of the member and E is the modulus of elasticity of
the material.

So from this I can find out the value of λ, right and once I find out the value of λ, I can find
out the value of ϕ with the help of imperfection factor α. So once we can find out ϕ ,
we can find out the value of fcd, right. So this is how one can find out the design compressive
strength of a member.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:10)

2
KL
2
Now fcc = Euler buckling stress ¿ π E / ( )
r

The strength of the member will be considered with respect to minimum radius of gyration.

Then α is the imperfection factor as given in table 7 of IS 800:2007 and this χ is the stress
factor for different buckling class, slenderness ratio and yield stress, right. So three things
have been taken into consider buckling class, slenderness ratio and yield stress.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:25)

Now this is a TDS process to find out the value of fcd, therefore in the IS code some values
are given in a tabular form so that we do not have to calculate the entire things again and
again.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:51)

So if we see the table 8a to table 8d of IS 800:2007 this is given for different yield stress f y
with different λ, say 10, 20, 30 like this, the value say this is 250, so different type of values
are given then the reduction factor value are given for different value of λ and f y, right. So
reduction factors are given. So say for example if we have λ in between 20 and 30 and f y as
250 then we can interpolate between these two to find out a particular value of reduction
factor with respect to particular value of slenderness ratio.
Say for example if λ is equal to 22 we can interpolate between these two to find out the χ
value with respect to 22, right. So this tables 8a to 8d one can find out the value of reduction
factor according to the buckling class a, b, c or d we can choose table 8a or 8b or 8c or 8d and
we can find out the value.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:25)

Similarly we can find out the design compressive stress in table 9 (a to d) for various
buckling class.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:37)

So in table 9 (a to d) we can see that for different value of λ and for different value of f y yield
stress, we can find out the value of f cd. Say for example say 10, 20, 30 like these λs are
varying and fy is say 200, 250, 300 like this it is varying. So for a particular value of λ we can
find out the value of fy and then from the table 9 a, b, c or d according to the buckling class
we can find out the value of fcd, say for example this is x1, this is x2 for 10 and 20.

Then for λ is equal to say 12, we can find out the value of f cd in between x1 and x2 means in
between x1 and x2 we can find out the value of fcd by interpolating the values, right. So very
quickly one can find out the fcd value by using table 9, table 9 have four tables a, b, c, d with
respect to buckling class a, b, c, d.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:12)

Now another thing we have to remember while designing the compressive member that is the
allowable slenderness ratio. So that has been defined in table 3 of IS 800:2007. The allowable
slenderness ratio for compressive member that is like carrying loads resulting from dead load
and superimposed load the limiting value is 180 that means the effective slenderness ratio KL
by r should not become more than 180 in case of dead load and live load or superimposed
load.

When carrying loads resulting from wind and seismic loads provided the deformation of such
a member does not adversely affect the stress in any part of the structure we can increase upto
250, so allowable slenderness ratio is 250 for such type of cases.

Now normally acting as a tie in a roof truss for a bracing member which is not considered
effective when subjected to reversal of stress resulting from acting wind or earthquake forces
that can be made as 350, so allowable slenderness ratio will become 350.
Similarly lacing bars in columns will be 145, when the built-up sections will be used then the
lacing bars has to be designed, so in such cases the slenderness ratio will should not be more
than 145.

And different elements or components in built-up section there it should be less than 50, so
different components in built-up section the allowable slenderness ratio should not exceeds
50. So this is how we have to follow this codal provision while designing the member, right.
So in today’s lecture what we could see that design column curve can be obtained from the
Perry-Robertson formula which takes care the material properties, material strength which
takes the slenderness ratio that means buckling and also the buckling class of the member that
means the configuration of the structure cross sections which effects as a local buckling.

So to take care these three effects the yielding, global buckling, and local buckling the
formula has been derived, right and it is observed from the literature that using such type of
formula the behaviour of the compression members are similar to this formula whatever we
are getting that means after numerous experimental verifications this formula has been
adapted by our code and we can now use this formula for finding out the design strength of
the compressive member and we can design accordingly.

So in next class we will see how to calculate the design strength of a compression member,
we will see how to calculate the design strength of a built-up compression member and then
we will go for design of compression members. So for today’s lecture we will we will like to
conclude here, thanks.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 32
Module 7
Compressive strength of angle struts

In this lecture we will be focused on compressive strength calculation of strut angles. We

know when a member is subjected to compressive force and used in a bracing system or in a
roof truss are called struts. This strut basically takes light load and the effective length will be
comparatively less. So for such cases we generally use angle section to take care the
compressive load.

(Refer Slide Time 1:37)

Now this compressive load may act concentrically on the angle section or may act through its
one leg which will be eccentric and the strength calculation of such type of angle sections are
given in code in clause 7.5 of IS 800:2007. Now in clause 7.5.1 of IS 2007 it is told that the
compression in single angles may be transferred either concentrically to its centroid through
end gusset or eccentrically by one of its leg to a gusset or adjacent member.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:04)

That means an angle sections is loaded with the axial compression member and either the
compressive load will be transferred through this Cg of this angle section by the use of gusset
plate or it may be transferred through one of its leg may be through one of its leg.

So when the angle section is transferring the load through its one leg, then the eccentricity
will come into picture and because of this eccentricity three types of things will happen one is
torsional buckling, torsional buckling means basically flexural torsional buckling, another is
flexural buckling which comes for all the members which is common, and another is
torsional buckling.

So the combination of flexural torsional buckling can be calculated from a formula which is
given in the clause 7.5.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:49)

Now for concentric loading when the angle is concentrically loaded this can be calculated
through the clause 7.1.2 mean in case of concentrically loaded in compression the design
strength may be evaluated as per clause 7.1.2 of IS 800:2007. This clause 7.1.2 we have
discussed already that means it is a concentric loading what we have designed earlier in case
of compression member, which may be channel section, maybe I section, maybe other type of
section.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:41)

However if this is not concentric then we have to go for another clause which is given in
clause 7.5.1.2 when the angle section is loaded by the axial compressive load through its one
leg. So in clause 7.5.1.2 it is told that when the single angle is loaded concentrically through
one of the its leg the flexural torsional buckling strength may be evaluated using an
equivalent slenderness ratio, λe , which is given by

λe = √ k 1+ k 2 λ 2vv +k 3 λ 2ϕ

Where k 1 , k 2 , k 3=¿ constants depending upon the end condition as per Table 12 of IS 800-
2007. Depending upon end condition means whether it is fixed or it is hinged, whether it is
connected by one bolt, two bolt or welded depending on the end condition end fixity
condition the value of k1, k2, k3 is defined in table 12.

l /r vv
λ vv =
ε √ π E/250
2

( b1+ b2 )/2 t
λ ϕ=
ε √ π 2 E/250

Where, l = centre to centre length of the supporting member

r vv = radius of gyration about minor axis

b1 , b2 = width of two legs of the angle

t = thickness of the leg

ε = yield stress ratio, ε =√ 250/f y

Now for a particular grade of steel this π 2 E /250 is constant, so that can be calculated
because E is constant for a particular grade of steel, therefore ε is also constant. So if we
can calculate λ vv and λϕ and if we find out the value of k 1, k2, k3 from table 12 then I
can find out the equivalent slenderness ratio λe .
(Refer Slide Time: 7:58)

Now we have used r vv in the previous expression which is the radius of gyration about
minor axis, which will be the minimum radius of gyration about the minor.

So for a particular angle section we can find out the properties from the geometry, from SP: 6
we can find out the value of r vv for a particular angle section then we know what is the width
of the legs of the angle b1, b2 and thickness of the leg and also if we know the grade of steel
then we can find out the yield stress ratio ε that also we can find out.

And the constants k1, k2, k3 that can be found in table 12 of IS 800:2007. Now this value of k1,
k2, k3 depends on number of bolts at the end of the member as well as the connecting member
fixity that means gusset or connecting member fixity means what type of fixity is there
whether it is fixed, or hinged depending on that and whether number of bolts are more than or
equal to 2 or 1. So depending on that we can find out k1, k2, k3.

Say for example if I have a fixed connection, if fixity is there and if the number of bolts are 2
or more than 2 then I can take the value of k 1 as 0.2, value of k2 as 0.35 and value of k3 as 20.
So similarly I can consider different type of member fixity, if it is hinged then k 1, k2, k3 value
can be found, similarly if number of bolts are 1 at the end then depending upon the fixity I
can find out the value of k1, k2, k3.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:29)

Now the theory whatever we have discussed theory means the expression for finding out
λe value has been discussed, so for such type of members how to find out the design
strength that can be understood if I go through this example.

Example: An ISA 150×150×12 used as a strut has the effective length as 3 m. Calculate the
strength when it is connected by

a) One bolt at each end

b) Two bolts at each end
c) Welded at each end

Solution:

Basically what changes we will find out for different cases that is the equivalent λ which is
λe. So λe depend on k1, k2, k3 so that k1, k2, k3 can be found from table 12 and depending on
the type of fixity and number of bolts the k 1, k2, k3 value will change and accordingly the
strength will be going to change. So through this example we will try to understand.

For ISA 150×150×12, A = 3459 mm2, [Table III, SP:6(1)-1964]

rvv = 29.3 mm

For angle sections, Buckling curve ‘c’ is used. [Table 10, IS 800:2007]

Imperfection factor, α = 0.49 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

a) Connected by one bolt at each end:

Assuming fixed conditions, for one bolt at each end,

k1 = 0.75, k2 = 0.35, k3 = 20 [Table 12, IS 800: 2007]
c/c length, l = 3000 mm

Yield stress ratio, ε =√ 250/f y =√250 /250=1 [cl.7.5.1.2 of IS 800: 2007]

l /r vv 3 000 /29.3
λ vv = =   =  1.1523
ε √ π E/250 1× √ π 2 ×2 ×105 /250
2

(Refer Slide Time: 17:02)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:45)

150+150
( b1+ b2 )/2 t
λ ϕ= 2× 12 = 0.1407
ε √ π 2 E/250 ¿
1 × √ π × 2× 105 /250
2

(Refer Slide Time: 19:04)

Hence, λe = √ k 1+ k 2 λ 2vv +k 3 λ 2ϕ

¿ √ 0.75+0.35 ×1.15232 +20 ×0.1 407 2

= 1.2692
2
Now ϕ=0.5 [1+ α ( λ−0.2 )+ λ ]

¿ 0.5[1+0.49 × ( 1. 2692−0.2 ) +1.269 22 ]

= 1.5674

(Refer Slide Time: 20:14)

f y /γ m 0
Design compressive stress, f cd =
∅+[∅2 −λ2 ]0.5
(Refer Slide Time: 21:05)

f y /γ m 0
f cd =
∅+[∅2 −λ2 ]0.5

250/1.1
¿ 2 2 0.5
1.567 4+[1.567 4 −1.269 2 ]

= 91.38 N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 22:58)

Now

Pd =A e f cd = 3459×91.38 ×10−3 = 316.1 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 24:14)

b) Connected by two bolts at each end:

Now the same calculations will be done when the two sides are calculated by two bolt for the
same case and let us see how the strength is going to vary from earlier case.

Assuming fixed conditions, for two bolts at each end,

k1 = 0.2, k2 = 0.35, k3 = 20 [Table 12, IS 800:2007]

Effective length, l = 3000 mm ; ε =1

Therefore, λ vv=1.1523

λ ϕ =¿ 0.1407

λe = √ 0.2+0.35 ×1.1523 2+20 × 0 .1407 2

¿ 1.03
(Refer Slide Time: 27:06)

2
ϕ=0.5 [1+ α ( λ−0.2 )+ λ ]

¿ 0.5 [ 1+ 0.49× ( 1. 03−0.2 ) +1. 032 ]

¿ 1.2338

f y /γ m 0
f cd =
∅+[∅2 −λ2 ]0.5

250 /1.1
¿ 2 2 0.5 = 118.8 N/mm2
1.2338+[1.2338 −1. 03 ]

(Refer Slide Time: 29:06)

 Pd =A e f cd = 3459×118.8 ×10−3 = 410.9 kN

c) Connected by weld at each end:

Now coming to third case when it is connected by weld at each end, so for this case what we
can consider that this will be similar to the earlier. So in case of weld connection we can
assume it will be fixed at both the end and as we have calculated the k1, k2, k3 value
considering two bolts for this case also will become same.

This case will be exactly similar to earlier case, i.e., Connected by two bolts at each end.
Therefore,

Pd =¿ 410.9 kN

So what we have seen here that Pd value for first case we got 316.1 kilonewton and for
second case we got Pd is equal to 410.9 kilonewton and in third case Pd value we got 410.9
kilonewton, that means when two bolts or weld connections are used the design strength is
becoming higher compared to the one bolt connections, right. So if we want to increase the
strength of the member we should choose for higher number of bolts means where one bolt is
sufficient we will choose two bolt with smaller diameter. So that we can accommodate more
strength on the member with same member size member size will be same but strength will
be more because λe is going to change, right.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 33
Module 7
Compressive strength of double angles

Now I will be discussing about the design compressive strength of a double angles section.
Now double angles section is oftenly used because many cases appear when the single angle
is not capable of taking that much load and also in case of single angle the radius of gyration
about the minor axis is very low compared to its X axis, or Y axis, or major axis. Therefore as
radius of gyration is quite low about in minor axis, so strength of the angle section is quite
low because it may buckle about its minor axis.

And if radius of gyration is low then slenderness ratio will be high and if the slenderness ratio
high then the design compressive stress will be less and therefore the design strength of the
member will be less. Therefore with the given load sometimes we go for double angle
section. Double angle section may be placed by back to back with gusset plate means two
sides of gusset plate two angle section can be provided or in the same side of gusset plate
angle sections can be provided. So this is how one can place the angle sections to make
double angle section.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:15)

Now to know the design strength of the angle section first we have to know the effective
length of the double angles which is given in clause 7.5.2. So the codal provision says that
depending on the degree of restraint provided the effective length will be consider as 0.7 to
0.85 times the distance between intersections and the effective length KL, in the plane
perpendicular to that of the end gusset shall be taken as equal to the distance between centre
of intersections. That means here K value will be 1, so this is what the codal provision says.

So when we will be going to calculate the strength of a double angle section we have to
follow this codal provision 7.5.2 to find out the effective length and thereafter the slenderness
ratio and then compressive stress, the allowable compressive stress. Therefore we have to
know the effective length of the double angle section means whether it is according to the
degree of restraint means whether the length is in the plane perpendicular to that of end
gusset or other one.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:02)

So angle sections may be provided like this, say suppose two angle sections I want to
provide. Now that may be possible if I use two angle section on the opposite side of gusset
plate, this is one way we can make, the other way we can provide like two angle section in
same side of the gusset plate.

Also the two angles can be provided like star formation also however it depends on the
requirement means what type of architectural requirement is there depending on that we can
provide such type of double angle section. And also we will see if I provide angle section
opposite side to the gusset plate or same side of the gusset plate then at which formation the
strength will be more and that can be check through one workout example.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:03)

Example: A discontinuous strut of length 4 m consists of two unequal angles ISA 100×75×8
and is connected to a 10 mm thick gusset plate by its longer leg. Determine the strength if it is
connected on the:

i) Opposite side of the gusset plate

ii) Same side of the gusset plate

Solution:

Properties of ISA 100×75×8 : [Table IV, SP:6(1)-1964]

A= 1336 mm2

rx = 31.4 mm ry = 21.8 mm

ru = 34.8 mm rv = 15.9 mm

Cx = 31.0 mm Cy = 18.7 mm

Ix = 131.6×104 mm4 Iy = 63.3×104 mm4

(Refer Slide Time: 8:12)

i) Angles placed on opposite sides of the gusset plate:

For double angle struts

A ' = 2×1336 = 2672 mm2

'
r x = 31.4 mm (same as for single angle)

I 'y =2 [ I y + A ( c y +t g /2 ) 2 ]

(Refer Slide Time: 12:50)

 I 'y =2 [ I y + A ( c y +t g /2 ) 2 ]

¿ 2× [ 63.3× 10 4 +1336 × ( 18.7+10 /2 ) 2 ]

¿ 276.68× 10 4 mm 4

Therefore, r '
y =
√ I 'y
A'
=
√ 276.68 ×10 4
2672
=32.18 mm

' '
Hence, r min =min of ( r x ∧r y ) =31.4 mm

Now effective Length, l e =0.85 l=0.85 × 4=3.4 m [Cl. 7.5.2.1, IS 800]

(Refer Slide Time: 15:22)

 le
Slenderness Ratio, λ ¿
r min

3.4 × 1000
¿ =108.28<180 [Table 3, IS 800 2007]
31.4

Hence, the section is ok.

Buckling class for angle section – ‘c’ [Table 10, IS 800: 2007]

For f y=250 MPa and λ=108.28 and buckling class c, using Table 9(c) of IS 800:
2007, we have

( 107−94.6 )
f cd =107− × 8.28=96.73 MPa
10

(Refer Slide Time: 18:34)

Hence strength of the member ¿ 96.73 ×2672 ×10−3

¿ 258.46 k N

ii) Angle placed on the same side of the gusset plate

 '
A = 2672 mm2

r 'y = 21.8 mm (same as for single angle)

(Refer Slide Time: 20:38)

I 'x =2 [ I x + A C x2 ]

¿ 2× [ 131.6×104 +1336 ×31 2 ]

¿ 519.98× 10 4 mm 4

Therefore r 'x =
√ I 'x
A'
=
√ 519.98 ×10 4
2672
=44. 11 mm

' '
Hence, r min =min of ( r x ∧r y ) =21.8 mm
(Refer Slide Time: 22:36)

Effective Length, l e =0.85 l=0.85 × 4=3.4 m [cl. 7.5.2.1, IS 800: 2007]

le
Slenderness Ratio, λ ¿
r min

3.4 × 1000
¿ =155.96<180 [Table 3, IS 800: 2007]
21.8

Hence, the section is ok.

Buckling class for angle section – ‘c’ [table 10, IS 800: 2007]

For f y=250 MPa and λ=155.96 and buckling class c, using table 9(c) of IS 800:
2007, we have

(59.2−53.3 )
f cd =59.2− ×5.96=55.68 MPa
10

Hence strength of the member ¿ 55.68× 2672× 10−3

¿ 148.78 k N
(Refer Slide Time: 24:50)

Strength of the member when Angles placed on

(i) Opposite sides of the gusset plate: 258.46 k N

(ii) Same side of the gusset plate: 148.78 k N

So what we could see for the same angle if it is placed opposite side to the gusset plate its
strength is quite high compared to this that means we will try to prefer always the angles to
be placed opposite side of the gusset plate. So that the strength can be achieved more
compared to the earlier case means when angles are placed same side of the gusset plate.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 34
Module 7
Design of Compression Members

So far we have discussed about the design strength of compression member that means how
to calculate the strength of a compression member that we have understood. If the cross
sectional dimension of a member is given and the type of member is given then we can find
out the strength of that member. In this lecture I will discuss how to design a compression
member when the load is given and accordingly how to find out an appropriate section.

Now to find out appropriate section first we have to decide what type of sections we are
going to choose it may be I section, it may be channel section, it may be angle section or it
may be built-up section. So according to the requirement we have to choose a particular type
of section.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:40)

Now to design the section we have to follow an iterative process. If we see the design
strength (Pd) calculation, the design compressive force Pd can be calculated as follows

Pd =A e × f cd
Now we do not know Ae because we do not know the dimension of the section, so effective
area we do not know. Also we do not know the allowable compressive stress (f cd) of the
member because it depends on the slenderness ratio which is depends on the radius of
gyration. Now the radius of gyration will be depending on the dimension of the section. So
both the parameters are unknown and dependent on each other. Therefore there is no linear
process to find out simply the dimension of the section.

So what we need to do either we have to assume certain compressive stress f cd, then we can
find out the area required and then again we can go for the design. Now we can find out the
fcd directly where we generally consider f cd as 0.4fy to 0.6fy. However this is a trial process
means at the beginning we can start with this f cd and then we will be able to understand at the
end whether the member is fine or not, if it is not fine then either we have to increase or
decrease according to the results.

Also we can consider the lambda value or the radius of gyration. Now the radius of gyration
if we know then from table 9 we can find out the value of f cd. So either we can choose radius
of gyration or we can choose fcd directly then we have to go.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:49)

Now let us see what the steps we should follow are

1) Assume a suitable design compression stress ( f cd ) as 0.4fy to 0.6 fy.

Now if the slenderness ratio is less then we can consider little higher side, if the slenderness
ratio is high we can consider lower side but we do not know slenderness ratio but we know
the effective length, length of the member is known.

So if length of member is high then we have to choose a lower value and if effective length is
less then we can choose a higher value also.

Pd
2) Effective sectional area required is, A e=
f cd

3) A section is to be selected which gives effective area required and then calculate rmin.

4) Determine effective length, knowing the end conditions and by deciding the type of
connection.

5) Determine the slenderness ratio and hence design stress fcd and load carrying capacity Pd.

6) Modify the section if calculated Pd differs significantly from the design load.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:54)

Now another way to find out the lambda value means in place of f cd one can choose a lambda
which are given in this table. Approximately we can choose this set of slenderness ratio, like
in case of single angle section we can choose slenderness ratio as 100 to 150, in case of
channel section single channel section 90 to 150, in case of double angle 80 to 120, for
double channel the slenderness ratio value can be considered much less 40 to 80, similarly
single I-sections 80 to 150, double I-sections 30 to 60. So from this l/r value we can find out
and accordingly the fcd value from table 9 and then we can find out the particular section then
we can iterate.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:49)

Example: Design a compression member carrying an axial load of 250kN. The effective
length of the member is 3 m. Design the member with 2 equal angles in star orientation as
shown in the figure below.
v

v u

x x
y

y
 10 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 11:16)

Solution:

Assuming f cd =0.5 f y=0.5 ×250=1 25 MPa

2 50 ×1000
Required area ¿ =20 00 mm2
1 25

Selecting 2 ISA 90×90×6 with the following properties [Table III, SP: 6(1)-1964]

2
A=1047 mm

c x =c y =24.2 mm r x =r y =27.7 mm

r u=35 mm r v =17.5 mm

Now I have to find out the property of the combined section.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:46)

So property of the combined section can be found as follows

A ' =2 ×1047=2094 mm 2

Assuming 10 mm gusset plate.

2
'
( ( )) t
We know , I =2 I x + A C x + g
x
2

(Refer Slide Time: 14:48)

So if we see the orientation of the angle it is something like this, so this thickness of the
gusset plate is 10 mm, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:40)

Therefore

√
2
t
r =r = r + c x + g
'
x
'
y x
2
2 ( )
√
¿ 27.72 +(24.2+
10 2
2
) =40.25 mm

√
2
tg
(
r 'v = r v 2+2 c y +
2 )
 √
¿ 1 7.52 +2 ×(24.2+
10 2
2
) =44.85 mm

r 'u=r u=35 mm , Hence, r min =35 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 18:32)

'
r u=r u=35 mm , Hence, r min =35 mm

Effective Length, l e =0.85 l=0.85 ×3000 [cl. 7.5.2.1, IS 800]

¿ 2550 mm

l e 2550
So λ= = =72.86<180 hence safe.
r min 35

For f y=250 MPa and λ=72.86 and buckling class c, using table 9(c) of IS 800 :
2007, we have

(152−136 )
f cd =152− × 2.86=147.42 MPa
10

(Refer Slide Time: 20:49)

Hence strength of the member ¿ 147.42× 2094 ×10−3

¿ 308.7 k N >250 kN

Hence the member is safe.

So though member is safe theoretically what we should do we should decrease the member
size and we should see in which member it is going to be safe marginally, right. So once it is
done now suppose we are making safe this one and we are using this section.

Tack welding:

Tack welding should be provided along the length to avoid local buckling of each of the
elements

λ e ≤ 0.6 λ=0.6 ×72.86=43.716 or 40, whichever is less (clause 7.8.1)

(Refer Slide Time: 23:58)

So, λ e=S/r v=40

Hence, spacing between welds, S=40 ×rv (Min r of the individual member)
¿ 40 ×1 7.5=700 mm

Welding is designed to resist a transverse load (P) of 2.5% of axial load

¿ 2.5 ×250/100=6.25 kN

Using 5 mm weld size (shop weld)

(Refer Slide Time: 25:44)

P 6. 25 ×103
Hence length of weld = te f u = 0.7 ×5 × 410 = 9.43 mm
√ 3 γ mw √3 ×1.25
Hence provide a 5mm tack welding of 10 mm length at 700 mm spacing.

So we have seen here how to make tack welding and how to find out the weld distribution,
weld size and weld length for tack welding. Now in earlier case we have seen that the load is
coming 250 kN whereas we have done with the assume section here we got the load carrying
capacity as 308.7 kN. That means we have to repeat the design to get an economical section
because if we use this section it will not be economic.

So it is always better to make a program at our own and use that, if we make a program and
do it then we can find out the economic section, because in programming required amount of
iteration will be done automatically if we make the algorithm properly, so we do not have to
do anything means once we develop a program then we can find out an economic section. So
through iteration it will search which one will be the best section to carry out that much
external load.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:58)

So here I will just show a demonstration, here you see we have developed a program for
design of compression member using MATLAB environment and it is graphical user
interface based program. So there is a problem has been demonstrated as follows

Example: Design a single angle discontinuous strut to carry a factored load of 50 kN.
Assume that the distance between its joints is 2 m. Use f y =250 Mpa.
(Refer Slide Time: 29:51)

So this is the GUI of the program in first page it will show you the different option here we
have made three options only one is single angle section, another is double angle section on
same side and double angle section on opposite side, for these three cases we have developed
the program for other cases we have to develop. So those who want to develop they can make
the algorithm in such a way that the different type of orientation of the angle sections can be
used.

So for this case as it is told that single angle section, so we have to click on single angle
section then it will show this type of section and then if we enter the input values then it will
go to next page.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:49)

In next page you can see that factor load it was actually 50 kN and effective length of
compression member was given 2 meter which is 2000 millimetre, imperfection factor as per
table 7, then maximum effective slenderness ratio can be defined as per table 3, then the
gusset plate thickness if we are going to use, double angle section then we have to provide
gusset plate thickness otherwise we can provide 0 because we are not using any gusset plate.

Then we can opt whether it is equal angle section or unequal angle section, if unequal angle
section then again we have option that outstanding leg is larger or the connected leg is larger
means as we will be choosing according to that orientation will be done and calculation will
be made accordingly. Then according to table 5 the material strength means factor for
material strength γ m 0 that will be calculated if we click here, if we give the check box
automatically it will take the value, otherwise we can put our chosen value also.

Similarly as Fe410 grade of steel if u use then automatically its ultimate tensile strength and
yield strength will be shown otherwise u can provide at our own also. Then we have to go to
next.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:36)

So if we go to next then this type of page will come where the data whatever we have
provided has been shown means now if we see that if some data are mistakenly done means
by mistake if we have given some data then we can go to back and we can provide the proper
data, otherwise we can click on check a particular section means if we can click here it will
show different section available in SP: 6, so we can check a particular section for example
ISA 90 by 90 by 10.
Now if it is okay then it will show okay, otherwise it will show it is unsafe and if we click on
find economical section then it will start from the least one and it will go on increasing stage
by stage for each case it will check whether it is okay or not, if it is not okay then it will go
for next higher section and then again it will check. So in this way lot of iteration will happen
and finally it will find out the economic section, this is how the program runs.
(Refer Slide Time 34:12)

So if we choose a particular section we can make then this is the output. Now if we u see here
that 75×75×6 section has been chosen and these are the inputs which has been given and in
output it is shown that design compressive strength is coming 59.43 whereas the external
force was 50 kN. So marginally higher value is coming and thus effective slenderness ratio
also coming 137 and allowable slenderness ratio was 180, so this is how one can find out the
values.

So from demonstration of this program what I wanted to say is writing a MATLAB code is
very easy if you know the design methodology, if you know how to calculate that design
strength of a compression member, then the same can be written in a program and then by
providing some loop we can try with different section and finally we can find out a suitable
section by trial and error method.

So once if we develop such type of program then next we can just simply we can do not have
to do anything else, otherwise every time if you do not have program at our hand then we
have to calculate every type means those who are design engineer, those who are working in
design firm for then every time they have to calculate for designing a particular member but
once we develop a customized program then we do not need to give that much effort for
every time.

So this is all about the design of compression member with respect to single compression
member or single angle section or double angle section this is what we will do.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 35
Module 7
Design of Built up Compression Member

In this lecture we are going to discuss about the design procedure of built up members. Built
up members comprises of two or more rolled steel section. When a compressive load is so
heavy that a single rolled section cannot withstand that much load because there is a
limitation of maximum size of the rolled section. Therefore when load becomes very high we
may have to go for built up section.

This is not only because of the high load but also sometimes we need equal radius of gyration
in both the direction because in rolled steel section we generally see that radius of gyration in
one direction is much higher than the other direction. Therefore the buckling will happen
about the weaker section first and as a result the load carrying capacity of the steel rolled
section member will be less about a particular direction, to arrest that generally we provide a
built up section where higher radius of gyration can be achieved in both the direction and
thereby we can increase the load carrying capacity by providing such type of built up
members.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:56)

Now coming to reason as I told that one is that the built up section provide large cross-
sectional area which cannot be furnished by single rolled steel section. Then built up section
provide special shape and depth. The special shape and depth facilitated connections between
different members. And another important thing is that the built up section provide sufficient
large radius of gyration in two directions. Therefore we generally prefer built up members in
case of long length of column and with higher load.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:42)

Say for example if we consider a channel section as a compression member as shown in the
figure, as we can see the Izz is much higher than Iyy, right or rzz is much higher than ryy.
Therefore the chances of buckling about y-y axis will be much earlier than about z-z axis. So
if we provide built up member then we can increase the radius of gyration by providing
another member and with a certain spacing.

So if we do that then we can see that the new I yy of the section will become much higher and
the built up member generally we provide in such a way that I zz become Iyy means we will
vary this spacing between two members to such an extent that when I zz become Iyy upto that
we will vary, or rzz become ryy. So in this way we provide the configuration of the built up
member.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:27)

Now examples of built-up member if we see, here we can see that we can use 4 angle section
to make a box type of cross section by the use of certain tie plate which is called generally
lacing or battening. So this is one example where we can use built up section to increase the
Ixx and Iyy of the section.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:03)

Another type of built-up members generally we used is that when two channel sections are
placed back to back, where built-up members are connected with the lacing or battening
member.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:19)

Next is channel section when facing face to face this way also we can provide a built-up
member.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:28)

Then I section with channel section at the top as per the requirement, sometimes we see the
requirement and according to that requirement we may have to provide that I section with a
channel section at the top.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:44)

Sometimes two I sections are provided to withstand the load as shown in the figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:49) 6:38

Sometimes in place of plate girder we generally see that I sections are provided with
additional plates. So number of plates are added as per the requirement and in this way we
increase the load carrying capacity of the member. Generally we provide I section with plates
when the bending moment of the member is becomes high. That means when a member is
under flexural action then because of bending stress may be the single I section is not capable
of taking that much load.
So in that case we may have to provide the additional plates as per requirement. So this is
another example of built-up member.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:44)

This is an another type of built-up member which is consisting of 4 angles which is called
star angle.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:51)

Now coming to design of built-up compression member, the following steps we have to
follow. In the first step for the design of built-up compression member we find out the
effective length. Therefore in step 1 we find out the effective length from the actual length
and end condition.
Then in 2nd step we generally assume certain value of slenderness ratio λ as 30 to 60 for built
up section. We generally consider less value of λ because of the built up section the radius of
gyration is quite high and therefore the slenderness ratio we can consider quite less means it
may be from 30 to 60 which will be sufficient.

Then in step 3 we find the compressive stress fcd from table 9c because the buckling class for
built-up member is c, therefore we can use table c and corresponding to table c for a
particular value of λ whatever we consider we can find out the fcd value for a given grade of
steel. So once we get the f cd value, in step-4 we can find out the required cross-sectional area
(A) which is P by fcd, where P is the axial compressive force which is acting on the member.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:54)

So once we get the area of the compressive member then in step-5 we can choose a built-up
section as per the requirement it may be channel section back to back, it may be channel
section face to face, it may be I section. As per the requirement we have to decide what type
of sections we are going to provide and what will be the arrangement. So accordingly we will
find out the area from that considered section and then we will arrange the section in such a
way may be if we use two channel section back to back, then we will arrange the section in
such a way that the Ixx or Izz become Iyy, so that we can find out the value of S, where S is the
spacing between two section.

So here our job is to find out the value of S in such a way that I zz will become Iyy. Once this S
is found we can find out the rmin value which will be practically more or less equal rzz and ryy.
So in step-6, from the minimum value of the radius of gyration we can calculate the λ, the
slenderness ratio which is le/r.

So from the slenderness ratio again we can go back to table 9c and in step-7 we can find out
the value of fcd corresponding to particular λ and grade of steel, right. So once we get f cd value
we can find out the design compressive strength P d which is Ae×fcd. So design compressive
strength we can find out and if we see the design compressive strength is more than the axial
compressive strength acting externally then it is okay, otherwise we can go for a higher
section and we can repeat from step 5 to step 7.

That means if we see the design strength is less than the actual load then we have to go for
next higher section and we have to repeat the steps so that we get P d as greater than P and
then we can stop. So this is how we can find out the section size of the member and then we
can find out the arrangement of the section that what will be the spacing between two
members. Then we have to design the lacing system or batten system as we provide because
lacing system or batten system along the length we provide to tie the compression members
in a proper way so that the built-up members become parallel to each other, also it has to be
equidistance throughout its length.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:27)

Now we will go through one example through which we will be able to understand how to
design a built up section.
Example: Design a laced column 10.5 m long to carry factored axial load of 1000 kN. The
column is restrained in position but not in direction at both the ends. Use 2 channel section
placed as back to back as shown in the figure below.

So what we need to do here is we have to find out what the section size of the channel is and
what will be the distance between these 2 channel section that is S and the design of lacing
we will do later.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:21)

Solution:
For steel of grade Fe 410:
f u =410 MPa, f y =250 MPa
Design of column:
P=1000 kN ¿ 1000× 10 3 N
Le =1.0 ×10.5=10.5 m
(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

Now let the design axial compressive stress for the column be 150 MPa

1000 ×10 3
Required area ¿ =6666.67 mm2
150

Let us try two ISMC 250 @ 298.2 N/m.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:01)

Relevant properties of ISMC 250 [ Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]

A=3867 mm2, r zz =99.4 mm,

r yy =23.8 mm t f =14.1 mm
I zz =3816.8 ×10 4 mm4 I yy =219.1 ×10 4 mm4
 c yy =23 mm b=80 mm
Area provided ¿ 2× 3867=7734 mm2

In the design of built-up column with two sections, the sections are so spaced that the least
radius of gyration of the built-up section becomes as large a value as possible. Therefore, the
radius of gyration about y-y axis is increased so that it becomes equal to or more than the
radius of gyration about z-z axis. This can be achieved by spacing the sections in such a way
that r zz becomes r min . Let us first check the safety of the section.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:37)

L 10.5× 103
Now = =105.63
r zz 99.4

(Refer Slide Time: 17:53)

As per clause 7.6.1.5 of IS 800:2007,

The effective slenderness ratio, ( KLr ) =1.05 ×105.63

e

¿ 110.91<180

For ( KLr ) =1 10.91,

e
f y =250 MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress
from Table 9c of IS 800: 2007
94.6−83.7
f cd =94.6− ×0.91=93.61 MPa
10

Therefore load carrying capacity ¿ A e f cd

¿ 7734 ×93.61 ×10−3

¿ 723.98 kN < 1000 kN

Which is not safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:44)
Try two ISMC 300 @ 351.2 N/m
Relevant properties of ISMC 300 [Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]

A=4564 mm2, r zz =118.1 mm,

r yy =26.1 mm t f =13.6 mm
I zz =6362.6 ×10 4 mm4 I yy=310.8 ×10 4 mm4
c yy =23.6 mm b=90 mm
Area provided ¿ 2× 4564=9128 mm2

L 10.5× 103
= =88.91
r zz 118.1

As per clause 7.6.1.5 of IS 800:2007,

The effective slenderness ratio, ( KLr ) =1.05 × 88.91

e

¿ 93.35<180

So from slenderness ratio point of view the section chosen is okay.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:25)

For ( KLr ) =93.35 ,
e
f y =250 MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress

from Table 9c of IS 800: 2007

121−107
f cd =121− × 3.35=116.31 Mpa
10

Therefore load carrying capacity ¿ A e f cd

¿ 9128 ×116.31 ×10−3

¿ 1061.68 kN > 1000 kN

Which is safe.

Let us provide two channels (ISMC 300) back-to-back.

Now next question is that what will be the spacing of these two channel. As we have seen that
the spacing will be decided on the basis of the equal strength from each direction.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:21)

Spacing of channels:

[ ( )]
2
S
2 I zz =2 I yy+ A +C yy
2

[ )]
2
S
or 2× 6362.6 ×10 4=2 × 310.8× 10 4+ 4564 ( 2
+23.6

2
S
or ( 2 )
+23.6 =13259.86

⇒ S=183.1 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 27:38)

Let us keep the channels at a spacing of 184 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 28:19)
 ISMC 300

S=184 mm

So the spacing between these two members will become 184 and ISMC 300 section will be
used. So in this lecture what we could see is that the design steps design procedure of built up
section and a work out example has been done to demonstrate the procedure for designing a
built up section. In this example we have restricted upto the calculation of the section size
that means what will be the section size and its spacing between two section.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 36
Module 8
Lacing Systems

In this lecture we are going to discuss about the lacing systems. Lacing systems are used
basically to keep the built up sections throughout its length and we need to tie them to make
them parallel and to make them equidistant and to make them act as a monolithically, so that
as a whole the built up section works.

So for that we may use lacing which are basically some inclined member between the two
vertical members. We can also use batten system instead of lacing system. Batten system is
basically it is a horizontal plate which are connected with the two main members. But in this
lecture we will be discussing about the lacing member which are basically the inclined
members and these lacing members are used when compressive loads are acts eccentrically.
Therefore especially for eccentric loading we generally prefer lacing system.

Now for lacing system the lacing members are generally flat plate, it may be angle section, it
may be light channel section, or may be circular section means tubular section, so in different
way we can provide.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:53)

Now in case of lacing member again we can consider two type of lacing member as shown in
the figure.

So we can provide as a single lacing or we can provide double lacing also. So in different
way we can connect the lacing members. So when we will be designing we have to first
decide whether we are going for single lacing or double lacing because accordingly the force
on lacing member will come into picture that has to be taken care.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:21)

Now when we will be going for designing of a lacing we need to know what the failure
modes of the lattice member are. So what type of failure may happen that we will first see
and accordingly we will try to develop a design methodology so that the failure can be
pretend. Built-up members may fail due to buckling of built up member as a whole. So in
case of buckling of built up member as a whole, if column is very slender and axial load is
much high then it may buckle as shown in the figure.

Another way it may fail that buckling of main component as shown in the figure. So what we
could see if the loading whatever it is coming for that if the member is not able to carry that
much load due to excessive buckling then the main component may fail. if we use channel
section as a main component then the minimum radius of gyration will be about y-y, so the
failure will happen about that section. So as a local failure this can arise buckling of main
component.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:48)

Then another way of failure is the distortion of the section. Say for example there is a built up
section as shown in the figure where lacing has been provided. Now if distortion happens it
will be something like this, so due to distortion the failure may happen which has to be taken
care.

Another failure is the failure of lacing member or batten member whatever we are providing
that has to be also taken care. Say for example if we provide two built up sections with the
lacing and its width is less compared to its length then it may buckle.

Now what we need to do is that we will design the lacing system in such a way that it will
arrest the failure of local buckling, it will arrest the failure of lacing system and it will take
care the failure of member as a whole means globally and also distortion.
(Refer Slide Time: 7:46)

Now L/rcmin, the slenderness ratio of the highlighted member as shown in the figure should be
limited otherwise it may fail. Therefore we should provide some restriction and to restrict the
slenderness ratio we have to restrict the length that means spacing between two lacing has to
be decided. So from failure of local buckling we can find out what should be the maximum
distance between two lacing L.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:34)

Again if the lacing cross section is not sufficient to take the load, lacing member may fail.
Therefore what should be the width of the lacing member, what should be the thickness of the
lacing member that has to be decided from which the slenderness ratio is calculated.
Now if we are providing two sections which will be connected by lacing or batten then to
prevent the global failure we need to take the section spacing in such a way that the
slenderness ratio of the built up section should not exceed the limiting value.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:55)

So now coming to the general requirements which has been given in the code. Clause 7.6 of
IS: 800-2007 says that the compression member comprising of two main components laced
and tied should where practicable, have a radius of gyration about the axis perpendicular to
the plane of lacing not less than the radius of gyration about the axis in the plane of lacing. So
this has to be taken care. Therefore as far as practicable lacing system shall not be varied
throughout the length of the strut that means the lacing spacing and lacing dimension should
not be varied along its length.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:45)

Now coming to the single lacing system say for example we have a channel section toe to toe
and we have face A and face B then we can provide the lacings as in the prefer orientation as
shown in the figure. Whereas we cannot provide the lacing as not preferred orientation.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:41)

So this is also mentioned in the code, we can see here that the preferred lacing arrangement
where lacing on face A and lacing on face B has been made. So one is shadow of the others
and this is given in the IS: 800-2007 figure 10A and in figure 10B. In the figure 10A,
preferred arrangement for single lacing system is given. Whereas in figure 10B, preferred
arrangement for double lacing system is given.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:41)

Again in the figure 10C of that code, it is given that double lacing system and single lacing
system on opposite sides of the main components shall not be combined with cross members
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the strut unless all forces resulting from deformation
of the strut members are calculated and provided for in the lacing and fastenings.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:40)

Now in design specification first it is told that the total transverse shear force V will be the
2.5 percent of the compressive force P, because in lacing when we are going to design a
lacing, lacing will be undergoing some compression or tension. Now the transverse shear
force is calculated from the axial compressive force.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

Now if we can consider θ as the angle of inclination for a single lacing system of two parallel
faces then the force on each bar will be

V V
F= =
nsinθ 2 sinθ
Where n is the number of transverse system in parallel plane which is generally 2. Now for
double lacing the force will be

V
F=
4 sinθ

This force will be tensile in one lacing bar and compressive in other bar.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:57)

Now as I told the lacing member may buckle locally, so the code has provided certain
restriction which is given in tabular form here that what should be the effective length and
what should be the slenderness ratio. The slenderness ratio (le/r) of the lacing bar should not
exceed by 145 that means as per the codal provision we have to make the dimension of a
lacing system in such a way that the slenderness ratio should not become more than 145.

And to calculate the effective length it has been also discussed in the code that in case of
single lacing with bolted end, effective length, le will be the overall length,,l where l is the
length between inner end bolts of lacing bar. And for double lacing bolted at ends and
intersections, le will be 0.7l and for welding lacing also it will be 0.7l

(Refer Slide Time: 18:54)

Now if we use flat bars as lacings then the slenderness ratio is calculated as follows:

le l e √ 12
l l ¿ =
λ= e = e t
r √I / A
√ b t 3 /12
bt
l e √ 12
∴ λ lacing= <145
t
(Refer Slide Time: 19:55)
Now in riveted/bolted connection, the minimum width of lacing bars should be more than
three times the nominal diameter of the end connector. So if the width of lacing bar is b and
the nominal diameter of the end connector is d then b should be greater than or equal to 3d.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:41)

Then coming to thickness, thickness either we can find out from that the slenderness ratio
value or at the beginning we can find out the thickness from the following criteria

l
t> for single lacing
40
l
t> for double lacing
60
Where, l is the length between the inner end bolts or welds

So the minimum thickness of the lacing bar can be found from these criteria for single lacing
and as well as for double lacing.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:45)

Then another important thing we have to decide that is the angle of inclination (θ) of the
lacing bar. Lacing bars, whether in double or single systems, shall be inclined at an angle not
less than 400 nor more than 700 to the axis of the member. However from the experience it
has been seen that the lacing system will be effective if we consider θ in between 35 and 45.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:30)

Then the maximum spacing of lacing bars should be such that minimum slenderness ratio
will be,

L
=0.7 λ max or
r cmin

¿ 50
Whichever is minimum.

Where, λmax is the maximum slenderness ratio of the compression member as a whole

L = Distance between centers of connections of the lattice bars to each component

c
r min = Minimum radius of gyration of the component of compression members
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

Now we need to find out certain number of bolts or welding dimensions for attachment of
lacing to the main component and that is dependent on the force acting on lacing member or
if we use weld connection the length of weld connection, size of weld connection should be
decided.

So the codal provision says that the riveting, bolting or welding of the lacing bars to the main
member should be sufficient to transmit the load in the bar. Then in case of weld connection
it is told that where welded lacing bars overlap the main members, the amount of lap
measured along either edge of the lacing bar shall be not less than the four times the thickness
of the bar or the members whichever is less.

And the welding should be sufficient to transmit the load in the bar and shall in any case we
provided along each side of the bar for the full length of lap, so this is what we have to
remember in case of weld connection. And for bolt connection we have to find out the
strength and number of bolts.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:29)

So in case of such member means such type of connection where connections are made
separately then the number of bolts can be decided as

F
For first case, the numbers of bolt, n=
R

But for second case where both the members are acting on this bolt, we have to find out the
resultant force which will be 2Fcosθ and for this particular case

Resultant Force 2 Fcosθ

The numbers of bolt, n= =
Bolt Value R

Where, F = Force in lacing bar

θ = Inclination

So if we find out the force in lacing bar then we can find out the number of bolt required to
connect the lacing bar with the main plate and this depends on what type of connections we
are going to consider whether it is separately connecting or two lacings are overlapped and
acting as a double shear. So here also you can see that the bolt value of this case and bolt
value of this case will be different, because here the bolt value will be under single shear and
here the bolt value will be under double shear, so accordingly the bolt value has to be
calculated.

So these are the things we have to remember when we will be going to design a lacing
member so in short if we say that lacing members are designed or the entire built up sections
are designed on the basis of failure criteria, failure of the member as a whole. So we have to
restrict the radius of gyration so that failure does not occur and to restrict the failure due to
local buckling of the main member we have to provide the spacing for lacing in such a way
that the slenderness ratio should not exceed certain value.

Also we have to find out a suitable arrangement of bolt or weld connection for attaching the
lacing system into the main members if we use bolt connection then again we have to see
whether we are connecting the lacing member separately or we are overlapping accordingly
the forces will be calculated and then the number of bolts will be calculated and in fact if we
see the force on the lacing member is quite less and generally number of bolts become 1 to 2
in maximum case and sometimes we will see 2 that is sufficient. So through work out
example we will also confirm this.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 37
Module 8
Design of Lacing Systems

In this lecture I am going to discuss about the design of lacing system. Now in earlier lecture
we have shown what are the force coming on the lacing and what are the failure modes are
coming in lacing system for the built up member and how to calculate the number of bolts,
how to calculate the thickness of the lacing, width of the lacing and how to decide the spacing
of the lacing bar, what should be the length of the lacing bar all these things have been
discussed but for designing we have to make a systemic way so that step by step we can
design.

So first I will discuss the steps which can be used for design of a lacing system which is a
very lengthy process. So we should remember the steps chronologically so that we can design
systematically a lacing system entirely and after discussion of the steps we will discuss about
the one software which has been developed to design the lacing system.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:50)

So let us come to the design steps, so in first step we will choose a lacing system means either
we will choose a single lacing or double lacing that we have to first decide because the design
procedure will be entirely changed for single lacing and double lacing because depending on
the single lacing or double lacing the force acting on the member will be different and
accordingly the number of bolts and the dimension of the lacing system.

Similarly the radius of gyration and the slenderness ratio for single lacing and for double
lacing will different. So if we decide first the lacing system whether it is single lacing or
double lacing then it will be better to proceed further. Then we have to decide an angle of
inclination (θ) with the axis of the compression member,

So as we told earlier that theta should vary from 40 to 70 degree and generally we try to keep
theta from 40 to 45 degree to get maximum efficiency of the lacing system. Then once we
decide the lacing system and its angle of inclination then we can find out the gauge distance
(g). Now if the clear spacing between two sections is S as shown in the figure then Thus
according to the figure,

a = 2g + S

Now the distance between the bolt centres is calculated as follows

2a
L= For single lacing
tanθ

a
L ¿ For double lacing
tanθ

Also we have to decide what should be the spacing (S) so that Ixx and Iyy become same.

So that has already been decided and the size of the section has also been decided whether it
is channel section or I section and whether sections are arranged back to back or toe to toe
that has also been decided earlier.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:06)

Now we have to find out the length between two lacing which is calculated as follows

2a
L= For single lacing
tanθ

a
¿ For double lacing
tanθ

a
l= For both single and double lacing
sin θ

(Refer Slide Time: 7:36)

Next in step 3 we can find out the slenderness ratio of each component and check for
slenderness ratio. So slenderness ratio is calculated as minimum of the followings
 L
=0.7 λ max
r cmin
L
=50
r cmin
So this is what we have to do so that the local buckling of the member can be arrested and
that can be taken care by providing this restriction.

In step 4, so once we find out the length of each lacing then I can find out the effective
length. Now effective length is calculated as follows

For single lacing system (bolted ends), le = l

Double lacing system (bolted ends), le = 0.7l

For welded lacing system, le = 0.7l

(Refer Slide Time: 9:15)

Now in step 5, we can find out the thickness of the lacing, so for lacing member we need to
know length, then thickness and width. These are the three things we need to know. Now
already we knew the spacing between lacing member and angle of inclination. So the
thickness can be found as follows

l
t> for single lacing
40

l
t> for double lacing
60

Now we have to check for slenderness ratio, so we can find out the maximum slenderness
ratio of the lacing system and generally in case of lacing system, lacing members are either
flat plate or may be angles or may be channel. In case of flat plate we have calculated already
in earlier classes which is as follows

l e √12
λlacing = <145
t

Now if it is not less than 145 we can increase the thickness of the lacing, if we increase the
thickness of the lacing, then λlacing will be reduced and we can make the λlacing below
145.

In step 7 we will calculate the compressive strength of the member. Then in step 8 we will
calculate transverse shear, V, which is calculated as follows
 V = 0.025P

And then after finding out the transverse shear we can find out the force in lacing.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:08)

Now coming to step 9, we can find out the compressive stress and tensile stress of the lacing
system and we have to check that this compressive stress and tensile stress is less than the
permissible compressive and tensile stress. So we know permissible compressive stress of the
lacing member, fcd value for a particular slenderness ratio and for a particular grade of steel.
Now the compressive and tensile force developed in the lacing system should be less than the
permissible value.

If it is not less than that then we have to increase the section size, section size means either
we have to increase the thickness or width of the flat plate or if we use angle section then we
have to increase the section, right once it is done we can go for connection. So if we use bolt
connection then we have to choose a suitable bolt diameter and we have to find the minimum
width, b of the flat plate. This b should be more or equal to 3d, where d is the nominal
diameter of bolt. After selecting bolt diameter, d and minimum width, b of the lacing flats the
number of bolt required can be found from the following equation:

F
n=
R

Where F is the force on that lacing member and R is the bolt value. Therefore before finding
out the number of bolt we have to find out the bolt value R and depending on the spacing and
pitch distance and edge distance and whether it is single shear or double shear R will be
calculated so once R is calculated we can find out the number of bolt.

Now in step 11 we will design the end connections for the lacing system that means we will
check for the number of bolts whether it is sufficient or not to withstand the load and if we go
for weld connection we will check whether the length of weld connection is sufficient or not
to withstand that load and the weld length will be decided on the basis of weld strength and
the force acting on the lacing member. So this are the steps we have to follow to find out the
lacing dimensions and its configuration.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:37)

Now this is a sample software of root we have shown here, in fact one of my student has
developed this software where the lacing member can be designed. Now the most important
part of this is that how to make a GUI to take the input. I am showing an example to give an
idea about how to develop a GUI means how it should look and how user friendly. If one can
make a GUI then the user can make the design means they can easily find out the dimensions
of the lacings and its design details.

Now suppose first if we come to the type of column, where have been incorporated few
options in the program, one is column containing angle section and channel section. Channel
can be placed toe to toe or back to back. So these are the options we have.

Now if we click on column containing angle then we can find out a particular section and
their properties have been taken from SP: 6. The different section size has been taken and
their properties which have stored in the library of the software and then when we are
clicking a particular size of the section its properties will be taken.

Now the spacing has to be decided because spacing will be decided on the basis of I xx is equal
to Iyy on that basis we have to decide spacing, so the spacing will be provided here and we
have to provide yield stress of steel and then whether we are going for angle lacing or flat
plate that also we can decide. So these options also are incorporate in the software that we
can provide not only flat plate but also we can provide angle lacing.

And then another option we have created that is whether it is single lacing or double lacing
and accordingly, the calculation shall be done and if it is double lacing then its calculation
will be different. Then we have to go to the load what is the compressive load coming and
what will be the height of column that has to be defined.

And here you see we have given a help button, in help button if you click then will get the all
the design criteria means what are the design steps and how design has been done. And in
flowchart how step by step it has been progressed that has been shown in this flowchart. And
if we click in analyze then it will go for analysis of the system.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:37)

So here you see if we select the column containing channel then there are two options we
have the channel facing each other and channel opposite to each other, right. So that will be
taken care and others will be similarly we can consider say angle section or plate section for
lacing system then single lacing or double lacing all these things will be similar, only thing is
when column containing channel so all the properties of the channel sections as given in the
IS SP: 6 will be taken.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:30)

Here channel opposite to each other has been consider, here another option has been consider
that is if we consider double lacing system then how the orientation will be done that has
been shown here. So the program can take care the design of double lacing system as well,
right.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:49)

Now we will go through one example so the design steps whatever we have discussed will be
followed in this design example and in this design example the previous example from
lecture 35 have considered against a certain load and length of the column and then we have
considered that ISMC 300 section and back to back with 184 millimetre spacing that has been
decided, so on that basis we will try to find out the details of lacing.

Example: Design a laced column 10.5 m long to carry factored axial load of 1000 kN. The
column is restrained in position but not in direction at both the ends. Provide single lacing
system. Use 2 channel section placed as back to back. Assume steel of grade Fe 410 and bolts
of grade 4.6.

a) Design the lacing system with bolted connections

b) Design the lacing system with site welded connections.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:31)

So if we recall the design example provided in lecture 35 we can see that we obtained ISMC
300 channel section and having a spacing between these two as 184 and channels were placed
back to back. So this is what already we have calculated. Now we will calculate the forces
coming on lacing and the dimensions of lacing.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:02)

 L0 /r yy should be < 0.7 × ( L/r ) of whole column [cl. 7.6.5.1 of IS 800 :2007]

L0 568
= =21.76 <0.7 ×93.35=65.34
r yy 26.1

( L/r ) = 93.35 has been calculated in lecture no. 35

Hence safe.
(Refer Slide Time: 23:36)

So for design of lacing we have consider this example that is a design of laced column of
10.5 meter long to carry a factor load of 1000 kN and the column is restrained in position but
not in direction at both ends. And provide single lacing system this has been told. And use 2
channel section placed as back to back. And assume the steel of grade Fe410 and bolts of
grade 4.6. And design the lacing system with bolted connections and design the lacing system
with welded connections, right. So basically this is the example which has been done earlier
in lecture 35.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:23)

So same example has been considered here and in lecture 35 we have seen that how to
calculate the spacing between two members and how to decide the section size that has been
discussed in lecture 35 and we have seen that ISMC 300 section is sufficient to take care the
load the given and 184 millimetre spacing is sufficient, so this is what earlier we have
calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:05)

Now we will come to the design of lacing system, so coming to design of lacing first we have
to find out the angle of lacing.

Let use a single lacing system with inclination of lacing bar ¿ 45°

Assume gauge length = 50 mm

°
Spacing of lacing bar, L0=2 × ( 184+ 50+50 ) cot 45 =568 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 27:45)

L0 /r yy should be < 0.7 × ( L/r ) of whole column [cl. 7.6.5.1 of IS 800 :2007]

L0 568
= =21.76 <0.7 ×93.35=65.34
r yy 26.1
 ( L/r ) = 93.35 has been calculated in lecture no. 35

Hence safe.

2.5
Maximum shear, V ¿ ×1000 ×10 3 (cl. 7.6.6.1 IS 800: 2007)
100
¿ 25000 N
V 25000
Transverse shear in each panel ¿ = =12500 N
N 2
(Refer Slide Time: 29:55)

Now

Compressive force in lacing bars (F) ¿ ( V / N ) cosec 45°

¿ 12500× 1.414

¿ 17675 N ¿ 17.67 kN

Lacing flats:
Now the size of lacing flat we can find out where we can choose lacing member as a flat
plate. If we choose that then we have to decide the thickness and width of the lacing member
as well as the length of the lacing member. So to find out the thickness of the lacing member
we have to find out the length and also to find out the width of the lacing member we know
that it should be dependent on the diameter of bolt.

Let us provide 16 mm diameter bolts

Minimum width of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.2 IS 800: 2007)
¿ 3 ×16=48 mm

Let us provide 50 mm wide flats.

Length of lacing flat (l) = ( 184+50+50 ) cosec 45° = 401.6=402 mm

Minimum thickness of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.3 IS 800: 2007)

1
¿ × length of flat between inner end bolts.
40
 1
¿ × 402
40
¿ 10.05 mm
(Refer Slide Time: 33:03)

Provide 12 mm thick plate with a width of 50 mm.

t 12
Minimum radius of gyration, r= = =3.464 mm
√ 12 √ 12
402
l/r of lacing bar ¿ =11 6<145
3.464

Hence, ok
l
For =11 6 , f y =250 MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress from
r
Table 9c of IS 800 :2007
94.6−83.7
f cd =94.6− ×6=88. 06 MPa
10

Design compressive strength, Pd =A e f cd

−3
¿ ( 12× 50 ) × 88. 06× 10
¿ 52.8 4 kN > 17.67 kN
Hence ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:47)

The tensile strength of flat is minimum of (cl. 6.2 and 6.3.1 of IS 800: 2007)

( B−d h ) t f u (50−18)×12 × 410

i) 0.9 × =0.9 × ×10−3=113.36 kN
γ m1 1.25

and

A g f y (50 × 12) ×250

ii) = × 10−3=136.363 kN
γm 0 1.1

Hence, the tensile strength of the flat is (minimum of 113.36 kN and 136.36 kN) 113.36 kN >
17.67 kN

Hence, safe.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 38
Module 8
Connection Design of Lacing System

This lecture will be the continuation of previous lecture where we have gone through a design
example for designing of lacing system. So in last lecture we have discussed how to design a
lacing system, how to provide the length of the lacing, width of the lacing, thickness of the
lacing. Then what will be the spacing between two lacings, what will be the angle of
inclination so all the details of lacing has been discussed.

Today we will be going to discuss on the connection part, connection part means the
connection between the lacing and the main column. So as lacing is taking certain amount of
load, we need to design the lacing with the column in such a way that the connection between
these two can withstand the developed load, how to calculate developed load, we have
already discussed, today also we will calculate the developed load that means the transverse
shear which is 2.5 percent of the compressive load which is acting on the main compressive
member.

So from that we have to find out the value of the shear and then we can find out what will be
the connection details. Two type of connections are there, one is bolt connection another is
weld connections. So for bolt connection how we will be designing the bolt and weld those
things will be discussed today. So before going to do that first I will very quickly go through
the previous days example so that we can remind our earlier calculations which will be
required for calculating the design strength of bolt and number of bolt or weld length.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:50)

Example: Design a laced column 10.5 m long to carry factored axial load of 1000 kN. The
column is restrained in position but not in direction at both the ends. Provide single lacing
system. Use 2 channel section placed as back to back. Assume steel of grade Fe 410 and bolts
of grade 4.6.
a) Design the lacing system with bolted connections
b) Design the lacing system with site welded connections
Now we will try to find out the design of the lacing system with bolted connections and
design of the lacing system with welded connection where we will consider the weld as site
weld or shop weld, depending on that γ mw value will be decided.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:41)

So if we remind the earlier lecture we can see that we got already the solution of this that is
ISMC 300 back to back we have provided with a spacing of 184 millimetre, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:58)

L0 /r yy should be < 0.7 × ( L/r ) of whole column [cl. 7.6.5.1 of IS 800 :2007]

L0 568
= =21.76 <0.7 ×93.35=65.34
r yy 26.1

( L/r ) = 93.35 has been calculated in lecture no. 35

Hence safe.

2.5
Maximum shear, V = × 1000× 103 (cl. 7.6.6.1 IS 800: 2007)
100

¿ 25000 N

V 25000
Transverse shear in each panel ¿ = =12500 N
N 2

Compressive force in lacing bars ¿ ( V / N ) cosec 45°

¿ 12500× 1.414

¿ 17675 N ¿ 17.67 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 5:43)

Lacing flats:
Let us provide 16 mm diameter bolts
Minimum width of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.2 IS 800: 2007)
¿ 3 ×16=48 mm

Let us provide 50 mm wide flats.

Length of lacing flat = ( 184+50+50 ) cosec 45° = 401.6=402 mm

Minimum thickness of lacing flat (cl. 7.6.3 IS 800: 2007)

1
¿ × length of flat between inner end bolts.
40
1
¿ × 402
40
¿ 10.05 mm
Provide 12 mm thick plate with a width of 50 mm.
t 12
Minimum radius of gyration, r= = =3.464 mm
√ 12 √ 12
(Refer Slide Time: 7:50)

402
l/r of lacing bar ¿ =11 6<145
3.464

Hence, ok

l
For =11 6 , f y =250 MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress from
r
Table 9c of IS 800 :2007

94.6−83.7
f cd =94.6− ×6=88. 06 MPa
10

Design compressive strength, Pd =A e f cd

¿ ( 12× 50 ) × 88. 06× 10−3

¿ 52.8 4 kN > 17.67 kN

Hence OK.

In every case I have told that if the criteria is not satisfying then we have to increase either
the thickness of the plate or the width of the plate means case to case we have to check.
Sometimes we may have to reduce the length of the lacing plate by changing the angle of
inclination, so in this way we have to find out which dimensions and which orientation of
lacing will be provided so that the design of the lacing will be safe.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:04)

The tensile strength of flat is minimum of (cl. 6.2 and 6.3.1 of IS 800: 2007)

( B−d h ) t f u (50−18)×12 × 410

i) 0.9 × =0.9 × ×10−3=113.36 kN
γ m1 1.25

and
A g f y (50 × 12) ×250
ii) = × 10−3=136.363 kN
γm 0 1.1

Hence, the tensile strength of the flat is (minimum of 113.36 kN and 136.36 kN) 113.36 kN >
17.67 kN
Hence, safe.
(Refer Slide Time: 12:27)
Now we will come to now we will come to bolted connections. Now first is we are going to
consider the bolt connection when lacings are not overlapped each other.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:37)

a) Bolted connection (If lacings are not over lapped each other)
Assuming that the 16 mm bolts of grade 4.6 are connecting both the lacing flats with the
channel at one point and that the shear plane will not pass through the threaded portion of
bolt.

Strength of bolt in single shear ¿ A sb ( f u / √3 ) /γ mb

π × 162
¿ ( 4 )( )
×
400
√3
/1.25

¿ 37147 N
Minimum pitch,
Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d0 =1.5×18 = 27 mm
Provide p=50 mm and e= 30 mm
kb is smaller of 30/(3×18), 50/(3×18)-0.25, 400/410, 1
Kb = 0.56
(Refer Slide Time: 16:30)

Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb

410
¿ 2.5 ×0. 56 ×16 ×12 × =88167 N
1.25
Hence, strength of bolt = 37147 N = 37 kN
No of bolts required = 17.67/37 = 0.5 ≈ 1
Hence, provide one bolt at each end.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:15)
This case if lacings are overlapped each other.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:25)

b) Bolted connection (If lacings are over lapped each other)

Assuming that the 16 mm bolts of grade 4.6 are connecting both the lacing flats with the
channel at one point and that the shear plane will not pass through the threaded portion of
bolt.

Strength of bolt in double shear ¿ 2× A sb ( f u / √ 3 ) / γ mb

¿ 74294 N

Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb (l et k b as 0.49)

410
¿ 2.5 ×0. 56 ×16 ×12 × =88167 N
1.25

Hence, strength of bolt = 74294 N = 74.294 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 23:08)
No of bolts required = 2× ( V / N ) co t 45 ° = 2× 12500× cot45 ° =25/37 = 0.7 ≈ 1

Hence, provide one bolt at each end.

Tie plate (cl. 7.7.2.2 IS 800 :2007):

Tie plates are provided at the ends of the laced column.

Effective depth ¿ 184+2 ×C yy >2 b f

¿ 184+2 ×23.6=231.2 mm ¿ 2× 90=180

Which is all right.

Minimum edge distance for 16 mm diameter bolt

¿ 1.5× ( 16+2 )=27 mm, say 30 mm

Overall depth of tie plate ¿ 231.2+ 2× 30=291.2 mm

Provide a tie plate of 300 mm depth.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:45)

Length of the tie plate ¿ s +2 bf =184+2 × 90=364 mm

1
Thickness of the tie plate ¿ ( 184+2 ×50 ) =5.68 mm
50

Hence, provide a tie plate of 6 mm thickness.

Provide a tie plate of size 364×300×6 mm at both ends with 16 mm diameter bolts as shown
in the figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:11)
568 mm

364 mm

50 ISF 12 mm

ISMC 300
300 mm

184 mm

300 mm
 Lacing flats and tie plates are connected by bolts (overlapped each other)

(Refer Slide Time: 31:15)

b) Welded connection:
Flange thickness of ISMC 300 = 13.6 mm
Minimum size of weld for 13.6 mm thick member = 5 mm [Table 21 IS 800: 2007]
410
Strength of weld/unit length ¿ 0.7 ×5 × =552.33 N/mm
√ 3× 1.5
1767 0
Required length of weld ¿ =32 mm
552.33
Adding extra length for ends, the weld length to be provided
¿ 32+ 2× ( 2× 5 )=52 mm
Provide 100 mm weld length at both ends.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:30)
Tie plate:
Overall depth ¿ 184+2 ×23.6=231.2 mm
Depth provided = 240 mm
Let length of the tie plate ¿ 18 4+ 2×50=28 4 mm
1
Thickness of tie plate ¿ ×28 4=5.68 mm
50

Provide a 8 mm plate to accommodate a 5 mm weld.

Provide a tie plate of size 283×240×8 mm size and connect it with 5 mm welds as shown in
the figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 35:53)
 50 ISF 12 mm

ISMC 300

184 mm

283 mm

300 mm

Lacing flats and tie plates are connected by welding

So in this lecture we have demonstrated the connection between lacing member and the
compression member, two types of connections, one is weld connection, another is bolt
connection. Again for bolt connections we have shown that if the lacings are overlapped and
if lacings are not overlapped then how to calculated the forces for overlapping lacing and for
not overlapping lacing and then how to provide the number of bolt because the strength of the
bolt will be different for two cases.

And also we have found the dimension of the tie plate, how to find the dimensions of tie plate
that also has been demonstrated through the example and then again we have calculated the
same for weld connections like what will be the length of weld required we have calculated
and how to distribute also we have shown and how to calculate the length of weld based on
the size of the weld that also has been demonstrated, right. So I hope this example will make
you clear about the connections between compression member and lacing member.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 39
Module 8
Design of Double Lacing System

So far we have discussed about the single lacing system, the design criteria of single lacing
system in the earlier lecture. Today we will be discussing about the double lacing system and
we will see how to design the double lacing system. The design procedure will be more or
less similar like single lacing system except the certain configuration of the lacing like what
will be the spacing of the lacing. Double lacing system is used when we need less spacing
between two lacing systems and it is required when the main compression members are weak
in a certain direction means from radius of gyration point of view.

So if the slenderness ratio of a certain member is very weak in a direction then sometimes we
need to provide very fine spacing between two lacing systems and in that case we go for
double lacing system with lighter member. And in case of double lacing system also we can
use flat plate bar, angle sections, light channel section and tubular section.

Now first I will go through one example today with the basis of this double lacing system
where we will see that if the angle sections say four angle sections are connected, then how to
find out the sectional area of the angle, how to make the spacing of the angle and then the
lacing systems. So let us go through the example.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:17)

Example: Design a built-up double laced column with four angles to support an axial load of
800 kN. The column is 14 m long and both ends are fixed. Assume Fe 410 grade of steel.

Here we have to provide four column four equal angle section to make the built-up section
and this built-up sections has been shown here which will be making as a box section.

Now for designing first we have to know what should be the angle section size and what
should be the spacing between the two angles.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:28)

Solution:

P=800 ×10 3 N

Le =0.65 L=0.65 ×14=9.1 m

Assume a design stress of 150 MPa,

800 × 103
Required area ¿ =5333.33 mm2
150

Provide four angles ISA 90×90×8 mm.

The relevant properties of ISA 90×90×8 are (Table III, SP 6-1)

A=1379 mm2 C zz =C yy=25.1 mm

4
r zz =r yy =27.5 mm I zz =I yy =104.2 ×10 mm4
(Refer Slide Time: 5:25)

Area provided ¿ 4 × 1379=5516 mm2

800 ×10 3
For 5516 mm2, the required f cd = =145.03 MPa
5516

From Table 9c of IS 800: 2007, (for f y =250 MPa)

L
Now allowable =74.36
r

Effective length of the laced column ¿ 1.05× 9.1=9.5 m

9.5 ×103
Required r= =127.76 mm
74.36

(Refer Slide Time: 8:39)

Moment of inertia of required section,

I =A r 2 ¿ 5516 ×127.762=90.03× 106 mm4

Equating required and provided moment of inertia,

6 4 2
90.03 ×10 =4 × 104.2× 10 +5516 ź

ź=124.76 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 11:57)

Spacing of angles S=2 × ( ź +C zz )

¿ 2× ( 124.76+25.1 )=299.72 mm

Therefore, provide S=300 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 13:23)

2
300
4
Now, I zz =I yy=4 ×104.2 ×10 +5516 ( 2
−25.1 )
¿ 90.22× 106 mm4

r=
√ 90.22× 106
5516
=127.9 mm

L 9.5 ×103
= =74.28
r 127.9
(Refer Slide Time: 14:47)

L
Now From Table 9c of IS 800:2007, for =74.28 and f y =250 MPa
r
 152−136
f cd =152− × 4.28=145.15 MPa
10

Capacity of the built-up column ¿ 5516 ×145.15 ×10−3

¿ 800.65 kN ¿ 800 kN

Hence, the column is safe.

Now I will go to the connecting system, so in first part what we have seen that we could find
the section size of the angle and then the spacing between two members and two angles in z
direction and y direction and spacing has been made in such a way that moment of inertia in
both the direction becomes same so that the equal resistance of the column can be achieved
and the spacing has been made in such a way that the strength of the member becomes more
than the actual one.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:32)

Connecting system:

Let us provide a double lacing system with the lacing flats inclined at 45° . Both are
provided at the centre of the leg of angle.

Spacing of lacing bar, L0=( 300−45−45 ) cot 45 °

¿ 210 mm
L0 210
= =7.64<50
r yy 27.5
It should also be less than 0.7 × ( L/ r ) =0.7 ×74.28
¿ 52>7.64

(Refer Slide Time: 20:52)

2.5 3
Shear force, V = × 800× 10 =20000 N
100
V 20000
Transverse shear in each panel ¿ = =10000 N
N 2

As double lacing is provided,

Compressive force in lacing bar ¿ ( 2VN ) cosecθ

¿ ( 20000
2 ×2 )
cosec 45 °

¿ 7071.1 N

(Refer Slide Time: 23:03)

Section of lacing flat:
Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.
Minimum width of flat ¿ 3 ×20=60 mm (cl. 7.6.2, IS 800:2007)

Length of lacing flat ¿ ( 300−45−45 ) cosec 45° =297 mm

1
Minimum thickness of the lacing flat ¿ ×297=4.95 mm
60

Provide a flat of size 60×6 mm.

t 6
Minimum radius of gyration, r= = =1.73 mm
√ 12 √ 12
L1 0.7 ×297
Slenderness ratio, = =120.2<145
r 1.73
Hence the flat is safe.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:19)
 L1
For =120.2 and f y =250 MPa (Table 9c, IS 800:2007)
r
83.7−74.3
f cd =83.7− × 0.2=83.5 MPa
10

Capacity of lacing bar ¿ 83.5 ×60 ×6=30060 N ¿ 7071.1 N

Hence the lacing bar is safe.
The tensile strength of flat is minimum of (cl. 6.2 and 6.3.1 of IS 800: 2007)

( B−d h ) t f u (60−22)×6 × 410

i) T dn=0.9× =0.9 × × 10−3=67.3 kN
γm 1 1.25

and
A g f y (60 × 6)× 250
ii) T dg= = ×10−3 =81.82 kN
γm 0 1.1

Hence, tensile strength of lacing flat ¿ 67.3 kN > 7.07 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 28:50)
So tensile strength of lacing flat will become lesser of these two that means 67.3 kilonewton
and this 67.3 kilonewton is higher than the 7.071 kilonewton which was the force coming on
the lacing member. So from the force point of view the lacing member whatever we have
chosen is okay.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:37)

Connections:
Strength of 20 mm diameter bolt in double shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS 800:2007)
 f ub

¿ 2×
A nb (√ )
3
=2 ×245 ×
( 400
√3 )
= 90528 N
γ mb 1.25
Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb (cl. 10.3.4, IS 800:2007)
k b is smaller of
e 35
( =
3 d 0 3 ×22 )
=0.53 ,

p 50
(3d −0.25=
0 3 ×22
−0.25=0.51)

f ub 400
( =
f u 410
=0.98 )
and 1.0
Hence k b =0.51
(Refer Slide Time: 31:09)
 410
∴ Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 ×0.51 ×20 ×6 × =50184 N
1.25

Hence, the strength of bolt ¿ 50184 N=50.18 kN

2 ×7071.1 ×cot 45°

Number of bolts ¿ =0.28
50184
Provide one 20 mm diameter bolt.
(Refer Slide Time: 32:40)

Tie plate:
Tie plates are to be provided at each end of the built-up column.
Effective depth of tie plate ¿ 300−2 ×25.1
¿ 249.8 mm > 2×90 mm

Overall depth of tie plate ¿ 249.8+2 ×e

¿ 249.8+2 ×35=319.8 mm
Length of tie plate ¿ 300 mm
1
Thickness of tie plate ¿ × ( 300−45−45 )
50
¿ 4.2 mm

Provide 300×320×6 mm tie plate and connect it with bolts as shown in figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:16)
So in this lecture we have understood how to find out the appropriate section of the angle to
withstand that given load then how to find out the distance between two angle that is spacing
in both the direction to withstand that much load and then how to design a lacing system
using double lacing. So this is all about the lacing system in next class we will discuss about
the batten system, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 40
Module 8
Batten Plates

In this lecture I am going to discuss about batten plates. Batten plates are used when the built-
up sections are carrying axially compression load. So batten plates unlike lacing, lacing plates
are placed in inclined way where the batten plates are placed perpendicular to the axis of the
column that means if columns are vertical then batten plates should be horizontally placed.

Now batten plates are generally placed in both the side with equal spacing and in both the
side at same position we provide batten plates and minimum number of batten plates along
the length of the column will be atleast three. So in the codal provision it is told, right and as I
told that batten plate will be generally used when the purely axial compressions are acting on
the built-up column. So for that case we generally use batten plates.

But when eccentricity comes into picture in the compression member then this does not work
efficiently, so in that case we have to go for lacing system. So in this lecture our discussions
will be on batten members. In case of batten member we have to know certain things like one
is what will be the length of batten member, what will be the depth of batten member and
what will be the thickness these three things we have to know. Then also we have to know the
spacing, spacing between two batten members, then the connection between batten member
and the and the main member.

So connections may be of two type bolt connections or weld connections. So what are the
forces coming on the joint that we have to calculate and then we have to find out what will be
the number of bolts, how bolts will be placed so all the details can be made, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:01)

So let us come to some general requirements which are given in code IS: 800-2007 in clause
7.7, which stated that compression members composed of two main components battened
should be preferably have their two main components of the same cross section and
symmetrically disposed about their major axis, right. Where ever practicable the compression
member should have a radius of gyration about the axis perpendicular to the plane of batten
not less than the radius of gyration about the axis in the plane of batten.

Let us provide two channel section back to back. Now this sections has to be provided in such
a way that ryy and rxx will be becoming mostly same or ryy should be little higher. So because
we cannot change the value of rxx, rxx will be same for all the cases but if we increase the
spacing between these two ryy value will be increased because Iyy value is going to increase.
So ryy has to be increased in such a way that the strength in both the axis become more or less
similar.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:41)

Now in next clause that is in 7.7.1.3 it is told that the batten shall be placed opposite to each
other at each end of the member and points where the member is stayed in its length and as
far as practicable, be spaced and proportioned uniformly throughout and number of battens
shall be such that the member is divided into not less than three bays within its actual length
from center to center of connection.

Another consider has to be remember that is the effective slenderness ratio, in case of batten
member the effective slenderness ratio of the column will be increased by 10 percent, you
have remember that what will be the increase of effective slenderness ratio for lacing
member. So in case of batten member it will be 10 percent, so these are some codal
provisions which we need to keep in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:04)

Now in clause 7.7.2 we can see that the transverse shear to the batten is considered as 2.5
percent of the axial force, right so that also has to be consider. So similar to the lacing system
the transverse shear on batten member will come as 2.5 percent of the axial compressive
force. Next the longitudinal shear on the batten member say Vl, which can calculate as

VC
Longitudinal shear V l= along the column axis
NS

VC
And moment M= at each connection,
2N

Where,

C = Center to center distance of battens longitudinally

N = No of parallel planes of battens

S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the bolt group/welding

connecting the batten to the main member

V = The transverse shear force

Now few things we have to remember while using batten members, one is batten plates are
has to be provided symmetrically as far as possible. And at both ends we should provide
batten, right batten plates should be provided both ends of the member or tie plate we can
provide.
And another thing again I am repeating that the number of battens should be such that the
member is divided into not less than three bays. So say suppose I am providing one batten
here, another batten here so atleast three bays I have to provide, right and they should be
spaced and proportioned uniformly throughout means this spacing should be uniformed, right
and minimum three battens has to be provided.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:20)

Now coming to the dimension of batten, so how to find out the batten thickness, batten length
and batten depth. So thickness when I am coming which is mentioned in clause 7.7.2.3 batten
minimum thickness tmin can be considered as

ai
t min >
50

Where, ai is the distance between the inner most connecting lines of rivet or bolt or weld
perpendicular to the main member.

Then we have to find out the batten depth of batten, so the effective depth should be

• d > 0.75a for intermediate battens

• d > a for end battens

• d > 2b for any battens

a = centroid distance of members

b = width of member in the plane of batten

Therefore, the batten depth should be higher at the end batten. However in any case d can be
greater than 2b, where b is the width of the member in the plane of batten.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:54)

Now let us come to the spacing of the batten, criteria for spacing between two batten is given
in clause 7.7.3, where it has beem mentioned that this spacing should be uniformed
throughout its length as far as possible.

The spacing of the battens (C) be such that the slenderness ratio of the lesser main component
over the distance is not greater than 50 or 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of the main member
as a whole, about the axis parallel to the batten.

C
<50∨0.7 λ
r cmin

Then the end condition end conditions are described in clause 7.7.4, right. Design the end
connections to resist the longitudinal shear force V1 and the moment M as calculated in earlier
step.

Similarly for bolt I will find out what is the forces or stresses coming in the bolt due to
moment and due to longitudinal shear and then we have to find out whether the number of
bolts we are going to provide is sufficient to carry that much load or not, right.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:05)

And in this clause it is told that for weld connections lap should be greater than 4t and the
total length of weld at edge of batten should be greater than D/2, right. Then length of weld at
each edge of batten should be less than one third of total length of weld required and return
weld along transverse axis of column should be less than 4t.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:00)

This is what I was discussing

Total length of weld at edge of batten >D/2

Length of weld at each edge of batten < 1/3 total length of weld required.

Return weld along transverse axis of column < 4t.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:02)

Now to summarize the things whatever I have discussed I will show few slides next, now
while going for design of batten member we will see what are the steps used to be carried out
systematically so that the batten members can be designed. So in fact when we are going to
design a batten member or we are going to do some workout example for designing of batten
member then we have to follow certain steps otherwise we will not be able to do the design
properly and we will be writing a computer program also step by step we have to go through.

Step 1:
2.5
Find the transverse shear V t = ×P
100
VtC
Calculate longitudinal shear along the column axis as V l= and
NS
VtC
Calculate moment at each connection as M = ,
2N

Step 2:
Calculate effective slenderness ratio (λe) as 1.1 × λ

Step 3: -
For a given shape, find out gauge distance g on each side & find the distance a between the
bolt
(Refer Slide Time: 22:02)

Step 4: -
Calculate spacing of the batten plates (C) from the following conditions:
C
<50∨0.7 λ
r cmin
Minimum 3 nos of batten should be provided along column length.

Step 5: - Size of end battens:

Effective depth ( d )=s+2 ×C yy and d >2b,

[b is width of member in the plane of batten]

Overall depth (D) = d+2e, e being edge distance

Length of batten ¿ S +2 b

Thickness of batten = a/50 where a is the distance between inner bolt/rivet/weld

(Refer Slide Time: 25:05)

Step 6: - Size of intermediate battens:
s +2 ×C yy
Effective depth 3 ) and d >2b,
( d )= ¿
4

[b is width of member in the plane of batten]

Overall depth (D) = d+2e, e being edge distance

Length of batten ¿ S +2 b

Thickness of batten = a/50 where a is the distance between inner bolt/rivet/weld

Step 7: -
Design the end connections for batten system to resist calculated V l and M.

So these are the steps which will be used to design a batten system, right. So in this lecture
what in summary if we discuss what we have learned that certain specifications in terms of
the dimension of the batten and its spacing has been calculated as per the codal provisions
and code has dictated certain guidelines as per the guidelines we have provided the steps and
also we have seen how to calculate the transverse shear, then longitudinal shear and moment
on the batten plate and then we need to design the end connections the connection using weld
or bolt to resist this moment and longitudinal shear, right.

And in next class we will go through one example through which it will be clear how to
design a batten, thank you.
 Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 9
Lecture No 41
Design of Batten using Bolt Connection

So in last lecture we have discussed the design methodology of Batten system. So in Batten
system basically first we need to find out the spacing between 2 compression members for
build-up section. Batten plates will be provided at a certain distance, then this spacing
between two Batten members is to be found and then we need to find out the dimensions of
Batten member, means Batten depth, Batten thickness and Batten length, and whether we are
going for Bolt connection or Welded connection, depending on that we have to find out the
Batten dimensions. And once Batten dimension is done, we need to check whether the Batten
is capable of carrying that much load or not.

Once that is done, if the dimensions of the Batten is okay from the strength point of view,
then we will go for design of connection. Connection of Batten I mean. So connection as I
told, connection may be 2 type, one is weld connection and another is Bolt connection, so
depending on the type of connection we will try to find out what are the type of forces are
developing, what are the type of stresses are developing. In fact, stresses will be basically
sheared stress and bending stress and also we have to find out the combine stress like
equivalent stress and then we need to see whether design is ok or not. So these are the
methodology which we have discussed.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:41)

Today we will be discussing about the bolt connection details, so let us go through the
following example.

Example: A batten column of 10-m long is carrying a factored load of 1150 kN. The column
is restrained in position but not in direction at both ends. Design a built up column using
channel sections placed back to back. Design batten plates using bolt connection.

So first part I will go very quickly and it is known to us, but we have to go through this
because we have to know the dimensions of the Batten plates and the spacing between 2
members, compression member size, unless we know that we will not be able to find out the
dimensions of Batten plates. So to find out the dimensions of the Batten plates we need to
know this, so first we will go through the calculation of the Batten plates, column dimensions
and its spacing.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:23)

Solution:

Design of column:

P=1150 kN ¿ 1150 ×10 3 N

L=1.0 ×10 ×10 3=10000 mm

Let design axial compressive stress for the column be 125 MPa

1150 × 10 3
Required area ¿ =9200 mm2
125

Let us try two ISMC 350 @ 413 N/m

Relevant properties of ISMC 350 [Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]

A=5366 mm2, r zz =136.6 mm, r yy =28.3 mm

t f =13.5 mm

I zz =10008 ×10 4 mm4 I yy =430.6× 10 4 mm4 c yy =24.4 mm

b=100 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 5:25)

Area provided ¿ 2× 5366=10732 mm2
L 10000
= =73.21
r zz 136.6

The effective slenderness ratio, ( KLr ) =1.1 ×73.21

e
¿ 80.53<180 ; ok

For ( KLr ) =80.53 ,

e
f y =250 MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress
from Table 9c of IS 800: 2007
136−121
f cd =136− ×0.53=135.2 MPa
10
Therefore load carrying capacity ¿ A e f cd
¿ 10732× 135.2×10−3
¿ 1451 kN > 1200 kN, OK

(Refer Slide Time: 6:52)

Spacing of channels:

[ ( )]
2
S
2 I zz =2 I yy+ A +C yy
2

[ )]
2
S
or 2× 10008× 10 4=2 × 430.6 ×10 4 +5366 ( 2
+ 24.4

⇒ S=218.4 mm

Let us keep the channels at a spacing of 220 mm

Spacing of battens:
As per clause 7.7.3 of IS 800: 2007,
C
< 0.7 λ
r yy

¿ C<0.7 × λ ×r yy =0.7 × 80.53× 28.3=1595.3 mm

C
Also < ¿ 50 or C<50 × 28.3=1415 mm
r yy

Hence, provide battens at a spacing of 1400 mm.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:51)
Size of end battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800: 2007):
Provide 20 mm bolts.
Edge distance ¿ 1.5× hole diameter [Cl. 10.2.4.2 IS 800:2007]
¿ 1.5× ( 20+2 )=33 mm

Effective depth ¿ s +C yy

¿ 220+2 ×24.4=268.8 mm > 2× 100 mm

Hence, chosen effective depth is safe.
Overall depth ¿ 268.8+2 ×33=334.8 mm
1
Required thickness of batten ¿ × ( 220+2 ×50 ) =6.4 mm
50

Length of batten ¿ 220+2 ×100=420 mm

Provide 420×340×8 mm end batten plates.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:09)
Size of intermediate battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800: 2007):

3
Effective depth ¿ ×(220+ 2× C yy )
4

3
¿ ×(220+ 2× 24.4)=201.6 mm
4

> 2× 100 = 200 mm

Hence adopt an effective depth of 210 mm

Overall depth ¿ 210+2 ×33=276 mm

Therefore, provide a 420×300×8 mm batten plates @1400 mm c/c.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:31)

Design forces:
2.5 2.5 3
Transverse shear, V t= × P= × 1150×10
100 100

¿ 28750 N

VtC
Longitudinal shear V l=
NS

Spacing of battens, C = 1400 mm

N = No of parallel planes of battens = 2

S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the bolt/weld group

¿ ( 220+2× 50 )=320 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 17:45)

 28750 ×1400
∴ V l= =6289 1 N
2× 320
V t C 28750 ×1400
Moment, M= = =10.06 ×106 N-mm
2N 2 ×2
Check

i) For end battens

62891 250
Shear stress ¿ =23.12 MPa < =131.22 MPa
340 × 8 √3 ×1.1
6 M 6 ×10.06 ×106
Bending stress ¿ 2 = 2
td 8 ×340

250
¿ 65.27 MPa < =227.27 MPa
1.1

Hence safe.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:32)
b) For intermediate battens
62891
Shear stress ¿ =26.2 MPa < 131.22 MPa
300 × 8

6 × 10.06× 106
Bending stress ¿ =83.83 MPa < 227.27 MPa
8× 3002

Hence safe.

Connection:

The connection should be designed to transmit both shear and bending moment.

Assuming 20 mm diameter bolts.

Strength of bolt in single shear

2

¿
A nb × f ub
√ 3 × γ mb ¿
0.78 × (π × 20
4 )
×400
−3
×10 =45.27
kN
√3 ×1.25
Minimum pitch, p = 2.5d=2.5×20=50 mm

Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d0 =1.5×22=33 mm

Provide p = 60 mm and e = 35 mm

kb is smaller of 35/(3×22), 60/(3×22)-0.25, 400/410, 1

Kb = 0.53

(Refer Slide Time: 23:16)

Strength of bolt in bearing ¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb

410
       =2.5× 0.53 ×20 ×8 × ×10−3=69.5   kN
1.25

Hence, strength of bolt = 45.27 kN

6289 1
Number of bolts required ¿ 3
=1.39
45.27 × 10

Let us provide four bolts to take account the stresses due to bending moments as well.

Check for combined action: For end battens

6289 1
Force in each bolt due to shear ¿ =1572 3 N
4

Pitch provided = (D-2e)/3= (340-2 × 35)/3 = 90 mm.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:36)

Now ∑ r2 = 2[(90/2)2+(90+90/2)2) = 2[452+1352] = 40500 mm2

Mr 10.06 ×106 ×135

Force due to moment ¿ = =3 3533 N
∑ r2 40500

Resultant force ¿ √ 157 23 2+33533 2

¿ 37036 N ¿ 37 kN ¿ 45.26 kN

Hence safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:41)

Check for combined action: For intermediate battens

 6289 1
Force in each bolt due to shear ¿ =1572 3 N
4

Pitch provided = (D-2e)/3= (300-2 × 35)/3 = 77 mm.

∑ r2 = 2[(77/2)2+(77+77/2)2) = 2[38.52+115.52] = 29645 mm2

Mr 10.06 ×106 ×115.5

Force due to moment ¿ = =39195 N
∑ r2 29645

(Refer Slide Time: 31:57)

Resultant force ¿ √ 157 23 2+39195 2

¿ 4 2231N ¿ 4 2.23 kN ¿ 45.26 kN

Hence safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:03)

Okay, so if we see the diagram of the design of the Batten plates if we see, it will look like
this.
20 mm bolt

Intermediate batten
420 mm×300 mm×8 mm

End batten
420 mm×340 mm×8 mm
1400 mm

ISMC 350

220 mm
 220 mm
350 mm

Channels back-to-back connected by bolts

 Design of Steel Structures.
Professor Damodar Maity.
Department of Civil Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Lecture-42.
Design of Batten Plates using Weld Connection.

Today’s lecture is basically the continuous of previous lecture, in previous lecture we have
gone through one example for design of Batten system using bolt connections. Now the same
example we will carried out using weld connections. Now in case of weld connections how
the batten depth is going to change that will be demonstrated and then how the weld length
will be distributed and how the weld size will be obtained those things will be discussed
through one example right.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:57)

Example: A batten column of 10-m long is carrying a factored load of 1150 kN. The column
is restrained in position but not in direction at both ends. Design a built up column using
channel sections placed back to back.
Design batten plates using weld connection.

Solution:

Design of column:

P=1150 kN ¿ 1150 ×10 3 N

3
L=1.0 ×10 ×10 =10000 mm

Let design axial compressive stress for the column be 125 MPa

1150 × 10 3
¿ =9200
Required area 125 mm2

Let us try two ISMC 350 @ 413 N/m

Relevant properties of ISMC 350 [ Table II SP 6 (1): 1964]

A=5366 r zz =136.6
mm2, mm,

r yy =28.3 mm t f =13.5 mm

I zz =10008 ×10 4 I yy =430.6× 10 4

mm4 mm4
 c yy =24.4 mm b=100 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 2:13)

Area provided ¿ 2× 5366=10732 mm2

L 10000
= =73.21
r zz 136.6

The effective slenderness ratio, ( KLr ) =1.1 ×73.21

e

¿ 80.53<180 ; ok

For ( KLr ) =80.53 ,

e
f y =250
MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress

from Table 9c of IS 800: 2007

136−121
f cd =136− ×0.53=135.2
10 MPa

¿ A e f cd
Therefore load carrying capacity
 −3
¿ 10732× 135.2×10

¿ 1451 kN > 1200 kN, OK

(Refer Slide Time: 3:50)

Spacing of channels:

[ ( )]
2
S
2 I zz =2 I yy+ A +C yy
2

[ )]
2
S
or 2× 10008× 10 4=2 × 430.6 ×10 4 +5366 2 + 24.4 (
⇒ S=218.4 mm

Let us keep the channels at a spacing of 220 mm

Spacing of battens:

As per clause 7.7.3 of IS 800: 2007,

C
< 0.7 λ
r yy

¿ C<0.7 × λ ×r yy =0.7 × 80.53× 28.3=1595.3 mm

C
<¿ C<50 × 28.3=1415 mm
Also r yy 50 or

Hence, provide battens at a spacing of 1400 mm.

Size of end battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800: 2007):

¿ 220+2 ×C yy
Overall depth of batten

¿ 220+2 ×24.4=268.8 ≈ 270 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 6:51)

Size of end battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800: 2007):

¿ 220+2 ×C yy
Overall depth of batten

¿ 220+2 ×24.4=268.8 ≈ 270 mm

1
¿ ×220=4.4
Required thickness of batten 50 mm

Adopt battens with the thickness of 6-mm

Let provide a 70 mm overlap of battens on channel flange for welding.

[Overlap > 4 t = 4 × 6 = 24 mm] OK

Length of batten ¿ 220+2 ×70=360 mm

Provide 360×270×6 mm end batten plates.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:19)

Size of intermediate battens (cl. 7.7.2.3 of IS 800: 2007):

3
¿ ×(220+ 2× C yy )
Overall depth 4

3
¿ ×(220+ 2× 24.4)=201.6
4 mm

> 2× 100 = 200 mm

Hence adopt overall depth of 220 mm

Therefore, provide a 360×220×6 mm batten plates.

Design forces:
 2.5 2.5
V t= × P= × 1150×103
Transverse shear, 100 100

¿ 28750 N

VtC
Longitudinal shear V l=
NS

Spacing of battens, C = 1400 mm

N = No of parallel planes of battens = 2

S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the bolt/weld group

¿ ( 220+2× 50 )=320 mm

28750 ×1400
∴ V l= =6289 1
N
2× 320

V t C 28750 ×1400
Moment, M= = =10.06 ×106 N-mm
2N 2 ×2

(Refer Slide Time: 10:48)

Check

i) For end battens.

 62891 250
¿ =38.82 =131.22
Shear stress 270 × 6 MPa < √ 3 ×1.1 MPa

6
6 M 6 ×10.06 ×10
Bending stress ¿ t d 2 = 6 ×2702

250
¿ 138 MPa < =227.27
MPa
1.1

Hence safe.

b) For intermediate battens.

62891
=4 7 . 64
MPa < 131.22 MPa
¿
Shear stress 2 20 ×6

6 × 10.06× 106
Bending stress ¿ =2 07.85 MPa < 227.27 MPa
6 ×2 202

Hence safe.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:19)

Design of weld:

Welding is done on all the four sides as shown in the figure.

Let t=¿ throat thickness of weld.

 [ ( )]
3 2 3
70 ×t 2 20 2× t × 220
I zz =2 × + ( 70 ×t ) × +
12 2 12

70 × t 3
Neglecting the term 2× 12 being insignificant.

4
Therefore, I zz =3 46 .87 × 10 t mm4

2 20× t 3 2
I yy=2 × [ t ×70 3
12 ]
+2 ×
12
+2× 2 20× t ×
70
2 ( )
3
2 20 ×t
Neglecting the term 2× 12 being insignificant.

Therefore, I yy =5 9 . 62× 104 t  mm 4

(Refer Slide Time: 16:19)

4 4
I p =I zz + I yy=3 46 . 87 ×10 t+5 9 . 62× 10 t

¿ 406.49 ×10 4 t mm 4

r=
√( 2 20 2 70 2
2
+
2) ( )
=11 5 . 43 mm
 35
cosθ= =0.3 0
115.43

Direct shear stress (cl. 10.5.9 of IS 800:2007)

62891 1 08.43
¿ =
( 2 ×70+2 ×2 20 ) t t N/mm2

10.06 ×10 6 × 11 5.43

Shear stress due to bending moment ¿ 406.49 ×10 4 t

285.67
¿
t N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 19:33)

Combined stress due to shear and bending

¿
√( 108.43 2 285.67 2
t )(+
t )
+2 ×
108.43
(t
×
285.67
)(
t )
× 0.3

334.59 410
¿ < =189. 4
t √ 3 × 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 22:12)

Combined stress due to shear and bending

¿
√( 108.43 2 285.67 2
t )(+
t )
+2 ×
108.43
(
t
×
285.67
t)( )
× 0.3

334.59 410
¿ < =189. 4
t √ 3 × 1.25

or t=1.77 mm

Size of weld ¿ 1.77/0.7=2.5 mm

The size of weld should not be less than 5 mm for 13.5 mm flange.

Hence provide a 5 mm weld to make the connection

(Refer Slide Time: 24:14)

 5 mm weld

Intermediate batten
360 mm×220 mm×6 mm
1400 mm

End batten
360 mm×270 mm×6 mm
Channels back-to-back connected by welding:
 Design of Steel Structures.
Professor Damodar Maity.
Department of Civil Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Lecture-43.
Design of Column Splice.

Today we are going to discuss about the column splices and how to design the column
splices. Basically when a joint is provided in the length of member is called splice. When the
length of column is more than the available length of steel section, in such cases we use
splice joint. So in many cases we have seen the available length of rolled steel section in the
market is less than the required length of the column, so in that case we need to joint those
together concentrically so that the load is transferred from one section to another section.

Also in case of multi storey building where the columns are provided along its height we
have seen the columns section, size is required less because the load coming to the column
across the height is gradually increasing towards the ground.

Therefore we need to accommodate the column section size larger towards the ground level.
And as a result we need to change the section size across the height and so that the economic
design can be done, in such cases we have to provide splices between two floors to join two
unequal sections. So basically if a compressive member is loaded concentrically we should
not provide any splice, means theoretically we do not need to provide any splice but load is
never axial and truly it is not axial and real column has to resist the bending due to the
eccentricity of the load, therefore we have to provide the splice.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:38)

So now if we see the specification for design of splices we can see that when the ends of the
compression members are faced for complete bearing over the whole area, these should be
spliced to hold the connected members accurately in position and to resist any tension when
bending is present. Say for example these two columns are joined by the spliced, so basically
to hold the two members properly we need to connect these members through splice.

And when such members are not faced for complete bearing, splices should be designed to
transmit all forces to which these are subjected, means sometimes it may be faced complete
bearing or it may not be faced complete bearing. In case of complete bearing the whole area,
then it should be spliced just for to transfer the load from upper storey to lower storey right.
And spliced is designed just to connect the members accurately in position, so that in position
it may stay.

But in case of incomplete bearing we have to transfer the load so the splice has to be designed
in such a way the load transformation from one storey to another storey are done properly.
And splices are basically designed as a short column.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:41)

Now if we draw a column flange having complete bearing we can see from the front view
that two I sections are spliced. So here if load is concentrically acting then for complete
bearing the splice is provided just to hold the columns in position right. So we provide splice
in two sides of the flange. Basically column flange are having complete bearing and the front
view would look like as shown in the figure. Now maybe we have to provide certain bolt
connection here to connect the two section using splice.

So it is spliced in this position and if it is connected by bolt then maybe we can connect two
numbers of bolt at each phase of each splice right. This will be looking as side view and if
web has to be spliced for shear, then it should look like this (as in figure) if we splice the web
also then it will look like this (as in figure).

Where splice will be provided for shear we can provide bolt at the flange to make a complete
bearing, and also at web we can provide splicing. So this is web splice for shear. So these are
the columns flanges having complete bearing.
(Refer Slide Time: 8:13)

Now let us see what are the steps we need to follow so that we can design the splice properly.
Step-1:
For axial compressive load the splice plates are provided on the flanges of the two column
sections to be spliced.

If the column has machined ends, the splice is designed only to keep the columns in position
and to carry tension due to the bending moment to which it may be subjected. The splice
plate and the connection should be design to carry 50% of the axial load and tension.

If the ends are not machined, the splice and connections are design to resist the total axial
load and any tension, if present due to the bending moment.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:13)

 • The load for the design of splice and connection due to axial load,

Pu
P u 1= (For machined ends)
4

Pu
P u 1= (For non machined ends)
2

Pu
Where, is the axial factored load.

• The load for the design of splice and connection due bending moment,

Mu
P u 2=
lever arm

Where, lever arm is the c/c distance of the two splice plates and

M u is the factored bending moment.

So then we will calculate total Pu on the splice plate, which will be Pu1 + Pu2.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:12)

Step-2:
Splice plates are assumed to act as short columns (with zero slenderness ratio). So these

fy
plates will be subjected to yield stress ( ).

Step-3:
The cross-sectional area of the splice plate is calculated by dividing the appropriate portion of
the factored load coming over the splice by the yield stress.

Pu 1 + Pu 2
c/s area required ¿ fy

Step-4:
The width of splice plate is usually kept equal to the width of the column flange.

¿ bf
Width of splice (width of flange)

The thickness of the splice plate can be found by dividing the c/s area of the plates with its
width.

Therefore the thickness of the splice plate can be found by dividing the cross sectional area
with its width. That means whatever area is coming area divided by width of flange will be
the thickness. So this is how we can find out the thickness of the splice plate.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:28)

Step-5:
Nominal diameter of bolts for connection is assumed and the strength of the bolt is computed.

Step-6:
In case of bearing plate is to be designed between two column sections, the length and width
of the plate are kept equal to the size of lower-storey column and the thickness is computed
by equating the ultimate moment due to the factored load to the moment of resistance of plate
section.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:32)

So in case of bearing plate if it is to be designed between two column sections then we have
to consider these aspects. So these are the steps which we need to remember. Now following
the steps we will go through this example and we will be able to understand how to design a
splice.

Example 5.12: A column ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m is to support a factored axial load of 500
kN, shear force of 120 kN and bending moment of 40 kNm. Design the splice plate and
connection using 4.6 grade bolts. Use steel of grade Fe 410.

So the example is like this a column of ISHB 300 at 576.8 Newton per metre is to support a
factor load of 500 kN. So Pu that P total factor load is 500 kN and shear force 120 kN and
bending moment 40 kN.

So three type of forces are there right factor load P is 500 kN and shear force is given 120 kN
and bending moment is coming 40 kN metre. Now design the splice plate connection using
4.6 grade bolts and let us use steel of grade as Fe 410. So if we use this this data then we will
see how to design the splice plate, due to this axial load and shear force and bending moment.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:58)

Solution:

f u =410 f y =250
For steel of grade Fe 410: MPa, Mpa

f ub =400
For bolts of grade 4.6: MPa
Partial safety factors for material: (Table 5 IS 800:2007)

γ m 0=1.10 γ mb=1.25

The relevant properties of ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m are (Table I, SP 6-1)

A=7485 b f =250
mm2 mm,

t f =10.6 mm t w =7.6 mm

Assume the ends of the column sections to be machined for complete bearing. As the column
ends are flush, it is assumed that 50% of the load is transferred directly and 50% is
transferred through the splice and fastenings. Therefore,

500
¿ 50% of ¿ 125 kN
The direct load on each splice plate 2

(Refer Slide Time: 20:22)

Mu 40 ×10
3

Load on splice due to moment ¿ = =130.72 kN

lever arm 300+ 6

(Assuming 6 mm thick splice plate, the lever arm ¿ 300+6 mm)

Ps=125+ 130.72=255.72
Total design load for splice, kN
 P s 255.72 ×103
Sectional area of splice plate required ¿ =
fy 250

¿ 1022.9 mm2
(Refer Slide Time: 23:15)

Width of the splice plate should be kept equal to the width of the flange.

Here, the width of the splice plate ¿ 250 mm

1022.9
mm ≮6 mm
¿ =4.09
Hence, thickness of splice plate 250

Provide a 250×6 mm splice plate.

The length of the splice plate depends upon the number of bolts in vertical row.

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.

Strength of 20 mm diameter bolt in single shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS 800:2007)

f ub

¿
A nb (√ )
3
=
245 ×
( 400
√3 ) −3
× 10 = 45.26 kN
γ mb 1.25
(Refer Slide Time: 25:31)

¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb
Strength of bolt in bearing (cl. 10.3.4, IS 800:2007)

For 20 mm diameter bolts the minimum edge distance,

e=1.5 ×d 0 =1.5× ( 20+2 )=33 mm

The minimum pitch, p=2.5 ×20=50 mm

Let us provide an edge distance (e) of 35 mm and pitch (p) of 60 mm.

kb is smaller of

e 35 p 60
( =
3 d 0 3 ×22
=0.53 , )(
3 d0
−0.25=
3 ×22
−0.25=0.66 ),
f ub 400
( =
f u 410
=0.98 ) and 1.0

k b =0.53
Hence
 410
∴ Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 ×0.53 ×20 ×6 × ×10−3
1.25

¿ 52.15 kN

Hence, the strength of bolt (Bv) ¿ 45.26 kN

Ps 255.72
Number of bolts required, n= = =5.65≈ 6
B v 45.26

Provide 6 bolts for each splice.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:24)

So if we provide 6 number of bolts then we can find out the length of splice plate.

Length of the splice plate ¿ 2×(2 ×60+ 2×35)=380 mm

Provide a splice plate 380×250×6 mm on column flanges as shown in the figure.

 Design of Steel Structures.
Professor Damodar Maity.
Department of Civil Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Lecture-44.
Design of Column Splice due to Shear.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:23)

Now I am going to discuss about the design of splice plate due to shear. Today’s lecture will
be the continuation of previous lecture, in previous lecture we have discussed about the
design steps for splice plates. A splice plate may undergo due to axial compression and
moment and because of moment tension may come and also shear may come into picture. So
we have gone through one example and we have shown that how to design the splice plate
due to axial compression and moment.

And we have seen that due to axial compression certain compressive force will come into
splice plate and due to bending moment also certain amount of force will come into the
flange. And because of that we need to design the splice plate because of combined action.
And the splice plates are designed through the connection through its flange because the
bending and compressions are designed in the flange. And shear will be taken care by the
weld therefore we will be design a web splice for shear.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:03)

So if we recall the earlier diagram web splice for shear we can see that it is something like
this say the columns are spliced by bolt connections, so this are the column flanges which are
spliced due to complete bearing. So here we have provided a certain number of bolts to splice
them right. So this splice plate can take care the axial load as well as the moment, but the
shear force will be taken by the weld, because we know the shear force is generally taken by
the web of the plate.

So in case of web splice for shear we need to provide some plate here right. Now we need to
know what will be the dimension of the plate what will be the number of bolt required to join
to withstand certain shear force. So this is basically web splice for shear. So I will go through
one example and that example is nothing but the continuation of the previous example which
we have discussed in earlier lecture. So first part I will just give a brief summary of that,
means whatever we have done in earlier class we just go through that very quickly and then
to just remind these dimensions and other things right and then I will design a splice plate on
the web.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:57)

Example 5.12: A column ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m is to support a factored axial load of 500
kN, shear force of 120 kN and bending moment of 40 kNm. Design the splice plate and
connection using 4.6 grade bolts. Use steel of grade Fe 410.

Solution:

f u =410 f y =250
For steel of grade Fe 410: MPa, Mpa

f ub =400
For bolts of grade 4.6: MPa

Partial safety factors for material: (Table 5 IS 800:2007)

 γ m 0=1.10 γ mb=1.25

The relevant properties of ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m are (Table I, SP 6-1)

A=7485 b f =250
mm2 mm,

t f =10.6 mm t w =7.6 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 5:22)

Assume the ends of the column sections to be machined for complete bearing. As the column
ends are flush, it is assumed that 50% of the load is transferred directly and 50% is
transferred through the splice and fastenings. Therefore,
 500
¿ 50% of ¿ 125 kN
The direct load on each splice plate 2

Mu 40 ×10
3

Load on splice due to moment ¿ = =130.72 kN

lever arm 300+ 6

(Assuming 6 mm thick splice plate, the lever arm ¿ 300+6 mm)

Ps=125+ 130.72=255.72
Total design load for splice, kN

P s 255.72 ×103
Sectional area of splice plate required ¿ =
fy 250

¿ 1022.9 mm2

Width of the splice plate should be kept equal to the width of the flange.

Here, the width of the splice plate ¿ 250 mm

1022.9
mm ≮6 mm
¿ =4.09
Hence, thickness of splice plate 250

Provide a 250×6 mm splice plate.

The length of the splice plate depends upon the number of bolts in vertical row.

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.

Strength of 20 mm diameter bolt in single shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS 800:2007)

f ub

¿
A nb (√ )
3
=
245 ×
( 400
√3 )
× 10
−3
= 45.26 kN
γ mb 1.25

(Refer Slide Time: 7:28)

 ¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb
Strength of bolt in bearing (cl. 10.3.4, IS 800:2007)

For 20 mm diameter bolts the minimum edge distance,

e=1.5 ×d 0 =1.5× ( 20+2 )=33 mm

The minimum pitch, p=2.5 ×20=50 mm

Let us provide an edge distance (e) of 35 mm and pitch (p) of 60 mm.

kb is smaller of
 ( 3ed = 3 ×22
0
35
=0.53 ) , (
p
3d
−0.25=
0
60
3 ×22
−0.25=0.66 ) ,

f ub 400
( =
f u 410
=0.98 ) and 1.0

k b =0.53
Hence

410
∴ Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 ×0.53 ×20 ×6 × ×10−3
1.25

¿ 52.15 kN

Hence, the strength of bolt (Bv) ¿ 45.26 kN

Ps 255.72
Number of bolts required, n= B v = 45.26 =5.65≈ 6

Provide 6 bolts for each splice.

Length of the splice plate ¿ 2×(2 ×60+ 2×35)=380 mm

Provide a splice plate 380×250×6 mm on column flanges as shown in the figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:23)

Splice plates for shear:

The splice plate for the shear force is provided on the web. A pair of splice plate (one on each
side of web) are provided.

Let us provide 20 mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.

Strength of bolt in double shear ¿ 45.26 ×2=90.52 kN

¿ 2.5 k b dt f u /γ mb
Strength in bearing

k b =0.53
Where, (taking e=35 mm and p=60 mm),

t=7.6 mm (web thickness)

410
∴ Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5 ×0.53 ×20 ×7.6 × × 10−3=66.06
1.25 kN

Hence, strength of 20 mm bolt ¿ 66.06 kN

(Refer Slide Time: 13:32)

Shear force in the web, V =120 kN

120
¿ =1.8≈ 2
Number of bolts required 66.06

Provide 2, 20 mm diameter bolts on each side of the splice.

Length of the splice plate ¿ 4 × 35=140 mm

Width of the splice plate ¿ 60+2 ×35=130 mm

Design shear strength of splice plate (cl. 8.4, IS 800:2007),

fy
V d= × h ×t
√3 × γm 0

250
¿ × 130× ( 2 t s ) × 10−3
√3 ×1.1

¿ 34.12t s
kN

(Refer Slide Time: 17:24)

 V d >V
Now,

34.12t s >120
or

Thickness of the splice plate required,

120
t s= =3.52 mm ≮6 mm
34.12

So provide a pair of 140×130×6 mm shear splice plates on each side of the web as shown in
the figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:46)

So we can provide a pair of 140×130×6 mm shear splice plate at each side of the web. So
now if we draw the total diagram to see the splice plate and its weld distribution then we can
see that in front view it will be like this (as shown in the figure).

35 35 60 35
60
60 20 mm
35 140 bolts
35
60
60
35

ISHB 300

Front view Side view

This is front view you can see this and in side view you can like this, so this is the place
where the columns are spliced. So the column and the spliced plates are these and we are
providing total six number of bolts in each splice ok. So this is 20 mm diameter of bolt right.

So in this lecture what we can see this is basically a continuation of the previous lecture in
which we have shown how to design the column splice when the column is subjected to not
only the axial force but also bending and shear. Now if only axial forces considered then we
do not need to provide web splice on the flange. But for shear we have to provide web splice
right. So through this typical example when three types of forces are acting then how to
design the splice plate considering its connection, connection means if we consider the bolt
connections how to find out the number of bolts and how the arrangements should be done,
what should be the plate thickness of the splice, those has been demonstrated through that
example. So I hope this will be made clear on the design of splice plates.
 Design of Steel Structures.
Professor Damodar Maity.
Department of Civil Engineering.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
Lecture-45.
Introduction to Flexural Member.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:25)

Today I am going to start a new chapter on flexural member i.e. beam. At the beginning, I
will be giving a lecture on introduction to flexural member and beam is basically a structural
member which is subjected to transverse loading, that means the load is perpendicular to its
axis. And because of this transverse loading the members produces bending moment as well
as shear force. So we have to design a beam against bending moment and shear force.

Now in an anatomy of a structure we have seen that apart from compression member or
tension members beams also exist and beam is an important member in a structural system
which carries load which are basically transverse load and the loads from the super structure
which are coming to the column, mainly from the floor and floor to beam and then beam to
column. Therefore, we need to know how to design the beam against such type of forces like
bending moment and shear force.

In case of steel structure we will see the beam is not only failed due to bending or due to
shear but also failed due to lateral buckling, due to local buckling, due to torsional moment,
so many things will come into picture. Why we have not studied this since in case of RC
structure because in case of RC structure generally we provide rectangular section, where
such type of problems will not come. But in case of steel structure we provide certain rolled
section where the thickness of the member is quite less means say for example I section the
thickness of the flange the thickness web is quite less.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:43)

So there will be chances of local buckling of the flange, web which we need to take care, so
all these aspects will be discussed in this chapter. Beams are basically two types, primary
beam and secondary beam. So secondary beam are rested on the primary beam and in case of
bridge structure, we often use a term girder and this bridge structures are designed
considering beam as a plate girder, where the girder dimensions are decided on the basis of
the bending moment and other forces.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:52)

• JOIST: A closely spaced beams supporting floors or roofs of building but not
supporting the other beams.

• GIRDER: A large beam, used for supporting a number of joists.

• PURLIN: Purlins are used to carry roof loads in trusses.

• STRINGER: In building, beams supporting stair steps; in bridges a longitudinal

beam supporting deck floor & supported by floor beam.

• FLOOR BEAM: A major beam supporting other beams in a building; also the
transverse beam in bridge floors.
(Refer Slide Time: 5:55)

• SPANDREL BEAM: In a building, a beam on the outside perimeter of a floor,

supporting the exterior walls and outside edge of the floor

• GIRT: A horizontal beam spanning the wall columns of industrial buildings used to
support wall coverings is called a GIRT.

• RAFTER: A roof beam usually supported by purlins.

• LINTELS: This type of beams are used to support the loads from the masonry over
the openings .

(Refer Slide Time: 7:03)

Basically the nature of the force is transverse load and sections lie in the plane of symmetry
that means say suppose a I section is there, now when loads are coming across its cross
section it is considered that it is a symmetric loading. That means that there is no twisting and
it follows that such a beam will be primarily subjected to bending accompanied by shear in
the loading plane with no external torsion and axial force. Though in case of beam the axial
force may come into picture sometimes and sometimes torsion also will also be there because
of unsymmetrical loading.

(Refer Slide Time: 8:51)

Now the torsion cannot completely be avoided. If the beam section is symmetrical and load
also act in a plane of symmetry then also torsion may occur due to the instability of
compressive stress. The reason I am reading once again the reason is the instability caused by
the compressive stresses. So such instability is defined as Lateral Buckling right and when it
is involved only local components of a beam it is called Local Buckling. So while going for
design of a beam member we need to design for lateral buckling and local buckling and this
local buckling is a function of width to thickness ratio.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:13)

Primary modes of failure of beams are as follows:

1. Bending failure

2. Shear failure

3. Deflection failure

1. Bending failure: Bending failure generally occurs due to crushing of compression

flange or fracture of tension flange of the beam.
2. Shear failure: This occurs due to buckling of web of the beam near location of high
shear forces. The beam can fail locally due to crushing or buckling of the web near the
reaction of concentrated loads.
3. Deflection failure: A beam designed to have adequate strength may become
unsuitable if it is not able to support its load without excessive deflections.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:34)

So, in case of beam we may use different type of sections one is say solid section. We can use
different type of rolled section like channel section, we can provide, again thin walled open
section, I section can be provided, and sometime fabricated I sections are also provided. This
is used frequently to fulfil the requirements and sometimes we provide the thin walled close
section also. In addition, box section can be used sometimes, angle sections can be used, light
weight transverse load angle sections may be provided, however for this case asymmetric
load will come into picture which need to be taken care. Moreover, sometimes compounds
sections also we provide.

Compound sections means combination of two sections. Say for example this is a steel rolled
I section and along with that say if the compression is quite high compared to tension then we
may provide sometimes channel section at the top. So, this is called compound section which
is made of two different section.

Then also we use composite beam, composite beams mean made of steel and concrete say for
example this is one case, this is I section and over the I section we provide the RCC slab or
beam and connect with the shear connector. This has certain advantages in the sense we know
the concrete are good in compression and steel are in tension.

So when the beam members are subjected to gravity load/transverse load, then the
compression occurs at the top and tension occurs at the bottom. So if we use such type of
composite section, then compression will be taken care by the concrete section and tension
will be taken care by the steel. So we can make advantageous use of the concrete properties
and steel properties. Also sometimes we use encased beam, encased beams means we provide
certain I section, then at periphery of the I section, we cast with concrete so this is also
sometimes used.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:41)

Another section we can use that is suppose a cantilever beam is there having certain UDL
load bending moment will be maximum at the support and minimum at the free end. So we
provide a section of same depth throughout the length then it will be uneconomical. We have
to provide a particular section considering the maximum bending moment and throughout
the section we use which will be uneconomical. So to make economical we can provide
varying cross section.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:10)

So another section is called castellated beam. We take a I section and we cut through its web,
web in this way. So this is a cut right, if we displace the upper section in this way then we can
make a sections like this. So, the advantage of this kind of section is that if we slide these
two, then the depth of the cross sectional will increase. If the depth of the cross section is
increased then the moment of inertia will increase. If moment of inertia increase then we
know stress will be decreased. So this type of beam is called Castellated Beam right.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

Another way of making castellated beam is to insert a plate here right, with a certain
thickness and depth right. So if we insert this then we can see the depth is becoming much
higher than the original one, so through this I can achieve the moment of inertia to a large
extent right and here we need to weld to make it monolithic. So this is one another example
of castellated beam.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:01)

Now we will find out some consideration for design of beams. When we are going to design a
beam we have to consider that beam should be proportional for strength in bending keeping
in view of the lateral and local stability of the compression flange. Now the selected shape
should have capacity to withstand the essential strength in shear and local bearing. So
whatever shape we will select because different type of shape we can select like I section,
channel section, some other section. That shape should have capacity to withstand essential
strength in shear because the shear will be taken by the web, so web thickness should be
sufficient enough to take care the shear force and local buckling. Then the beam dimension
should be suitably proportional to stiffness, keeping in mind their deflections and
deformations under service conditions.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:30)

Now another thing we have to see that different types of sections have certain limitations, like
angles and T sections are weak in bending. So unless transverse load is less, generally we do
not go for angle section or channel section or T sections. Then channels only be used under
light loads that means when the length of the member is quite high but load is less, then in
such case we can use channel section.

The rolled steel channels and angle section are used in those cases where they can be
designed and executed satisfactorily, so that has to be also keep in mind. Now, this is because
the loads is not likely to be in the plane, which removes torsional eccentricity. So while using
such type of section we have to keep in mind that torsional eccentricity may come into
picture. Also, it is complicated to calculate the lateral buckling characteristics of these type of
sections.

So, we have seen here certain demerits of using channel sections angle sections or T sections,
later we can see that in case of flexural member I sections will be the best one , because I
sections are symmetric and it can take both compression and tension equally.

So today, we will like to conclude here, next day we will see why I sections is better, and then
will see what are the failures may come into picture and then how to develop a design
methodology. Thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod 10 Lecture 46
Failure Modes of Flexural Members

Now, I am going to discuss about different aspects of failure modes of the flexural members.
We know in case of RCC structure the failure modes are basically the failure due to bending,
due to shear and due to deflection, which is basically a serviceability criteria. However in
case of steel structure as the structural sections are mainly hot rolled sections, it is not like a
rectangular section or like a compact section. Therefore, some other type of failure may also
occur. The other types of failure are like local buckling of the cross section, local buckling of
the web and failure of the flange, because of low thickness compared to its width. Lateral
torsional buckling also come into picture. So such type of failures may arise in case of steel
structure.

Therefore, when we are going to design a flexural member, made of steel we have to consider
not only the bending shear or deflection, we have to consider other sort of failures and design
criteria has to be satisfied from those points of view so that the local failure may be restricted.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:05)

(Refer Slide Time: 2:46)

So first kind of failure is excessive bending triggering collapse. When load is too high or
span is too long then maximum Bending moment will be huge at mid span in general.
However, it may differ considering the support condition and loading condition as well. So,
because of the excessive bending moment the collapse may occur due to bending.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:40)

Bending failure is the basic failure mode and in this case, the beam is prevented from lateral
buckling and the component elements are list compact so that they do not buckle locally. So
such beams will collapse due to plastic deformation. Another type of failure is lateral
torsional buckling, which is an important failure criteria for steel flexural member. So lateral
torsional buckling comes in picture when the beam is quite long.
(Refer Slide Time 5:01)

Say for example, if an I-section have long length then it may fail due to lateral torsional
buckling. So here, if load is acting in transverse direction and support conditions are there
then it may buckle laterally and this lateral buckling occurs due to combination of lateral
deflection and twist. The proportion of the beam support conditions and the load applied on it
are the certain factors, which affect the failure due to lateral torsional buckling. say for
example, if the load is not concentric twisting will occur because of the torsional moment
across the section and because of that lateral torsional buckling take place.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:16)

The next category is failure by local buckling i.e. failure of flange in compression, failure of
web due to shear and compression. These are the certain modes of failure, which come into
this category. Say for example, if we have a box section, then it may fail in its flange due to
compression. So, box sections may require flange stiffening to prevent premature collapse. In
addition, it may fail due to web under shear and compression.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:25)

(Refer Slide Time: 7:19)

If we have a member under concentrated load then at the point of application of concentrated
load the force is heavy, because load cannot disperse throughout it section. So therefore the
failure may occur due to compression. This can be overcome by the use of additional bearing
plate, which will disperse the load.
(Refer Slide Time: 7:33)

Under Category 4, the basic failure modes are shear yield of web, crushing of web and
buckling of thin flange.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:27)

So local crushing of web means if we have a section and if it is under concentrated load then
it may fail due to local crushing. Sometimes the flange width is quite high compares to its
thickness. Therefore, it may buckle due to the very thin flange width. However, this type of
failure may overcome, if we use additional plate at the flange by welding so that width to
thickness ratio increase.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:00)

While choosing the most suitable section for beam we have to see certain things, we have to
know what a stress diagram along the cross section is; say for example, if we see rectangular
section then we know initially bending stress will develop. If the load is going to increase
then after certain period the bending stress will reach to its yield stress. Therefore, after
further increase of the load, it will start formation of plastic hinge. So the sections will
undergoes under plastic deformation, right. So after certain time the section will become fully
plastic.

Now we know bending stress developed is calculated by (M/I )×y. So if we increase the I
value then the development of stress at the extreme fiber can be reduced. So from the
experiment we see that, if I section are provided then compared to its cross sectional area or
requirement of material, its moment of inertia is quite high. Therefore, with lightweight, we
can achieve high amount of moment of inertia and as a result, we can reduce a major amount
of stress. For this reason, I-section is the most suitable section.

Now another thing is that in case of I section, it is symmetry in but if we use channel section
or angle section then unsymmetric bending will come into picture for which, we have to
again consider the stress developed by unsymmetrical bending,. So, in case of high load or
large length if we use I section then, because of the high moment of inertia we can reduce the
deflection as well as stress due to bending. Therefore, we generally choose I section most
preferably.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:11)

Now coming to conventional use of various sections, we generally use channel or angle
section, in case of PURLIN. Generally, PURLINS are subjected to light load. So, for such
type of member we use either angle section or channel section. I sections are preferred in case
of LINTEL. Double angles, T sections or sometimes also ISJB sections are also used. For
large spans and light loads, where the deflection may come huge, we have to increase the I
value, so CASTELLATED BEAM is preferred in this type of situation.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:15)

There are few criteria’s we should follow to select a beam section. The first is the usual
method of selecting a beam section, by using a section modulus (Z) which is equal to I /Y,
because maximum bending stress is equal to (M/Z). The criterion of economy is weight rather
than section modulus, because sometimes, if the section modulus is high, weight may be less
or may be high also. So but if we consider to make section economical then lighter weight
section should be chosen however that may not be achieved always. Therefore, we have to
see the section modulus and sometimes deflection and occasionally shear may be the
necessary criteria for selection of section. This is very rare, when we have to consider the
deflection criteria where deflection is quite high and we have to arrest the deflection and for
such type cases we may have to go for castellated beams and sometimes shear may be the
guiding criteria, so for that also we have to consider corresponding section.

And, if we have a similar section modulus of different kind of section then among those
lighter section should be chosen.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:02)

Primarily design criteria is based on these three aspects, these are based on deflection, based
on stress due to bending and due to shear. However, other criteria has also to be fulfilled like
the torsional buckling, local buckling, web buckling, flange buckling. Then web crippling
also will come into picture, which has to be overcome by providing certain measurement.

Now the maximum deflection depends on the span length, moment of inertia of the section,
load distribution and modulus of elasticity and support condition. So these are the five factors
on which, the maximum deflection depends. So depending on that we will try to find out
what is the maximum deflection coming into the member and what is the limiting deflection,
depending on those we have to decide the section size.

(Refer slide time: 19:43)

In general the maximum deflection in beam is given by

W L3
δ=K
EI
Where,
W Total load on the span

L Effective span length

E Modulus of elasticity

I Moment of inertia of the section

K a coefficient depends upon the distribution of loading & end support of the beam

The value of the coefficient K for different loading conditions and support conditions are
listed below.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:46)

(Refer Slide Time: 20:58)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:09)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:29)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:53)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:05)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:15)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:27)

(Refer Slide Time: 23:13)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:54)

Limiting deflection is given in table 6 of IS 800-2007 and maximum deflection for different
support and loading condition should not exceed the limiting deflection. Effective length for
lateral torsional buckling can be found from table 15. Effective length for lateral torsional
buckling will be required for calculation of design bending moment.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:50)

So few of them are shown here, which are given in table 15 and in clause 8.3.1 of IS

(Refer Slide Time: 28:47)

So in today’s lecture, the last thing we like to discuss is about the design procedure. So design
procedure can be divided into 3 parts, one is structural; another is secondary effect and
practical limitations. So, basically the design of the member will be done due to bending
moment, due to shear force, due to deflection and due to stability. So first we will see, what is
the maximum bending moment coming into the member and for that what will be the size of
the section whether, it is capable of carrying, this much bending moment or not. Then we will
check whether the developed shear force can be carried by the section. If the design shear
force is more than the external shear force then it is fine otherwise we have to increase the
section size to withstand the shear force coming from the load.

Then the maximum deflection can be calculated for the given load and the support and we
will check whether the maximum deflection is exceeding the limiting deflection or not. If it is
exceeding the limiting deflection then we have to increase the section size and we have to
redo all the things, otherwise we can go ahead. Another thing is stability; lateral torsional
buckling may come into picture. So from that point of view also we have to consider whether
the structure is safe or not. So these are the structural aspects which has to be taken care for
design.

Another is the local buckling. So local buckling means buckling of the web, crippling of the
web or the buckling of the flange, because of thin flange, flange may also buckle. So these
are the some secondary effects, which has to be also taken care and we have to check whether
it is safe against local buckling, against secondary forces or not and also we have to check the
connections whether it is okay or not and then we will go to the practical limitations.
Practical limitations means we have to consider the durability, fabrication tolerances and
erection strategy. Erection strategy means we have to see that the given section which is
coming, is possible to be erected properly or not that we have to see and we have to make a
erection strategy so that the given sections can be erected properly in the site.

So in short, the main thing that we have discussed is the failure criteria of the member and
what are the type of failure may come into picture and because of that failure how to take
proper measurement, how to go through design that will be discussed in next class.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod 10 Lecture 47
Laterally Supported Beams

Today, I am going to discuss about the design procedure of the laterally supported beam. So,
beam can be designed on the basis of laterally supported or laterally unsupported. So today,
we will discuss only about the laterally supported beam where, its web is supported laterally
so that the lateral torsional buckling may be prevented.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:14)

The design criteria of such beam is given in clause 8.2.1 of IS 800-2007, the detail has been
discussed where the design bending strength can be calculated in two cases, one is for low
shear another is for high shear. When the shear force is less than the 0.6 times that design
shear strength then it is called low shear, that means if V d is the design shear strength of the
cross section and V is less than 0.6Vd then it is a case of low shear. So in case of low shear we
can find out the design bending strength simply by from this formula

Md = βbZpfy / ϒm0
(Refer Slide Time: 4:54)

To avoid irreversible deformation under serviceability loads, following conditions are to be

satisfied.

Md ≤ 1.2Zefy/ϒm0 for simply supported beams

Md ≤ 1.5Zefy/ϒm0 for cantilever beams;

Where,

βb = 1.0 for plastic and compact sections;

βb = Ze / Zp for semi-compact sections;

Zp , Ze = plastic and elastic section moduli of the

cross-section, respectively;

fy = yield stress of the material; and

ϒm0 = partial safety factor

(Refer Slide Time: 7:54)

So once we find the value of Md then we can go ahead for next; however if we see that the
shear force is more than the 0.6 times design shear strength of the beam section then we can
use this formula,

Md = Mdv

Where, Mdv is the design bending strength under high shear and it is calculated as,

(a) Plastic or compact section

Ze f y
M dv =M d−β ( M d −M fd ) ≤1.2
γ m0

Where,

2
V
(
β= 2 −1
Vd )
Vd = design shear strength as governed by web yielding or web buckling = Av f v

fv = design shear strength

Av = shear area = Dtw for rolled sections

= dtw for welded/built up sections

V = factored shear force

Md = plastic design moment of the whole section disregarding high shear force effect and
considering web buckling effects.

Mfd = plastic design strength of the area of the cross section excluding the shear area

d 2 tw
M fd = f for built up sections
4 y

D2 t w
M fd = fy for rolled sections
4

d=D−2t f

D is the overall depth and d is the effective depth.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:15)
(Refer Slide Time: 11:35)

So after designing for bending we will go for design for shear. Clause 8.4, IS 800:2007
describes the criteria. In clause 8.4, it says that the factored design shear force should satisfy,

Vn
V≤
γ m0

Where Vn = nominal shear strength of a section

A v f yw
V n=
√3

Where Av = shear area

fyw = yield strength of the web

Now shear areas (Av) can be calculated as given in clause 8.4.1.1, IS 800:2007 for different
types of section.
(Refer Slide Time: 13:31)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:59)

Next, in case of web buckling we can see that the web behaves like a column if placed under
concentrated load. If we have I-section say for example, a concentrated load, the web may
buckle depending on the type of member. So if the web is thin then it may buckle or
sometimes it may cripple also.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:24)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:53)

So for calculating web buckling, the effective depth for different cases has been given say for
example, when the web is restrained against lateral deflection and rotation, the effective depth
is considered as d1/2, right where d1 is a depth of the web; if it is restrained against lateral
deflection, but not against rotation then the effective depth will be 2/3d 1. If the retrained
against rotation, but not against lateral deflection then effective depth will be d 1 and if not
restrained against rotation and lateral deflection the effective depth will be 2d1. So this is
required to calculate the compressive stress of the web.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:37)

So for calculation of web buckling strength we need to find out how the bearing plate should
be provided to prevent the web buckling. Say for example, if a member is subjected to
concentrated load at certain point then also there is a chance of web buckling here and under
the support, because of the reaction at the support. Therefore, at support and the point where
concentrated load is applied we need to provide bearing plate. If we provide the bearing plate
then the load will be dispersed with 45-degree angle. This is the flange and if this is neutral
axis depth, then the width for which we have to calculate is B=b+2n 1 where n1 is the length
from dispersion at a 45 degree angle to the level of neutral axis, b is the width of the bearing
plate. At support the width for which the buckling load should be calculated is B1=b+n1.

So the web buckling strength can be calculated by,

F wb=B t w f cd

(below concentrated load)

F wb=B 1 t w f cd

(at support)

Where,

Fwb = web buckling strength at the support

B = b+ 2n1 , B1= b+n1

n1 = length from dispersion at 45° to the level of neutral axis

tw = thickness of the web

fcd = allowable compressive stress corresponding to assumed web strut according to buckling
curve c.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:50)

Now here the when we are going to calculate the design compressive stress f cd we need to
know what is the value of slenderness ratio.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

Here, the effective length of strut will be le = 0.7d

l e 0.7 d
Thus, the slenderness ratio λ= =
ry ry

The radius of gyration, r y =

√ √
Iy
A
=
bt3
=
t
12× b ×t √ 12

0.7 d 0.7 d × √ 12 2.5 d

Hence, λ= = ≈
ry t t

Thus, the slenderness ratio of the idealized web-strut is taken as

2.5 d
λ=
t

Once the slenderness ratio is found and for bucking class C, for a particular grade of steel we
can find out the value of fy, we can find out the fcd value from this parameters.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:43)

Now we will discuss about the web crippling for which it may fail. Web crippling occur when
a member is under concentrated load, say for example, we have a support condition here we
have a support condition here, so it may fail at the root like this. So web crippling may occur
due to concentrated force at the support due to concentrated force, otherwise in other case
also, it may fail at the point of concentrated load.

Web crippling strength can be found as,

 b1 t w f yw
F wc=
γ m0

Where

Fwc = web crippling strength

b1 = bearing length

= b+2n1 under concentrated load

= b+n1 under reactions at support

Minimum bearing length = 100 mm

n1 = dispersion through the flange to the flange-to-web connection at a slope of 1:2.5

to the plane of the flange i.e. n1=2.5 ( t f + R 1 )

tw = thickness of the web

fyw = design yield strength of the web

So, if this web crippling strength is more than the load coming into the member at that point
then it is fin otherwise we have to increase the section or increase the web width so that web
crippling can be avoided.

So today we have discussed that a beam is designed for bending moment then depending on
two cases; low shear and high shear. Once design bending strength is calculated we will go
for calculation of the shear strength. Then we should check the strength against web buckling
and web crippling. Of course we have not discussed about that deflection criteria, which also
need to be fulfilled that means we we will find out what is that maximum deflection coming
on the member due to the load and support condition avoiding limiting deflection and if the
criteria is satisfying then fine otherwise again we have redo.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod 10 Lecture 48
Design of Laterally Supported Beams

Now, I am going to discuss the design procedure of a laterally supported beam. So in last
lecture we have discussed how to calculate the design bending strength of a laterally
supported beam, design shear of a laterally supported beam. So in today’s lecture first, I will
go through very quickly the design steps for laterally supported beam and then I will go
through one workout example.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:44)

So in first step, we can find out the load acting on the beam and then we can calculate the
appropriate load by multiplying the partial load factor. In the second step, we can find out the
bending moment distribution and shear force along the beam length and from that we can
find out maximum bending moment at shear force, because I have to design the beam against
the maximum bending moment and maximum shear force.

In the third step, on that basis of max. BM we can find out a trial plastic section Zp,

Md
Z p=
f y /γ m 0

where Md is the maximum bending moment, which we have calculated, F y is the yield stress
of the material and γm0 is a material safety factor. So from this in the fourth step, we can find
out the trial plastic section and from the plastic section modulus we can find out a
corresponding section whether we are going for ISMB or ISLB depending on that we can
find out the section whose plastic section modulus is greater than the calculated plastic
section modulus.

(Refer Slide Time: 5:00)

Then in the 5th step, we can classify the section as plastic or compact or semi-compact from
table 2, IS 800: 2007. Once it is done then I can find out the design shear strength V d which is
calculated by

fy
V d= ht
√3 γ m 0 w

So design shear strength Vd can be calculated from this and then we should check whether it
is high shear or low shear. If the maximum shear force is less than 0.6V d then the beam is in
low shear and if it is more than 0.6Vd then beam is in high shear.

So considering high shear or low shear, the formula will be different for calculating design
bending strength. So if it is in low shear then I can find out Md as,

For low shear:

Md = βbZpfy / ϒm0

≤ 1.2Zefy/ϒm0 (for simply supported beams)

≤ 1.5Zefy/ϒm0 (for cantilever beams)

value as this that is beta b into Zp Fy by gamma m0, right. So now for a particular section we
know Zp value and depending on the type of section whether it is plastic, compact or semi-
compact, I can find out the βb value and γm0 value we know.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:46)

And for high shear, the design bending strength will be calculated from this formula,

Ze f y
M dv =M d−β ( M d −M fd ) ≤1.2
γ m0

(for plastic and compact section)

fy
M d v =Z e
γ m0

(For semi-compact section)

Now if we see that M is greater than M d then we have to increase the section size and repeat
from step 5, right. That means if the design bending strength is less than the actual moment
then I have to increase the section size and then I have to repeat from step 5 otherwise if it is
satisfying then we can go to step 9.

So from step 5 to 8 will be repeated till the design bending strength is more then the bending
moment developed bending. Once it is satisfied then we have to calculate the design shear
strength Vd and it should be greater than the maximum factored shear force developed due to
external load. So maximum factor shear V has been already calculated. If this is fine then we
can go to next step otherwise if V is greater than then Vd then we have to redesign the section

Next step is that we have to check for deflection, which is also another important aspect. The
beam has to be checked for deflection as per table 6, IS 800:2007. In table 6, the limiting
deflection criteria has been given and the maximum deflection can be calculated from the
given boundary conditions and the loading conditions. So from that we can find out the
maximum deflection and maximum deflection has to be less than the limiting deflection
given in table 6, if it is okay then fine otherwise we have to again increase the section.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:21)

d
Now we have to check for web buckling. If ≤ 67 ϵ for web without stiffeners, then the
tw
web is assumed to be safe in web buckling and we do not need to check. So the shear strength
of the web is governed by plastic share resistance. But the web should be checked for
buckling, in case of high shear even if this limit is satisfied and the web buckling strength can
be calculated by, fwb= Ab × fcd . Here, Ab = area of the web at the neutral axis of the beam =
Btw and fcd = design compressive stress which can be found from table 9C, as it is buckling
class C. The web buckling strength should be greater than the design shear force.

So if web buckling strength is greater than the design shear strength then fine otherwise we
have to increase the bearing plate length, either we have to increase the bearing plate length
or we have to increase the section size to increase the web buckling strength. So once it is
okay then we will go for checking web crippling. Web crippling strength can be calculated
 b1 t w f yw
by, F wc= where b1 is the dispersion width and tw is the thickness of the web and
γ m0
Fyw is the yield strength of the web.

So web crippling strength Fwc can be found from this formula and it has to be more than the
shear force coming on that section. So if it is satisfying this criteria then fine otherwise again
we have to increase the section size or we have to increase the bearing length to make the
section safe from the web crippling. So these are the steps which we need to follow to design
a beam with laterally supported.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:17)

Example:

A cantilever beam of length 4.5 m supports a dead load (including self weight) of 18 kN/m
and a live load of 12 kN/m. Assume a bearing length of 100 mm. Design the beam.

Solution:

Step 1: Calculation of load

Dead load = 18 kN/m

Live load = 12 kN/m

Total load = (18 + 12) = 30 kN/m

Total factored load =1.5 (18 + 12) = 45 kN/m

Step 2: Calculation of BM and SF

2 2
w l 45× 4.5
BM = = = 456 kN-m
2 2

SF = w×l = 45×4.5 = 202.5 kN

Step 3: Choosing a trial section

M × γ m0 456 × 106 × 1.1

Z p , reqd = = = 2006.4×103 mm3
fy 250

(Refer Slide Time: 13:54)

Let us select the section ISLB 550 @ 0.846 kN/m

Zpz = 2228.16 × 103 mm3
Zez = 1933.2 × 103 mm3
h = 550 mm, bf = 190 mm, tf = 15 mm, tw = 9.9 mm, R = 18
d = 550 – 2×(15 + 18)
= 484 mm
Izz = 53161.6 × 104 mm4
Section classification
bf
d 484
2 95 < 9.4 = =48.9 < 84
= =6.33 t w 9.9
t f 15
Hence, the section is plastic

(Refer Slide Time: 16:24)

Step 4: Calculation of shear capacity of the section

fy 250
V d= × h ×t w = ×550 × 9.9
γ m 0 × √3 1.1× √ 3

¿ 714.47 kN
0.6 V d =0.6 ×714.47=428.68 kN > 202.5 kN

Hence, Low shear

(Refer Slide Time: 19:36)
Step 5: Design capacity of the section
Z p × f y 2228.16 ×103
M d= = × 250
γ m0 1.1

¿ 506.4 kNm > BM so, ok.

1.5 × Z e × f y 1.5 ×1933.2 ×103 ×250

≤ =
γ m0 1.1

¿ 659.04 kNm

(Refer Slide Time: 22:36)

Step 6: Check for deflection

w l4 30 × 45004
δ= = =1 4 .5 mm
8 EI 8 ×2 ×105 ×53 161.6 ×104

Allowable deflection = L/150 = 4500/150 = 30 mm

OK.

Step 7: Web buckling

Cross sectional area of web for buckling A b =( b1 +n1 ) t w

b1 = 100 mm

n1 = D/2=550/2 = 275 mm
Ab = (100 + 275) × 9.9

= 3712.5 mm2

Effective length of the web = 0.7 × d = 0.7 × 484= 338.8 mm

b× t 3w 1 0 0 ×9.93
I= = =8085.8 mm3
12 12

A = 100 × 9.9 = 990 mm2

Refer Slide Time: 24:51)

r min =
√ 8085.8
990
= 2.86 mm

l eff 338.8
λ= = =119
r min 2.85

Allowable stress fcd = 84.8 N/mm2

Capacity of the section = 84.8× 3712.5 = 314.8 kN > 202.5 kN
Hence, the section is safe against web buckling.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:23)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:04)

Step 8 : Check for web crippling

( b1 +n2 ) ×t w × f y
F w=
γ m0

n2 = 2.5 (R + tf) = 2.5(18 + 15) = 82.5 mm

( 1 0 0+82.5 ) × 9.9× 250

F w= =410.6 kN > 202.5 kN
1.1

So the section is safe against web crippling

So from this what we can see that we have to design the beam stage by stage. So the steps are
discussed earlier, so according to these steps, we have gone through and we have checked
every step that we found that the assumed section is safe against moment, against shear,
against deflection, against buckling and against crippling. So all the checks are satisfied, so
the sections which are assumed is okay.
 Course on design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Mod 10 Lecture 49
Laterally Supported Beams with High Shear

Today, I am going to discuss about the design strength calculation of laterally supported beam
with high shear. In last lecture we have discussed the design procedure for calculating the
section size of a laterally supported beam member due to low shear and we have seen how to
calculate the design bending strength due to low shear. Now in case of high shear, we have
seen that certain reduction will occur in the bending strength calculation, because of the high
shear.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:16)

Example: Design a laterally supported beam of effective span 5 m for the following data.

Grade of steel: Fe 410

Factored maximum B.M. = 180 kN-m

Factored maximum S. F. = 220 kN

Check for deflection is not required

(Refer Slide Time: 5:53)

Solution:

For Fe 410 grade of steel: fy = 250 MPa

Partial safety factor: m0 =1.1

Factored Max. B.M. = 180 kNm

Factored Max. S.F. = 220 kN

Plastic section modulus required,

M γ m 0 180 × 106 × 1.1

Z p , reqd = = =792×10 3 mm3
fy 250

Let us select a section, ISLB 350 @ 0.485 kN/m

Zpz = 851.11 × 103 mm3 Ixx = 13158 × 104

Zez = 751.9 × 103 mm3

h = 350 mm, bf = 165 mm, tw = 7.4 mm, tf = 11.4 mm

R1= 16 mm

d = D - 2(tf + R1) = 350 - 2(11.4 + 16) = 295.2 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 9:04)

Section classification:

bf
2 165 /2 < 9.4
= =7.23
tf 11.4

d 295.2
= =39.9 < 84
tw 7.4

Hence, the section is plastic.

Check for shear capacity:

Design shear strength of the section,

fy 250 −3
V d= D t w= ×350 ×7.4 ×10 =339.8 kN > V=220 kN
√3 γ m 0 √ 3 ×1.1

0.6Vd = 0.6 × 339.8 = 203.9 kN < V=220 kN

So, it is the case of high shear.

Check for design bending strength:

fy 250
M d=Z pz =851.11 ×10 3 × × 10−6=193.43 kN-m
γ m0 1.1
 2 2
V 220
β= 2
( Vd ) (
−1 = 2
339.8 )
−1 =0.08 7

(Refer Slide Time: 13:33)

3 350
Z fd =Z pZ − A w Y w =851.11 ×10 −(350 ×7.4 )×
4

3
¿ 624.4 9 ×10 mm3

250
M fd =624.4 9× 103 × =141.93 kNm
1.1

(Refer Slide Time: 17:21)

 fy
M dv =M d−β ( M d −M fd ) ≤1.2 Z e
γm 0

M dv =193.43−0.08 7 × ( 193.43−141.93 )=18 8.95 kNm

fy 250
≤1.2 Z e =1.2 ×751.9 ×103 × × 10−6=205.06 kNm
γm 0 1.1

Hence, M dv =18 8.95 kNm > Mu=180 kNm, OK

(Refer Slide Time: 21:40)

Check for web buckling (at support)

Web buckling check is not required in general as
d 295.2
= =39.9 < 67ϵ
tw 7.4

However, it is a case of high shear, web buckling check should be applied.

Assume a stiff bearing length, b = 100 mm
A b =B1 t w =( b+ n ) t w =( 100+350 /2 ) ×7.4=2035 mm2

Effective length of web, KL = 0.7d = 0.7×295.2 = 206.64 mm

b t 3w 100× 7.43
Ieff of web ¿ = =3376.8 7 mm4
12 12
Aeff of web = btw = 100 × 7.4 = 740 mm

r=
√ 3376.86
740
=2.136 mm
 KL 206.64
Slenderness ratio, λ= = =96.74
r 2.136

For λ= 96.74, fyw = 250 N/mm2 , and buckling curve c , the design compressive stress from
Table 9(c), IS 800: 2007.
fcd = 111.56 N/mm2
Capacity of web section Fwb = Abfcd = 2035 × 111.56 × 10-3 = 227 kN
> 220 kN
Which is alright.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:24)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:14)

Check for web crippling:

 f yw
F w =(b +n1 )t w
γ m0

n1=2.5 ( t f + R 1 )

= 2.5 ×(11.4 + 16) = 68.5 mm

Stiff bearing length has been assumed, b = 100 mm

Fw = (100 + 68.5)×7.4×250/1.1×10-3 = 283.4 kN

> 220 kN, OK

So today what we have seen an example, to find out a beam section, because of high shear.
So in case of high shear, we need to evaluate the reduction factor bending strength
calculation, right. That reduction factor will be calculated based on the full bending strength
for plastic section without shear area. So from those data we can finally find out the modified
bending strength of the whole section due to high shear. So this is how we calculate. So thank
you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 10, Lecture 50
Laterally Unsupported Beams

This lecture we will focus on laterally unsupported beam. So design strength of laterally
unsupported beam will be calculated based on the codal provisions, which is given in clause
8.2.2 of IS 800-2007. Now in case of laterally unsupported beam, the lateral torsional
buckling will play an important role and because of lateral torsional buckling, the full
plasticity of the section will not be developed that means the member will fail before at any
it’s (())(0:59) full bending stress of the section, the it will fail due to laterally torsional
buckling and this lateral torsional buckling happens.

Unlike RCC section or the stocky section, their lateral torsional buckling does not come into
picture, but in case of steel rolled section where we have made economic design in terms of
the material, we face this type of lateral torsional buckling and if we do not provide lateral
support then such type of buckling will occur.

So this buckling occur, because of the cross sectional shape, support conditions and effective
length. So depending on all these bending strength of laterally unsupported beam will be
calculated.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:21)

(Refer Slide Time: 2:36)

The design bending strength for laterally unsupported beams is

M d= βb Z p f bd

Where,

Zp = Plastic section modulus of the cross-section

βb = 1.0 for compact & plastic sections

= Ze/Zp for semi-compact sections

fbd = design bending compressive stress given by,

Χ¿ f y
f bd =
γm 0

ΧLT = bending stress reduction factor to account for lateral torsion buckling

Now bending stress reduction factor to is calculated by,

1
Χ¿ = ≤1. 0
∅¿ + √ ∅2¿ −λ 2¿

Where, ∅¿ =0.5 [ 1+ α ¿ ( λ ¿−0.2 )+ λ2¿ ]

 α LT = imperfection factor for lateral torsional buckling of beams

= 0.21 for rolled steel sections

= 0.49 for welded steel sections

Suppose, if we use plate to make a I section with the use of welding, then for such type of
section, we can use α LT as 0.49 otherwise for the rolled section we can α LT as 0.21

λLT = non-dimensional slenderness ratio given by,

λ¿ =
√ βb Zp f y
M cr √ Z f
≤ 1.2 e y
M cr

¿
√ fy
f cr , b

(Refer Slide Time: 5:43)

Where,
Mcr = elastic lateral buckling moment (Cl. 8.2.2.1) is given by,

M cr =
√{( )[
π2 E I y
2
( L¿ )
G It +
π2 E I w
( L¿ )
2
]}
¿ β b Z p f cr ,b

It = torsional constant ¿ ∑ bi t 3i /3 for open section

I w = warping constant

I y = moment of inertia about weaker axis

 ry = radius of gyration about weaker axis

L¿ =effective length for lateral torsional buckling (Clause 8.3)

hf = centre-to-centre distance between flanges

tf = thickness of flange

G = shear modulus
(Refer Slide Time: 8:07)

fcr,b is the extreme fiber bending compressive stress and is given by,

fcr,b = extreme fiber bending compressive stress corresponding to elastic lateral buckling
moment and is given by

√
2
L¿

f cr , b=
( ) L¿
ry
2
1.1 π E
2
1+
()
1 ry
20 h f
tf

For different values of KL/ry & h f /tf corresponding values of fcr,b is given in Table 14, IS
800:2007. Values of fbd can also be found from Table 13(a) and 13(b), IS 800: 2007
corresponds to different values of fcr,b and fy
(Refer Slide Time: 11:10)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:54)

The following simplified equation may be used in case of prismatic members made of
standard rolled I-sections and welded doubly symmetric I-sections, for calculating the elastic
lateral buckling moment, M cr

√
2
L¿

()
2
π E I y hf 1 ry
M cr = 1+
2 L¿ 2 20 h f
tf
However, M cr for different beam sections, considering loading, support condition and non-
symmetric section, shall be more accurately calculated using the method given in Annex E of
IS: 800-2007.

So in today’s lecture what we can see that laterally unsupported length of the member, there
is a chance of lateral torsional buckling. Because of lateral torsional buckling before
developing the full bending stress, the member may fail and therefore, we have to find out
what is the lateral torsional buckling moment. So in next lecture, we will go through one
example, then the detail methodology of the design will be clear. Thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Prof. Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Module 10 Lecture 51
Strength Calculation of Laterally Unsupported Beams

Based on the last lecture, now we will go to one work out example and we will see how to
calculate the design bending strength of a member which is laterally unsupported.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:38)

So before going to that example, first I will show the glimpse of the lecture what we have
discussed roughly. First we have to find out the X LT value, the bending stress reduction factor
XLT, if we can find out the value of bending reduction factor due to lateral torsional buckling then
I can find out the design bending compressive stress and once I find out the design bending
compressive stress then I can find out the design bending strength.
Refer Slide Time: 1:25)

I can find out XLT from this expression,

1
Χ¿ = ≤1. 0
∅¿ + √ ∅2¿ −λ 2¿
which we have shown earlier and to find out the value of X LT we need to find out value of ∅¿
and where the ∅¿ depends on the imperfection factor for laterally torsional buckling that is
α LT and it may be 0.21 for rolled section and 0.49 for welded steel sections and the λLT , the
non-dimensional slenderness ratio can be calculated from this formula,

λ¿ =
√ βb Zp f y
M cr √ Z f
≤ 1.2 e y
M cr

¿
√ fy
f cr , b
where we need to know again the value of Mcr, which is lateral torsional buckling moment.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:16)

So Mcr can be calculated from,

M cr =
√{( π2 E I y
2
( L¿ ) )[ G It +
π2 E I w
( L¿ )
2
]}
¿ β b Z p f cr ,b

(Refer Slide Time: 2:39)

Fcr,b value also can be found from this formula,

 √
2
L¿

f cr , b=
2
1.1 π E
L¿ 2
( )
ry
1+
()
1 ry
20 h f
tf

otherwise as I told we can find out from table 14, in which we do not need to calculate in details
through these expressions. So once we find the value of Fcr,b we can find out Fbd correspondings
to Fy and Fcr,b. So once we find Fbd value then we can find out the M d, the design bending
strength.
(Refer Slide Time: 3:25)

Example: Calculate the design bending strength of ISLB 300 @ 0.369 kN/m considering the
beam to be
(a) Laterally supported
(b) Laterally unsupported
Assume the design force is less the design shear strength and is of low shear. The effective
length of the beam (LLT) is 4 m. Assume Fe410 grade of steel.

Solution:
The relevant properties of ISLB 300
D = 300 mm, bf = 150 mm, tw = 6.7 mm, tf = 9.4 mm,
R1 = 15.0 mm
rx = 124 mm, ry = 28 mm
Zpz = 554.32 × 103 mm3, Zez = 488.9 × 103 mm3,
Iz = 7333 × 104 mm4, Iy = 376 × 104 mm4
d = D – 2(tf + R1) = 300 – 2(9.4 + 15) = 251.2 mm
For rolled section: αLT = 0.21
For Fe 410 grade of steel: fy = 250 MPa
Partial safety factor: m0 = 1.10
(Refer Slide Time: 4:53)

b 150 /2
= =7.9 8 < 9.4
tf 9.4
d 251.2
= =37.49 < 84
tw 6.7
Hence, the section is plastic.
d 251.2
Since, = =37.49 < 67ϵ
tw 6.7
Shear buckling check of web will not be required.
(a) Laterally supported beam
For low shear,
fy 250
M d = βb Z p =1.0× 554.32× 103 × =125.98 kN-m
γ m0 1.1
 fy 250
≤1.2 Z e =1.2 × 488.9× 103 × =133.3 4 kN-m
ym0 1.1
Hence, design bending strength = 125.98 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 7:31)

(b) Laterally unsupported beam

M cr =
√{(
LLT = 4000 mm
π2 E I y
2
( L¿ ) )[ G It +
π2 E I w
( L¿ )
2
]}
E 2× 105
G= = =76.92 ×103
2(1+ μ) 2 ×(1+ 0.3)
bi t 3i
Torsional constant, I t =∑
3
3
150 × 9.43 (300−2 × 9.4)× 6.7
¿ 2× +
3 3
4
¿ 11. 12 ×10 mm4
Warping constant, I w =( 1−β f ) β f I y h2f
❑ ❑
Here, h f = c/c distance between flanges =D - t f =300-9.4 = 290.6
I fc
βf = =0.5 [Since I fc=I ft ]
I fc + I ft
Thus, Iw ¿(1−0.5)× 0.5× 376 ×104 × 290.62
= 7.94 × 1010 mm6
(Refer Slide Time: 11:53)

(Refer Slide Time: 14:27)

 {√ [ }
π 2 ×2 ×105 ×376 ×10 4
M cr =
( 40002 )
76.92 ×103 ×11.22 ×10 4 +
π 2 ×2 ×105 ×7.94 × 1010
40002 ]
= 92.45 kNm

(Refer Slide Time: 16:45)

Or,
2 0.5

[ ( )]
2
π E I y hf 1 L¿ / r y
M cr = 2
1+
2 L¿ 20 hf /t f

2 0.5
¿
π 2 ×2 ×105 ×376 ×10 4 × 290.6
2× 4000
2
1+ [ (
1 4000 /28
20 290.6/9.4 )]
= 96.92 kNm
(Refer Slide Time: 20:20)
 λ¿ =
√ M cr √
β b Z pz f y
=
1× 554.32× 103 × 250
92.45 ×10
6
=¿ 1.22 > 0.4

So, the effect of lateral torsional buckling has to be considered.

∅¿ =0.5 [ 1+ α ¿ ( λ ¿−0.2 )+ λ2¿ ]
∅¿ =0.5 [ 1+0.21 ( 1.22−0.2 ) +1.222 ]
= 1.35
1
Χ¿ = ≤1. 0
∅¿ + √ ∅2¿ −λ 2¿
1
¿
1.35+ √ 1.352−1.222
= 0.52
(Refer Slide Time: 22:45)
 Χ¿ f y
f bd =
γm 0
0.5 2 ×250
¿
1.1
= 118.2 N/mm2
M d=1 ×554.32 ×103 ×11 8.2 ×10−6 =¿ 65.52 kN-m

(Refer Slide Time: 27:35)

Using Table
hf 290.6
1. KL/ry = 4000/28 = 142.86, = =30.9
tf 9.4
For fy = 250 N/mm2, from Table 14, fcr,b = 155 N/mm2

√
2
L¿

L¿
ry
2
Using equations: f cr , b= 1.1 π 2E 1+ 1
ry
20 h f
( ) tf
()
√
2
4000
f cr , b=
1.1 π 2 ×2 ×105

( 4000 2
28 )
1+
1
( )
28
20 290.6
9.4
= 153 N/mm2

For, fcr,b = 155 N/mm2 and fy = 250 N/mm2 and αLT = 0.21 , from
Table 13(a), IS 800: 2007, fbd = 109.53 N/mm2
Md = 1 × 554.32 × 103 × 107.59 = 60.71 kN-m
M d=¿ 65.52 kN-m (Using expressions)

So the design bending strength of the member when lateral torsional buckling is considered is
65.52 kNm and earlier we found Md as 125.98kNm when the beam is laterally supported.
So we could see from this demonstration that the design bending strength of the member is
decreasing to a certain extent if the lateral torsional buckling effect is considered that means
when the section is laterally unsupported its bending strength is reduced. The reduction that will
depend on the section shape, the lateral torsional length of LLT and the support condition. In next
class, we will discuss about the design procedure and we will go through one example to see how
to find out a section size for a member when it is laterally unsupported.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 52
Module 11
Design of Laterally Unsupported Beams

Hello today I am going to discuss about the design steps for Laterally Unsupported Beams. In
fact in last lecture we have discussed how to calculate the Lateral Torsional Buckling moment
and what will be the lateral torsional buckling stress and then we have found how to calculate
the design bending strength. Today with the based on the last days lecture we will follow
certain design steps and after that we will go through one example.

Now in design steps basically we will try to find out first a appropriate section based on the
approximate section modulus and then we will check whether the assumed section is safe
against the bending forces coming on to the member then we will check for shear whether it
is safe or not, then we will go for checking deflection, web buckling and web crippling.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:57)

So coming to design steps first we will calculate what will be the service load acting on the
beam. So once we calculate the service load then we can find out the factored load. So after
calculation of factored load we can find out the factored maximum bending moment and
shear force.
After that we can start with a trial plastic section modulus means we can find out a plastic

Md
section modulus based on this formula that, Z p= . Remember this is considering
f y /γ m 0
the section to be laterally supported.

But in case of laterally unsupported beam a major amount of stress is reduced due to lateral
torsional buckling. So the section modulus whatever coming here will not be sufficient, we
have to increase substantially. So that the chosen section is safe against this bending moment
due to lateral torsional buckling. So what we can do we will choose a higher plastic section
modulus which is necessary to account for lateral torsional buckling. Actually we do not
know exactly what percentage of increase is required. So we can try with 40 percent or 50
percent increased value of plastic section modulus, however it is a trial and error process, so
finally we have to do the trial method and we have to find out the actual requirement. So after
finding an appropriate section modulus we can choose a suitable section, based on that plastic
section modulus.

(Refer Slide Time: 4:59)

And then with that section we will check whether the section is capable of taking that much
moment due to lateral torsional buckling or not, if that is fine then we can go to step 4, where
we have to check the beam for shear. So we will check for shear, if the design shear stress is
more than the shear force coming on to the beam then it is fine or we have to increase the
again we have to increase the section size to take care the shear.
In step 5, we will check for deflection as per Table 6 where the limiting deflection is given
and we know, what is the maximum deflection of that particular beam, based on the loading
condition and support condition. So based on the loading condition and support condition we
can find out the maximum deflection on that particular beam and we will check whether the
maximum deflection is exceeding the limit permissible limit or not. If maximum deflection is
exceeding the permissible limit then again we have to increase the section size to
accommodate this otherwise if it is not then the section is safe from serviceability point of
view then what you can do we can go for next step.

Next step is the web buckling, so we know the beam web may buckle due to the consistent
load acting on the member or at the support. So we have to check the web buckling and if the
buckling strength is more than the force coming on that particular place then it is fine
otherwise we have to increase the section size or we can increase the bearing length, if we
increase the bearing length then also we can increase the buckling strength and we can keep it
safe. Once it is done then we will go for web crippling. So this is the process which we have
to follow to design a laterally unsupported beam. So the process is basically a trial and error
process.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:01)

Example: Design a simply supported steel joist of 5 m effective span, carrying a uniformly
distributed load 12 kN/m if compression flange of the joist is laterally unrestrained.

Solution

Step-1: BM & SF on beam

Load on the beam = 12 kN/m

Factored load = 12 × 1.5 = 18 kN/m

Max. B. M. = 18 × 52/8 kN-m

= 56.25 kN-m

Max S. F. = 18 × 5/2

= 45 kN

Step-2: Selection of initial section,

M 56.25 ×10 6 3
Z p= = =247.5× 10 kNm
f y /γ m 0 250/ 1.1

Increasing 50%, the required Z p will be 1.5 ×247.5 ×103

= 371.25 ×103 kNm

(Refer Slide Time: 9:07)

Step-3 : Calculate bending strength of section,

Select ISHB 200 @ 40 kg/m

D = 200 mm ry = 44.2 mm Zpz = 414.23 × 103 mm3

bf = 200 mm R1 = 9 mm Zez = 372.2 × 103 mm3

tf = 9.0 mm tw = 7.8 mm d = 200 – 2×(9+9) = 164 mm

After calculation it is seen that the section is not adequate and need to increase the section
size to ISLB 325…

(Refer Slide Time: 13:12)

Select ISLB 325

D = 325 mm ry = 30.5 mm Zpz = 687.76 × 103 mm3

bf = 165 mm R1 = 16 mm Zez = 607.7 × 103 mm3

tf = 9.8 mm Ixx = 9870 × 104 mm4

tw = 7.0 mm Iyy = 510.8 × 104 mm4

d = 325 – 2×(9.8+16) = 273.4 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 17:18)

Section classification:

b/tf = 82.5/9.8 = 8.41 < 9.4

d/tw = 273.4/7.0 = 39 < 84

Hence, section is plastic.

Calculation of bending strength:

KL/ry = 5000/30.5 hf/tf = (325 – 9.8 )/9.8

= 164 = 32.16

From Table 14, IS 800: 2007

fcr,b = 122.82 N/mm2

From Table 13(a), IS 800: 2007,

fbd = 93.17 N/mm2

So, Md = 1×687.76×103×93.17

= 58.57 kN-m > 56.25 kN-m

OK.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:42)

Step-4: Check for shear:

Design shear strength of the section,

fy 250
V d= D t w= ×3 25 ×7 × 10−3=299 kN > V=45 kN
√ m0
3 γ √ 3 ×1.1

Step-5: Check for deflection:

5 w l4 5 ×1 2× 50004
δ= = =4.9 mm
384 EI 384 ×2 ×105 × 9870× 104

Allowable maximum deflection, L/300 = 5000/300 = 16.67 mm.

Hence, safe against deflection.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:06)

(Refer Slide Time: 27:14)

Step-6: Check for web buckling:

Assuming stiff bearing length 100 mm

n1 = D/2 = 325/2 = 162.5 mm

C/S area for web buckling Ab = (b + n1) × tw

 = (100 + 162.5) × 7.0 = 1837.5 mm

Effective length of web, leff = 0.7 × 273.4 = 191.38 mm

I = 100 × 73/12 = 2858.33 mm3

(Refer Slide Time: 29:09)

A = b × tw = 100 × 7 = 700 mm2

rmin =
√ 2858.33
700
=2.02

λ = leff/rmin = 191.38/2.02 = 94.742

From Table 9(c), IS 800: 2007, fcd = 114.364 N/mm2

Capacity of the section, Ab × fcd = 1837.5 × 114.364 = 210 kN

> 45 kN

Hence, the section is safe against web buckling.

Step-7: Check for web crippling:

( b 1+ n2 ) ×t w × f y
Fcrip=
γ m0

n2=2.5 ( 16+ 9.8 )=64.5 mm

 ( 100+64.5 ) ×7 × 250
Fcrip= =261.70 kN > 45 kN
1.1

Hence, the section is safe against web crippling

(Refer Slide Time: 32:19)

(Refer Slide Time: 34:44)

Now I will go through a few slides that is the design of beam with GUI based MATLAB
algorithm. So here what we have seen that especially when the design has to be done for
unsupported beam we need to do lot of iteration. So manually to do all these things is very
hectic therefore what we suggest that if we can develop a GUI based algorithm then once it is
developed, it can be very useful. So my students has developed a software. I am
demonstrating here where the beam design is done for two cases, one is for laterally
supported beam and another one is laterally unsupported beam, right. So by choosing a
particular type we can go to the design of that case. So once we choose say for this case we
have chosen unsupported beam.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:58)

Then if we go to next then we can provide these requirement like the maximum factored
shear, maximum factored bending moment, the effective span etc. These are the input which
we need to take from the user and maximum deflection coming on the on the beam. So
maximum deflection we can calculate from the formula and this also can be done through
algorithm but that will be very complicated because in that case we have to find out what is
the support condition, what is the loading condition and because of loading and support
condition deflection we have to find out the deflection. Therefore we can calculate manually
for particular case and we can enter this value what is the maximum deflection.

Then we have to assign the properties of steel, like yield stress, we can give the command to
take the default value of grade Fe410 or we can insert the yield stress value manually. In a
similar way we can give the command to the input of partial safety factor and young’s
modulus.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:03)

So once we go to next it will show whatever data we have entered. Next there is two option
here one is design for economic section and check for a particular section. So if user want to
find out an economical section the program will find lowest size of the section which will be
safe under the given condition. In other option we can chose a particular section and we can
check whether that section is safe or not.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:56)

So after that if we click on proceed then it will show the results. So in the results we will see
that the software is giving ISJC 150 as economical section. So now if we click on output.doc
then the intermediate calculations are given in the file which can be seen and if one user want
to check the intermediate calculations he can cross check from the output file.
And if the user want to redesign, that option is also there, he has to click on redesign then it
will go back to the first slide and it will ask for data. So the option of redesign is there which
can be used. We can check for a particular section also. So for that we have to click on
particular section and then we will see whether it is okay or not, say for this case the selected
beam was not okay so that is shown and there also the user can redesign and can find out
some other section which may be safe.

So this is how one can develop the logic and make a flow chart and then can find out
algorithm. So I would suggest the viewers to make their own algorithm according to their
own logic, and write a program whatever language they are comfortable may be Python, may
be C, may be MATLB, may be Fortran and this way he can develop the software and that will
be customized software he can use forever.

So this is all about the design of beam. In next class we will discuss certain other things like
the how to calculate the plastic section modulus that we will see because that I have not
covered in this class also purlin and gantry girder will be taught in next few classes
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 53
Module 11
Calculation of Plastic Section Modulus

Hello so far we have discussed about the design bending strength calculation of a flexural
member and we have seen when calculating the design bending strength we need to know the
plastic section modulus of the section. And in case of built-up sections we do not have the
plastic section modulus in the code so we need to calculate the plastic section modulus and to
know the plastic section modulus of a section we need to know what is the theory behind that
and that will be discussed today.

So first I will go through one workout example and I will show how to calculate the plastic
section modulus of a section. Suppose if load is very high on the beam and the member is
very long then bending moment is quite high. So the required section modulus will be very
high. So when the required section modulus is comparatively high then the available section
then we have to go for built-up section. We have to use certain plates on the top and bottom
section to increase the section modulus and to take care that much load. So how to increase
the section modulus and how to decide the thickness and width of the plate to withstand the
required amount of load that will be demonstrated through an example, so today we will go
through these two examples.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:44)

Example: Determine the plastic section modulus of ISLB 300 @ 0.369 kN/m about the
strong and weak axis (neglecting the fillets)

Solution:

For symmetrical I-section the equal area axis zz and yy will pass through the centroid of the
section.

[{ ]
D
( D−t f ) ( 2
−t )
f
Z pz=2 ( b f t f ) ×
2
+2 tw×
D
(
2
−t f )}
×
2

t w (D−2 t f )2
¿ b f t f ( D−t f ) +
4

Z py =4 ×
[( ) ] [ {
bf
2
b t t
×t f × f + 2× ( D−2 t f )× w × w
4 2 4 } ]
2 2
t b ( D−2t f ) t w
¿ f f+
2 4
(Refer Slide Time: 3:37)

(Refer Slide Time: 8:47)

The relevant properties of ISLB 300 @ 0.369 kN/m.

D = 300 mm, bf = 150 mm, tw = 6.7 mm, tf = 9.4 mm,

t w (D−2 t f )2
Z pz=bf t f ( D−t f ) +
4
2
6.7 ×(300−2× 9.4)
¿ 150× 9.4 × ( 300−9.4 ) +
4
= 542.2 × 103 mm3

t f b2f ( D−2 t f )t 2w
Z py = +
2 4
 2
9.4 ×1502 (300−2 ×9.4 )× 6.7
¿ +
2 4
= 108.9 × 103 mm3
(Refer Slide Time: 12:18)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:50)

(Refer Slide Time: 16:07)

Example: Steel beams having a clear span of 8 m are resting on 200 mm wide end
bearings. The beams spacing is 3 m and the beams carry a dead load of 4.5 kN/m 2
including the weight of the section. The imposed load on the beam is 13.25 kN/m 2. The
beam depth is restricted to 500 mm and the yield strength of the steel is 250 N/mm 2 and is
laterally supported.

Solution:

Factored loads:

Total (Dead Load + Imposed load) = (4.5+ 13.25)=17.75 kN/m2

The beams are spaced at 3 m intervals, therefore the load per meter

= 17.75 × 3 = 53.25 kN/m2

Total factored load = 1.5× 53.25 = 80 kN/m

Eff. Span = 8 + 2×0.1 = 8.2 m

Mid span moment = 80 × 8.22/8 = 672.8 kN-m

Reactions at support = 8.2 × 80/2 = 328 kN

Selection of section:

Plastic section modulus required

 M ×γ m 0 672.8× 106 ×1.1
Z p= = =2960.32× 103 mm3
fy 250

(Refer Slide Time: 17:28)

(Refer Slide Time: 20:42)

The section with largest plastic modulus under 500 mm depth restriction is ISHB 450 @
0.907 kN/m with plastic section modulus 2030.95 × 10 3 mm3 which is less than required
value. The section must be strengthened with additional plates to provide the required plastic
section modulus.

The stiffness required to be provided can be calculated as follows:

Max. deflection = Eff. span/360 = 8200/360 = 22.78 mm

So, required moment of inertia of the beam due to un-factored imposed load,

5 53.25 × 8200 4
I Z= × =68807 ×104 mm4
384 2 ×105 ×22.7 8

Additional plastic section modulus to be provided by the plate =

(2960.32×103 – 2030.95×103) = 929.37×103 mm3

(Refer Slide Time: 25:51)

Assume thickness of the plate is 14 mm

Thus, the total depth of the beam = 478 mm.
Distance between the c/c of the plates = 464 mm.
So, required area of plate = 929.37×103 /464 = 2003 mm2
So provide area of plate = 2200 mm2.
Thus the width of plate = 2200/14 = 158 mm
Thus let provide plate of size 200×14
(Refer Slide Time: 29:14)

Thus plastic section modulus of the built up section = 2030.95×10 3 +200×14×464/2×2 =

3330×103 mm3

This is greater than required plastic section modulus 2960.32× 103 . OK

(Refer Slide Time: 32:51)

Check for deflection:

Maximum Iz required is 68807 ×10 4 mm4

Iz provided by ISHB 450, 40349.9×104 mm4

Iz provided by plate = 2×200×14×(225+7)2 = 30141× 104 mm4
Total Iz provided = (40349.9×104 + 30141× 104 ) = 70490.9×104 mm4 greater than Iz required
(= 68807 ×10 4 ) OK
(Refer Slide Time: 34:18)

Moment capacity of the beam ISHB 450,

M = 2030.95 × 103 × 250/1.1 = 461.58 kN-m
At any point distance x from the support,
461.58×106 = 328×103x – 80x2/2
or, x = 6396.5 , 1803.05
Hence the theoretical cut off point is 1800 mm from either side.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:52)

Check for Shear:

Shear capacity of section,

fy 250
V d= × D ×t w = ×450 × 11.3=667.23 kN
γ m 0 × √3 1.1× √3

0.6Vd = 0.6×667.23 = 400.33 kN > 328 kN. Low shear OK

Okay that means the cut-off point I can make upto 1800 mm say upto this I can provide
simply I section and after that we have to provide the built up section, so in this way I can
make use of the steel economically, right. So in plate girder in fact this concept will be used
so that at a particular section we will provide the required amount of steel to withstand the
bending moment and we will be go on increasing or decreasing the section size according to
the requirement of the bending moment. So today let us conclude with this thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 54
Module 11
Purlins

Purlins are basically a flexural member in which transverse load act, in case of purlins the
moments from both the axis occur as a result purlins are needed to be designed for biaxial
moment. So we need to check the bending moment carrying capacity against both the axis
and then we have to check the interaction formula so that the purlin is designed and these
purlins are basically connects the transverse members in the roof structure to support the roof
sheets and other materials and these purlins are placed on the rafter.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:10)

Let me show a picture through which we can see, that if this is a roof truss then trusses are
connected with this purlin member, these are the purlin members and these purlin members
are placed on the rafter. If you see these purlins are inclined and generally channel or angle
sections are used for purlins because the weight is very less. So how the channel sections are
placed as purlins, were discussed in lecture video and are shown in the following figure.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:17)

(Refer Slide Time: 6:24)

Now for purlin design we need to know what are the load coming into picture.
(Refer Slide Time: 6:36)

So if we see for an example say for channel section if we see here that load is basically two
type one is the wind load ( H ) which are acting perpendicular to the roof. Another load is
acting vertically downward i.e. self-weight ( P ). Codal provision says that we should design
purlin as an continuous beam because purlins are connected to the truss members in different
places.

So the moment can be calculated as,

M u=P ' L/10 and M v =H ' L/10

Mu = maximum bending moment about u-u axis.

Mv = maximum bending moment about v-v axis.

P’ = gravity loads acting along v-v axis, including sheeting, self-weight of purlins, LL &
snow loads = H + Pcos θ .

H’ = loads acting along u-u axis, including wind loads= Psin θ❑ L = span of the purlin, i.e.
c/c distance of adjacent trusses

Muu=( H+ Pcos θ ) L/1 0

Mvv= ( Psin θ ) L/1 0

For biaxial moment of channel and I-sections the interaction formula is given by
Mu M v
+ ≤ 1.0
M du M dv

Where,
Mdu = design bending moment about u-u axis
Mdv = design bending moment about v-v axis
(Refer Slide Time: 11:09)

Purlins are subjected to bi-axial bending. A trial section may be obtained arbitrarily or the
expression given by Gaylord et al. (1992) as follows:

M Z γm 0 M y γ m 0 d
Z p Z= + ×2.5 ×
fy fy bf

Where,

Zpz = required plastic section modulus

My = factored bending moment about y-y axis

Mz = factored bending moment about z-z axis

fy = Yield stress of the material

d = depth of the section

bf = width of the section

We have to assume certain d and b f value initially and on the basis of that we can find out Z pz
value and once we find out Z pz value we can find out a particular section say channel section,
or I section, or angle section.

So after knowing the actual d and b f we can again find out what is the actual requirement Z pz
and whether it is satisfying that or not,

(Refer Slide Time: 15:24)

Design procedures for channel/I section purlin:

1. The span of the purlin is taken as c/c distance of adjacent trusses

2. The gravity loads P and wind loads H are computed. The component of these loads in
the direction parallel & perpendicular to the sheeting are determined. These loads are
multiplied with partial safety factor for loads as per Table 4 of the code for various
load combinations

3. The maximum B.M. (Mz or Muu and My or Mvv) and S.F. (Fz and Fy) using the factored
loads are determined
(Refer Slide Time: 17:36)

4. The required value of plastic section modulus of the section

may be determined by using the following equation

M Z γm 0 M y γ m 0 d
Z p , reqd = + ×2.5 ×
fy fy bf

where

My = Factored bending moment about y-y axis

Mz = Factored bending moment about z-z axis

fy = Yield stress of steel

γm0 = Partial safety factor = 1.10

d = Depth of the trial section

bf = Width of the trial section

(Refer Slide Time: 18:59)

5. Check for the section classification as per Table 2: IS 800: 2007 .

6. Check for shear capacity of the section for both z and y axes taken as (Moris & Plum
1996)

fy fy
V dy = A and V dz= A
√3 γ m 0 vy √ 3 γ m 0 vz

A vz =D t w and A vy =2 bf t f

where

D = height of the section

tw = thickness of the web

bf = breadth of the flange

tf = thickness of the flange

(Refer Slide Time: 21:21)

7. Compute the design capacity of the section in both the axes using

Z pz f y Z f Z f Z f
M dz= ≤ 1.2 ez y M dy= py y ≤ 1.2 ey y
γ m0 γ m0 γ m0 γm 0

8. Check for local capacity using the interaction formula

MZ M y
+ ≤ 1.0
M dz M dy

9. Check whether deflection is under permissible limits (l/180) as per Table 6, IS 800:
2007.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:33)

Design of Angle Section Purlins:

The following procedure is adopted for the design :

1. The vertical and the wind loads are determined. These loads

are assumed to be normal to roof truss.

2. The maximum bending moment is computed.

w L2 W L
M u= ∨
10 10

where L = span of purlin

w = uniformly distributed load

W = concentrated load at centroid

(Refer Slide Time: 27:35)

3. The required section modulus is calculated by

M
Z p , reqd =
1.33 × 0.66 ×f y

4. Assuming the depth = 1/45 of the span and width = 1/60 of the span, a trial section of
angle purlins is arrived by.
The depth and width must not be less than the specified values to ensure the deflection
criteria.
5. A suitable section is then selected for the calculated value of leg lengths of angle section.
The modulus of section provided should be more than modulus of section calculated.

So for purlin we have seen that generally we use either channel section, I section or angle
section and most commonly we use channel or angle. So the design criteria for channel
sections are discussed, similarly the design criteria for angle section to use as a purlin
member are also discussed. In next class we will go through one example to understand how
to design the purlin section, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 55
Module 11
Design of Purlins

This lecture will cover a workout example on design of purlin, in last lecture we have
discussed about the design procedure of purlin members for both, channel or I sections and
angle sections. So here we will go through one example and we will try to understand how to
design a member using I sections.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:12)

Example: Design an I-section purlin, for an industrial building situated in the outskirt of
Kolkata, to support a galvanized iron sheet roof for the following data:

Slope of truss = 30o

Spacing of truss c/c = 5.0 m

Span of truss = 12.0 m

spacing of purlins c/c = 2 m

wind speed = 50 m/s

Weight of galvanized sheets = 120 N/m2

Grade of steel = Fe 410

Solution:

For steel of grade Fe 410: fy = 250 MPa

Weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets = 120 × 2 = 240 N/m

Assume dead load of purlin = 100 N/m

Total dead load = 240 + 100 = 340 N/m

The dead load acts vertically downwards.

The component of dead load parallel to roof = 340sin30° = 170 N/m

The component of dead load normal to roof = 340cos30° = 294.5 N/m

Wind pressure = pz =0.6 V 2❑z =0.6 ×50 2=1500 N /m2

Wind load is assumed to act normal to the roof.

Wind load = 1500×2×1 = 3000 N/m

Total load on purlin normal to roof = 3000+294.5 = 3294.5 N/m

Factored load normal to roof,

P = 1.5×3294.5 = 4941.75 N/m

Factored load parallel to roof,

H = 1.5×170 = 255 N/m

(Refer Slide Time: 2:57)

Maximum moment,
Muu = Mz = PL/10 = (4941.75×5)×5×10-3 /10 =12.35 kNm
Mvv = My = HL/10 = (255×5)×5×10-3 /10 =0.6375 kNm
Let us try a section with flange width bf = 75 mm and depth, d = 125 mm.
Plastic section modulus required,

γm 0 γ m0
Z pz , reqd =M z
fy ( )(
+2.5
d
b
My
fy )
1.1 125 1.1
Z pz , reqd =12.35 × 106 ×
250
+2.5
75( )(
0.6375 ×106 ×
250 )
= 66 × 103 mm3

(Refer Slide Time: 8:23)

Select a section ISLB 150 with Zpz = 104.5 × 103 mm3

A= 1808 mm2, D = 150 mm, bf = 80 mm, tf = 6.8 mm, tw = 4.8 mm

R1 = 9.5 mm,

d = 150 – 2(6.8+9.5) = 117.4 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 12:35)

Iz = 688.2 × 104 mm4 , Iy = 55.2× 104 mm4

Zez = 91.8 × 103 mm3, Zey = 13.8 × 103 mm3
Section classification

ϵ=
√ √
250
fy
=
250
250
=1

b/tf = 40/6.8 = 5.88 < 9.4

d/tw = 117.4/4.8 = 24.5 < 84
Hence the section is plastic.
Check for bending strength
fy 250
M dz=Z pz =104.5 × 103 × × 10−6=23.75 kN-m
γ m0 1.1

fy 250
< 1.2 Z ez =1.2 × 91.8× 103 × ×10−6 =25.04 kN-m
γ m0 1.1

Which is alright.
M dz=23.75 kN-m > M d = 12.35 kNm; OK
(Refer Slide Time: 15:10)

fy f
M dy =Z p y × ≤ γ f Z ey y
γ m0 γ m0

Z py =4 ×
[( ) ] [ {
bf
2
b t t
×t f × f + 2× ( D−2 t f )× w × w
4 2 4 } ]
t f b2f ( D−2 t f )t 2w 6.8 × 802❑ (150−2 ×6.8) 4.82❑
Z py = + = +
2 4 2 4

=22546 mm3

Mdy = 22546 × 250/1.1 × 10-6 = 5.12 kN-m

< 1.5 × 13.8 × 103 × 250/1.1 × 10-6 = 4.7 kN-m

(1.2 is replaced by γ f =1.5 since Zpy/Zey (=1.6)> 1.2)

Hence, Mdy = 4.7 kN-m > Md = 0.6375 kN-m; OK

(Refer Slide Time: 17:59)

Check for overall member strength (local capacity)

Mz M y
+ ≤1
M dz M dy

12.3 5 0.6375
+ =0.6 6<1 ; OK
23.75 4.7

Check for deflection

δall = 5000/180 = 27.78 mm
Δ = 1/384 × wl4/EI
= (3294.5 × 10-3 × 50004)/ (384 × 2 × 105 × 688.2 × 104)
= 4 mm < δall ; OK.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:41)

So deflection in both the directions also we have to check and in other direction deflection is
quite less because the load is very less so that will be also okay. So this is how one can design
the purlin by checking the deflection and prior to that checking the moment.

So in today’s lecture we could see that how to find out the section of a purlin member while
using I section and how to calculate the biaxial bending moment and check the biaxial
bending moment interaction formula. So using this we can design a purlin. Next we will
discuss about the Gantry Girders because Gantry Girder is nothing but one type of flexural
member. So how to design that Gantry Girder that will be discussed in next class, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 56
Introduction to Gantry Girders
(Refer Slide Time: 0:30)

Today we are going to discuss about Gantry Girders. Gantry Girders are used in mill and
heavy industrial buildings such as factories and workshops, where Gantry Girders are
supported by columns and carrying cranes. Gantry girders are utilised to transport the goods
and equipment from one place to another place in the workshop. Gantry Girders are typical
example for laterally unsupported beam in industrial buildings. Also Gantry Girders undergo
bending moment under both the direction. one is vertically and other is laterally. So biaxial
bending movement has to be also checked for design of Gantry Girders. Therefore the when
we will be going to design Gantry Girders we need to consider two things, one is the Gantry
Girders is a laterally unsupported beam, so we have to design the Gantry Girders considering
the lateral torsional buckling effect and also we have to consider the biaxial bending that

Md Md
 1
M dz M dy
means that interaction formula has to be checked.

And also in Gantry Girders, the loads are moving from one place to another place therefore
we need to know little about influence line diagram that means, we have to see the position of
load in which the maximum bending moment and maximum shear force is going to occur. So
as the wheel is moving from one place to another place, wheels are placed in such a way that
maximum shear force and the maximum bending moment can be achieved. The gantry girder
is designed against that maximum shear force and bending moment.

In gantry girder certain impact load will come into picture so some additional load has to be
added in the load calculation. It has been recommended in codal guidelines to add certain
percentage of additional load. Also certain percentage of load will be acting as a lateral load
for which lateral bending moment and lateral shear force will be produced and because of
that the lateral bending strength and shear strength should also be checked so that it is not
going to fail under this lateral load, right.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:23)

The overhead travelling crane running system consists few components like crane, then this
crane is compromising the crab or trolley, power transmitting device and the cap which
houses the control and operators and also the crane rails and their attachment, also the gantry
girder and column with brackets supporting gantry girder.

Gantry girder is placed on the column either with the support of a bracket or with the step
column. Above the step column packing plates are placed, then gantry girders are consisting
of I Section is placed above packing plate and at the top planes along with I section we
provide another channel section to take the heavy load coming from crane girder. Crane
girder is placed on top of the crane rails. A crab trolley is kept in the crane girder, with the
help of the trolley loads are being shifted from one place to another. A diaphragm is used to
keep the I section the gantry girder in position throughout its length. Gantry girder is
supported between two stepped columns in two sides.
(Refer Slide Time: 4:14)

The crab position should closest to the gantry girder to consider the maximum effect. Once
the crab position is located then depending on the clearance from gantry girder to the crab
wheel location loads coming to the girder can be calculated. So before finding the maximum
bending moment and shear force we have to see whatever load are going to be acting on the
girder.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:54)

The following imposed loads should be considered in the design.

 1. Vertical loads from the cranes because crane will be carrying certain instruments,
certain heavy machines.
2. Impact loads from crane because during operation certain impact will come into
picture
3. Longitudinal horizontal force along the crane rail.
4. Lateral thrust across the crane rail
In calculating the above forces crane should be positioned such that it gives maximum design
forces in the girder.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:32)

Now according to codal provisions, for vertical load when it is an electric overhead crane
then 25 percent of the maximum static wheel load will be added as impact loads. whereas for
hand operated cranes it will be 10 percent of the maximum static load. For horizontal forces
transverse to rail, for electric overhead cranes it will be 10 percent of the weight of crab and
the weight of lifted on the crane, and for hand operated cranes it will be 5 percent of the
weight of crab and the weight lifted on the crane. The horizontal forces along rail will be 5
percent of the static wheel load that has to be considerd.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:12)

As the crane moves with the load, a lateral load (transverse to the rail) is developed due to
application of brakes or sudden acceleration of trolley. IS 875 recommends 10% of W for
EOT cranes as horizontal loads, where W is the total weight including lifted weight and the
trolley weight. As the crane moves longitudinally, loads parallel to the rails are caused due to
the braking (stopping) or acceleration and swing (starting of the crane). This load is called the
longitudinal load and is transferred at the rail level. The longitudinal load per wheel = 5% of
the wheel load, i.e., Wg = 5W/100

(Refer Slide Time: 17:02)

Permissible deflection has been given in table 6 of IS 800:2007.

 Category Max. Deflection

a. Where manually operated cranes are operated and for similar L/500
loads.
b. Where electric overhead traveling cranes operate, up to 50t. L/750

c. Where electric overhead traveling cranes operate, over 50t L/1000

d. Other moving loads such as charging cars, etc. L/600

e. Lateral deflection 10 mm or
Relative between rails L/400

So, the maximum deflection is checked against permissible deflection from serviceability
point of view.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:56)

The maximum vertical load on gantry girder is the maximum reaction of crane girder. To get
this, crab should be placed as close to gantry girder as possible.

If , LC = Span of crane girder

L1 = Minimum approach of crane hook (distance between c.g. of gantry girder and trolley).

W = weight of trolley plus the weight lifted

w = weight of crane girder per unit length

 W Lc W t ( Lc−L1 )
R A= +
2 Lc

(Refer Slide Time: 22:10)

So, once the wheel load is found, maximum bending moment and maximum shear force in
gantry girder can be obtained. Maximum bending moment occur when the mid span of the
gantry girder intersects the distance between C.G. of the wheels of and one of the wheel load.
Then, the maximum bending moment can be achieved at a position of the nearest wheel load
from the mid span.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:22)

Maximum shear force can be achieved by placing one of the wheel loads on the support.
Gantry girders cause moving loads that cause fatigue. Fatigue effects for light and medium
duty cranes need not to be checked, if normal and shear stress ranges,

27
f≤
γ mft

Or, if actual number of stress cycle,

3
27 /γ mft
N SC <5× 10
γm f
6
( )
For heavy duty crane, the gantry girder must be checked for fatigue.

γ mft = partial safety factor for strength (Table 25 of IS 800-2007)

f = actual fatigue stress range

γ m = partial safety factor for material = 1.10

For heavy duty crane the gantry girder must be checked for fatigue.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:46)

Normal stress range

3 6
f f =f f n √ 5 ×10 / N sc for N sc ≤5 ×10
6

and,
 5 6 8
f f =f f n √ 5 ×10 / N sc for 5 ×10 ≤ N sc ≤10
6

Shear stress range

5 6
τ f =τ fn √ 5× 10 / N sc

Where, f f , τ f =¿design normal and shear fatigue stress range of the details , respectively for
life cycle of NSC

f fn , τ fn =¿ normal and shear fatigue strength of the details for 5 × 10 6 cycles for the detail
category.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:24)

 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 57
Module 11
Design of Gantry Girder

Today we are going to discuss about the design steps of a Gantry Girder. First, we will go
through the design steps which can be followed and then we will go through one example
following those steps.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:38)

First, we need to calculate the maximum wheel load. Maximum wheel load will come when
one wheel is close to the gantry girder. The wheel can move along crane girder, maximum
effect will occur when it will be closest to gantry girder.

In second step, maximum moment and shear force on gantry girder can be calculated after
suitable proportioning of crane. Contribution of impact load should be taken care of. Though
the maximum moment due to wheel load is slightly away from the centre of the girder (under
the wheel), it is just added to maximum moment due to UDL on girder for simplification and
design moment is found.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:55)

Then in 3rd step, we can find out the maximum shear force due to this vertical load and shear
force will be obtained maximum when one of the wheel is placed at the support of the gantry
girder. So similar way we can find out maximum bending moment and shear force due to
lateral load with similar positions.

(Refer Slide Time: 7:14)

In next step, we have to find out section modulus. Generally, an I-section with channel
section is chosen, though an I-section with a plate at the top flange may be used for light
cranes. ��=��/��.

When the gantry is not laterally supported, the following formula may be used to select a trial
section: Z p ( trial )=k Z p (k = 1.30 – 1.60)

Generally, the economic depth of a gantry girder is about (1/12)th of the span. The width of
the flange is chosen to be between (1/40)th and (1/30)th of the span to prevent excessive
lateral deflection. Next step, a suitable section is chosen and the properties IZZ , IYY and Zez ,
Zey, Zpy ,Zpz are found. Then the section is classified according to b/tf and d/tw ratios.

When lateral support is provided at the compression flange, the chosen section should be
checked for the moment capacity of the whole section:

M dz=β b Z p z f y /γ m 0 <1.2 Z e z f y /γ m 0

However, for laterally unsupported compression flange, the buckling resistance is to be

checked with design bending compressive stress fbd .Bending strength about yy axis is
calculated because of lateral loading:

M d y =β b Z p y f y /γ m 0<1.2 Z e z f y /γ m 0

Then, Combined local capacity of the flange is checked using the interaction equation
 My Mz
( )( )
M dy
+
M dz
≤1

Then section is to be checked against shear and local buckling will be checked under wheel
load. The girder needs to be checked for bearing. Bearing stiffness will be provided if
necessary. The maximum deflection under working load must be checked and the girder is
checked for fatigue strength.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:55)

Next, we will go through one example following these steps.

Example:

Design a simply supported gantry girder to carry electric overhead travelling crane, given:

Span of gantry girder = 6 m

Span of crane girder = 15 m

Crane capacity = 200 kN

Self weight of trolley, hook, electric motor etc. = 40 kN

Self weight of crane girder excluding trolley = 200 kN

Minimum hook approach = 1.0 m

Distance between wheels = 3 m

Self weight of rails = 0.2 kN/m

In next lecture we will discuss this, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 58
Module 12
Worked Out Example for Gantry Girder

Now I will go through one worked out example on gantry girder. So in last lecture we have
discussed the design steps of a gantry girder and I have given an example for solution. So, I
hope many of you have done, now we will try to check the results means we will try to see
whatever the actual results are coming and you try to correct or modify your results, if you
have done something wrong.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:57)

Example:

Design a simply supported gantry girder to carry electric overhead travelling crane, given:

Span of gantry girder = 6 m

Span of crane girder = 15 m

Crane capacity = 200 kN

Self weight of trolley, hook, electric motor etc. = 40 kN

Self weight of crane girder excluding trolley = 200 kN

Minimum hook approach = 1.0 m

Distance between wheels = 3 m

Self weight of rails = 0.2 kN/m

Solution:

Maximum moment due to vertical force

Weight of trolley + lifted load = 40 + 200 = 240 kN

Self weight of crane girder = 200 kN

For maximum reaction on gantry girder, the moving load should be as close the gantry as
possible.

Figure below shows the load position

(Refer Slide Time: 1:49)

240 ×14 200

RA= + =324 kN
15 2

This load is transferred to gantry girder, through two wheels, the wheel base being 3 m.

So load on gantry girder from each wheel = 324/2 = 162 kN

Factored wheel load = 162 × 1.5 = 243 kN

Maximum moments due to moving loads occur under a wheel when the c.g. of wheel load
and the wheel are equidistant from the centre of girder. This is shown in figure:

(Refer Slide Time: 6:14)

243 ×(3−1.5−0.75)+243 ×(3+0.75)

R D= =182.25 kN
6

Max. moment ME = 182.25 × 2.25 = 410 kN-m

Moment due to impact = 0.25 × 410 = 102.5 kN-m

Assume self weight of girder = 2 kN/m

Dead load due to self weight + rails = 2 + 0.2 = 2.2 kN/m

Factored DL = 2.2 × 1.5 = 3.3 kN/m

Moment due to DL = 3.3 × 62/8 = 14.85 kN-m

Factored moment due to all vertical loads,

Mz = 410 + 102.5 + 14.85 = 527.35 kN-m

(Refer Slide Time: 10:12)

Maximum moment due to lateral force

Horizontal force transferred to rails = 10% of weight of trolley plus load lifted = (10/100) ×
(200 + 40) = 24 kN
This is distributed over 4 wheels.
So, horizontal force on each wheel = 24/4 = 6 kN
Factored horizontal force on each wheel = 1.5 × 6 = 9 kN
For maximum moment in gantry girder the position of loads is same as earlier except that it is
horizontal. Hence by proportioning we get,
My = (9/243) × 410 = 15.18 kN-m
Shear force
For maximum shear force on the girder, the trailing wheel should be just on the girder as
shown in figure below
Vertical shear due to wheel loads = 243 + (243 × 3)/6 = 364.5 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 13:22)

(Refer Slide Time: 17:42)

Vertical shear due to impact = 0.25 × 364.5 = 91.125 kN

Vertical shear due to self weight = (3.3 × 6)/2 = 9.9 kN
Total vertical shear = 364.5 + 91.125 + 9.9 = 465.52 kN
By proportioning lateral shear due to surge = (9/243) × 465.52 = 17.24 kN
(Refer Slide Time: 19:51)

Preliminary Section
Minimum economic depth, L/12 = 6000/12 = 500 mm
Width of the compression flange may be taken as (1/40) to (1/30)th of the span
So, flange width can be taken, L/40 = 6000/40 = 150 mm to L/30 = 6000/30 = 200 mm
Required Zp = 1.4 × M/fy = 1.4 × 527.35 × 106/250 = 2953.16 × 103 mm3
Let us try a ISMB 550 with ISMC 250 on compression flange.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:29)

 Properties of ISMB 550 @ 1.02 kN/m Properties of ISMC 250 @ 0.3 kN/m

A = 13200 mm2 A = 3900 mm2

h = 550 mm h = 250 mm

b = 190 mm b = 80 mm

tf = 19.3 mm tf = 14.1 mm

tw = 11.2 mm tw = 7.2 mm

Izz = 64900 × 104 mm4 Izz = 3880 × 104 mm4

Iyy = 1830 × 104 mm4 Iyy = 211 × 104 mm4

R1 = 18 mm Cyy = 23 mm

Let the distance of N. A. from the tension flange be ý ,

13200× 275+3900 ×(550+7.2−23)

Then, ý= =334.11 mm
13200+3900

Izz = 64900 × 104 + 13200 × (334.11-275)2 + 211 × 104 + 3900 × (550+7.2-23-334.11)2 =

853.37 × 106 mm4

Zez = 853.37 × 106 /334.11 = 2554.15 × 103 mm3

For compression flange about y-y axis,

I = 3880 × 104 + 1/12 × 19.3 × 1903 = 4984.15 × 104 mm4

Zey for compression flange = 4983.15 × 104 / 125 = 398.73× 103 mm3

Total area of section = 13200 + 3900 = 17100 mm2

Let Plastic N.A. be at a distance Yp from tension flange. Then,

(Yp – 19.3)×11.2 + 190 × 19.3 = 17100/2

Or, Yp = 455.28 mm

Zpz = (190 × 19.3) ×(455.28-11.2/2)+(455.28-19.3)2/2 ×11.2+(550-455.28-19.3)2/2

×11.2+19.3 ×190 ×(550-455.28-19.3/2)+3900 ×(550-455.28+7.2-22.3)

= 3367.74 × 103 mm3

For top flange,

Zpy = 1/4 ×19.3 ×1902+1/4(250 - 2 ×14.1)2 ×7.8+2 ×80 × 14.1 ×(125-14.1/2)

= 536.203 × 103 mm3

Section classification

b/t of flange of ISMB 550 = (190-11.2)/(2 ×19.3) = 4.63 < 9.4

d/t of web of ISMB 550 = (550-2 ×(19.3+18))/11.2 =42.44 < 84

And b/t of flange of channel = (80-7.2)/14.1 = 5.16 < 9.4

Hence the section is plastic.

Check for local moment capacity

Local moment capacity for bending in vertical plane:

Mdz = fyZp/1.1 = 250 × 3367.74 × 103 /1.1 = 765.31 kN-m

1.2Zezfy/1.1 = 1.2× 2554.15 × 103×250/1.1 = 696.58 kN-m

So, Mdz = 696.58 kN-m

For top flange,

Mdy = 250 × 536.203 × 103 /1.1 = 121.86 kN-m

1.2Zeyfy/1.1 = 1.2× 332.21× 103 × 250/1.1 = 90.6 kN-m

So for top flange Mdy = 90.6 kN-m

Check for combined local capacity

527.35/ 696.58 + 15.18/90.6 = 0.92 < 1

Check for buckling resistance

Md = bZpfbd

For plastic section b = 1

√
2
KL
f cr , b=
L¿
2
1.1 π E

( )
ry
2
1+
1 ry
20 h
tf
()
LLT = 6000 mm, E = 2 × 105 N/mm2

hf = 550 – (19.3/2) + (14.1/2) = 547.4 mm

Iy = 1830 ×104 + 3880 × 104 = 5710 ×104 mm4

A = 13200 + 3900 = 17100 mm2

ry = (Iy/A)1/2 = (5710 × 104/17100)1/2 = 57.78 mm

√
6000 2
f cr , b=
1.1 π 2 ×2 ×105

( 6000 2
57.78 )
1+
( )
1 57.78
20 547.4
19.3
2
=260.23 N/mm λ¿ =
√ 250
260.23
=0.98

φ¿ =0.5 [ 1+0.21 × ( 0.98−0.2 ) +0.98 2 ]=1.062

1
X ¿= =0.68 N/mm2 fbd = 0.733×250/1.1 = 164.11
{1.062+ ( 1.0622−0.98 2 ) 0.5 }

Mdz = 1.0×166.6× 3367.74 × 103 = 531.06 kN-m

Since lateral force is also acting, the beam must be checked for bi-axial bending.

So, Mdy = 250/1.1 × (1830 × 104 + 3880 × 104 )/125 = 103.81 kN-m

527.35 15.18
Hence, + =1.086
561.06 103.81

The section is unsafe against torsional buckling.

Check for shear

Vz = 465.52 kN

Av f yw 550 ×11.2 ×250

Shear capacity = = =808.29 kN > 465.52 kN
√ 3 ×1.1 √ 3 × 1.1

Now, 0.6 × 808.29 = 484.974 kN

So, it is a case of low shear.

Check for Web buckling

Assuming b1 = 150 mm

n1 = 225 + 7.6 = 232.6 mm

d = 550 - 2(19.3+18) = 475.4 mm, t = 11.2 mm

d 475.4
λ=2.42 =2.42 × =102.72
t 11.2

For buckling class a, from Table 9(a), Is 800: 2007

Fcd = 128.6 N/mm2

Buckling resistance = (150+232.6)×11.2×128.6 = 551.66 kN > 465.52 kN

Check for deflection at working load

(i) Vertical deflection

Serviceability vertical wheel load excluding impact = 162 kN

Deflection at mid-span

δ=Wl 3[ ( 43 aL )−( aL33 )]/(6 EI )

Where, a = (L - c)/2 = (6000-3000)/2 = 1500 mm

Combined Izz = 842.7 × 106 mm4

δ=162× 103 ×60003[ ( 3× 1500

4 ×3000 ) −(
1500 3
6000 3 )
]/(6 ×2 ×10 5 ×853.37× 10 6)

= 12.27 mm
(ii) Horizontal deflection

I = (Iz)ch + IF = 4983.15 × 104 mm4

δ=6 ×103 × 60003[ ( 34 ×1500 −

15003
× 3000 ) ( 60003 )
]/(6 × 2× 10 5× 4983.15 × 10 4)

= 7.788 mm

Deflection limit, L/750 = 6000/750 = 8 mm

So the section is unsafe in vertical direction.

Design for weld

The required shear capacity of the weld, q=VA ý /I z

V = 465.52 kN

A = 3900 mm2 (Area of the channel section)

ý = (550 - 334.11 + 14.1/2) = 222.94 mm

Izz = 853.37 × 106 mm4

q = 465.52 ×103×3900×222.94 /853.37×103 = 474.3 N/mm

So, (0.7s×410)/( √ 3 ×1.5) = 474.3

or, s = 4.29 mm

So use 5 mm fillet weld for the connection.

So, this is all about the gantry girder, if you go through some example given in the book then
it will be much more clear.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 59
Module 12
Slab Base

Today I am going to discuss a new module which is about column base. In case of RCC
structure we use to tell this as a footing or foundation and in case of steel structure we will
say this as a column base that means column is placed on certain base through which the load
from super structure is going to transferred to the soil through this sub structure. So column
base is basically consisting of column and base plate and an anchoring assembly.

So this column base are two types one is called slab base and other is called gusset base. So
in case of slab base when the load is coming concentrically and magnitude of load is
comparatively less in such cases generally we use this slab base. Whereas in case of gusset
base the load is generally eccentric in nature and magnitude of load is comparatively higher
so for such cases we generally prefer gusset base. So today we will discuss the first lecture
about the slab base.

Now in the column base the main function of the column base is to transfer the loads from
column to its foundation and for that we need a spreading area through which the
concentrated load from the column will be spread to the soil through some medium which is
called base plate that means column will be rested on the base plate so the concentrated load
coming from the column will be distributed over the base plate and then base plate again will
be rested on the concrete block that concrete block will be again rested on the soil. So stage
by stage the load will be distributed from super structure to the soil, right.

And the slab base is basically consist of a thick plate of steel material and this thick plate is
connected with the column through some angle which is called cleat angle and that
connections are made either by bolt or by weld connections. And slab base basically suitable
for light loaded column only and it will be economical if we use for light loaded column and
that base plate will be either welded to the stanchion or will be joint to the column through
cleat angle, right.
And design of column base plate requires consideration of bearing pressure on the supporting
material and bending of the plate.

(Refer Slide Time: 3:42)

Now let us see the general assembly of the slab base. So say for example an I section is
transferring concentric load from the super structure and it may transfer some moment as
well, then we provide a base plate of steel material and this base plate is connected with the
column with cleat angle, okay. So if it is concentrically loaded then the minimum number of
bolts are provided to connect the cleat angle with the column otherwise we have to design
and here we provide anchor bolts.

Now below the base plate the load is again spread to the concrete base which is called
concrete pedestal. So load coming from base plate is again transferred to the concrete
pedestal where different grade of concrete may be used depending on the magnitude of load
and requirement of the thickness and requirement of the dimension of the block and
dimension of the plate. Now anchor bolt will be provided to connect the base plate with the
concrete pedestal.

So anchor bolts also will be designed as per the requirement and if we see the same in top
view it will look like this (as shown in the figure) and if we see the plan of the base plate the
base plate will be like this (as shown in the figure).

So we can provide nominal number of cleat angle bolt which will connect the cleat angle with
the column. Then we need to know what will be the size of the base plate that means length,
width and thickness.
So length of the base plate we have to know and width can be found from the grade of
concrete means how much area we need for the base plate so that the area can be transferred
to the concrete pedestal without any failure. Again the dimension of the concrete pedestal
depends on the soil properties so we need to know the bearing pressure of the soil and
according to that we have to find out what will be the length and width of the concrete
pedestal, so that the load is distributed and transferred to the soil properly.

So this is how the system are made and in this way we have to design the base plate due to
this concentric load and moment and this moment is due to this uniform pressure from the
concrete to the base plate. So here also uniform pressure will come from the concrete to the
base plate because of the concentric load. So the maximum bending moment will be
occurring at the edge of the column. So at the edge maximum bending moment will occur, so
we need to know what will be the projection in both the direction.

Let us say a and b are the projection in both the axis and because of this projection the
bending stress will develop, bending moment will be developed at the edge and we have to
calculate the bending stress and then we have to find out its influence so that we can find out
the thickness of the plate accordingly.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:18)

So to find out the thickness of the plate what we can do we can find out what is the bending
moment coming so if we see the column is rested on the base plate and the base plate is
having uniformly distributed load coming from the concrete
Theoretical Considerations
Taking 1 unit length strip of slab projection along xx-axis
a
Maximum Bending Moment, M x =w ×1 ×a ×
2

w a2
¿ (1)
2
w is the intensity of bearing pressure from concrete below the base plate.
Taking 1 unit length strip of slab projection along yy-axis
b
Maximum Bending Moment, M y =w × 1× b ×
2

w b2
¿ (2)
2
If poison ratio (μ) is adopted as 0.3

w a2 w b2
The effective moment along xx-axis ¿ −0.3
2 2
w 2
¿ ( a −0.3 b 2) (3)
2

(Refer Slide Time: 14:28)

The moment capacity of plate is,

M p=1.2 f y Z e

Where Z e =¿ elastic section modulus of the base plate.

 2
t
¿ 1×
6

t=¿ thickness of the base plate.

t2 t2
∴ M p=1.2 × f y × 1× =1.2 f y (4)
6 6

From Eqs. (3) and (4) we get,

2
t w( 2
1.2 f y = a −0.3 b 2)
6 2

Applying partial safety factor,

f y t2 w 2
1.2 = ( a −0.3 b2 )
γ m0 6 2

γm 0
or t 2 =2.5 w ( a 2−0.3 b2 )
fy

Or
√
t= 2.5 w ( a2 −0.3 b2 )
γm 0
fy

So this thickness of the base plate also is available in the code. So this formula you can find
out in the IS: 800-2007. So this is how we can find out length and width of the base plate
from the pressure requirement means from total load we can find out what is the bearing
pressure of the concrete.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

Now we will see what are the steps required to design a base plate.

Step-1: Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Considering uniform stress at the bottom of
plate, the bearing strength of concrete is determined as 0.45 f ck .

Step-2: The area of a slab base may be computed by

P
A=
0.45 f ck

Where P is the factored axial load on column.

Step-3: Select the size of base plate. For economy as far as possible keep the projections a
and b equal.

Now if this a and b are different than along the larger projection the maximum moment will
occur. So to make economy we will try to keep the projection length a and b as much as
possible equal, right.

Step-4: The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal is determined by

P
w=
Area of base plate provided

So from that we can find out the intensity of pressure from the concrete pedestal.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:40)

Step-5: The minimum thickness required as per cl. 7.4.3.1 IS 800:2007

√
t= 2.5 w ( a2 −0.3 b2 )
γm 0
fy f
>t

Where, t f =¿ flange thickness of compression member

When only the effective area of the base plate is used, c2 may be used in the above

equation instead of ( a2 −0.3 b2 )

 Fig. 9 of IS 800-2007

So the thickness of the base plate atleast has to be greater than the thickness of flange of the
compression member that also we need to check, right.

Step-6: Provide nominal two or four 20-mm holding down bolts.

Step-7: Check the weld length connecting the base plate with the column (this check is
required only for fillet welds)

So this is how one can find out the detail of the base plate, right.

Now what grade of concrete we are going to provide depending on that we will find out the
length and breadth of base plate. So once we find the length and breadth of base plate then we
can find the thickness of the base plate and thickness of the base plate can be found on the
basis of the moment and that moment has been calculated from the projection. So we will see
what are the projection is there and at the column phase what is the maximum moment is
going to develop on that basis we will find out the minimum thickness of the base plate
required and that expression also is available in the code in 7.4.3.1 clause we can find out that
formula, okay.
So once dimension of the base plate is decided, after that we will provide the nominal number
of bolts to hold the column in position with the base plate through the cleat angle and cleat
angle size also will be nominal and then through anchor bolt also we will fix the base plate
with the concrete, right. So this is how step by step one can design a base plate. So in next
lecture we will go through one example to see how the base plate is designed, thank you.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 60
Module 12
Design of Slab Base

This lecture will be focused on design of a slab base. So in last lecture we have discussed
about the design procedure of the slab base where the load is transferred from the super
structure to sub structure and how to decide the dimension of the base plate that is the length,
width and the thickness of the base plate that has been discussed. So today we will first
discuss about the design steps means what are the steps we will follow to design a slab base
and then we will go through one example to understand it properly.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:01)

Step-1: Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Considering uniform stress at the bottom of
plate, the bearing strength of concrete is determined as 0.45 f ck .

Step-2: The area of a slab base may be computed by

P
A=
0.45 f ck

Where P is the factored axial load on column.

Step-3: Select the size of base plate. For economy as far as possible keep the projections a
and b equal.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:56)

Step-4: The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal is determined by

P
w=
Area of base plate provided

Step-5: The minimum thickness required as per cl. 7.4.3.1 IS 800:2007

√
t= 2.5 w ( a2 −0.3 b2 )
γm 0
fy f
>t

Where, t f =¿ flange thickness of compression member

(Refer Slide Time: 4:13)

Step-6: Provide nominal two or four 20-mm holding down bolts.

Step-7: Check the weld length connecting the base plate with the column (this check is
required only for fillet welds)

(Refer Slide Time: 5:13)

Examples: Design a slab base for a column ISHB 300 @ 618 N/m subjected to a factored
axial compressive load of 1200 kN for the following condition:

a) Load is transferred to the base plate by direct bearing of column flanges.

b) Load is transferred to the base plate by welded connections; the column end and the
base plate are not machined for bearing.
The base rests on concrete pedestal of grade M20.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:43)

Solution:

Assume Fe 410 grade of steel: f u =410 MPa, f y =250 MPa

For M20 grade of concrete:

Bearing strength of concrete ¿ 0.45 f ck =0.45 ×20=9 N/mm2

Partial safety factor: (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)

γ m 0=1.1

γ mw =1.25 (for shop welding)

Properties of ISHB 300 @ 618 N/m: [Table 1, SP-6(1)-1964]

Thickness of flange, t f =10.6 mm

Thickness of web, t w =9.4 mm

Depth of section, D=300 mm

Width of flange, b f =250 mm

3
1200 ×10
Required area of slab base, A= =133333.3 mm2
9

Let us provide a rectangular base plate.

Let the sides of the base plate be L and B.

Assuming the overhangs of the base plate beyond column flanges to be a and b.

Let a=b

Area of the base plate ¿ ( D+2 a ) × ( b f +2 b )

(Refer Slide Time: 10:07)

Area of the base plate ¿ ( D+2 a ) × ( b f +2 b ) =133333.3

⇒ ( 300+2 a ) × ( 250+2 a )=133333.3

⇒ a=45.5 mm ≃50 mm

Length of the base plate, L=300+2 ×50=400 mm

Width of the base plate, B=250+2 ×50=350 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 12:52)

P
The bearing pressure of concrete, w=
L×B

1200 ×10 3
¿
400 ×350

¿ 8.57 N/mm2 < 9 N/mm2

Hence ok.

Thickness of slab base, (cl. 7.4.3.1 IS 800:2007)

√
t= 2.5 w ( a2 −0.3 b2 )
γm 0
fy

√
¿ 2.5× 8.57 × ( 502 −0.3 ×502 ) ×
1.1
250

¿ 12.84 mm ¿ 10.6 mm

Hence, provide a base plate 400×350×14 mm in size.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:13)

 a) The load is transferred to the base plate by direct bearing. This implies that the
column end and base plate have been machined for perfect bearing. Also, there is no
bending moment. Therefore, connection of column with base plate need not be
designed. However, to keep the column in position, two cleat angles of nominal size
55×55×8 mm may be provided connecting the column flanges with the base plate.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:09)

b) Column end and base plate have not been machined for perfect bearing. Therefore, the
load from the column will be transferred to the base plate through welded connection.

Length available for welding around column profile,

La=2 ×250+2 × ( 250−9.4 ) +2× ( 300−2 ×10.6 )

 ¿ 15 39 mm

Let us provide 8 mm fillet weld.

Number of total end returns = 12

Effective length of weld ¿ 15 39−12 × ( 2 ×8 ) =13 47 mm

Throat thickness, t t =0.7 × 8=5.6 mm

(Refer Slide Time: 21:31)

fu
Strength of weld/ mm length ¿ 1× t t ×
√ 3 × γ mw
410
¿ 1× 5.6 ×
√3 ×1.25
¿ 1060.48 N/mm
3
1200 ×10
Required length of weld ¿ =1131.56 mm < 1347 mm
1060.48

Hence ok.

Since the base is subjected to only axial compressive load and there is no bending moment,
the base is not subjected to tension in any of its part. Therefore, provide nominal 2, 20 mm
diameter bolts to keep the base in position.
So in this example what we could see that if a concentric load is applied on the column then
how to design the base plate that we have seen. In next lecture we will see when the column
is under eccentrically loaded.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 61
Module 12
Eccentrically Loaded Base Plate

In this lecture we will discuss about the eccentrically loaded base plate. So when the base
plates are loaded eccentrically or subjected to axial load as well as bending moment the
pressure distribution from the concrete does not remain uniform. So if concentric load is there
then only the uniform pressure from the concrete will act on the base plate, as P/A. But here if
the load is eccentrically acting or certain moment is acting then the stress in one side it will
be tension, in other side it will be compression.

So the stress development will be linearly varying about its neutral axis and the stress will be
M/Z where Z is the section modulus. Therefore the stress at two different extreme ends will
be different, somewhere it will be P/ A + M /Z , in other direction it will be P/ A−M / Z
. Therefore the magnitude of the stress in two direction in two points will be different,
therefore we have to find out the thickness of the base plate on the basis of maximum stress
developed on the on the base plate due to this not uniform pressure from the concrete block.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:01)

So if we see here that if the column is eccentrically loaded say if the load is P is with a
distance of e then the load distribution below the column will not be uniform.

Due to axial load P, the pressure distribution is uniform and stress diagram is rectangular.

P P
The direct stress ¿ =
A 1 LB

Where, A 1=¿ area of base plate provided.

L=¿ length of the base plate

B=¿ width of the base plate

Due to the bending moment the bending stress developed is

M
¿± y
I

M L 6M 6 Pe
¿± × =± =±
1 3 2 BL
2
BL
2
BL
12

The combined stress due to axial load and bending moment

P 6 Pe P 6e
f= ± =
LB B L LB
2
1±
L ( )
(Refer Slide Time: 4:35)

Depending upon the eccentricity and length of the base plate three cases are possible.
 6e L
Case I when there is no tension, 1− =0 ⇒ e=
L 6

L L
Case II when the tension developed is small e= to
6 3

(Refer Slide Time: 9:35)

L
Case III When the tension developed is substantial e>
3

Case I (e < L6 )
The entire base plate is under compression. The maximum pressure from concrete must not
exceed the bearing strength of concrete ( 0.45 f ck ).

P 6e
1. Combined stresses, f =
LB (
1±
L )
L 2P
When e= , f= , 0 respectively.
6 LB

(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

2. The combined stress should be less than or equal to 0.45 f ck .

2P 2P
≤ 0.45 f ck ⇒ B=
LB 0.45 L f ck

3. The thickness of base plate is computed by equating the moment capacity of the base plate
to the moment at the critical section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column
flange.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:16)

L
e=
6
Case II
L
(¿ )
3
Most part of the base plate is in under compression, with little or negligible tension on the
remaining part.

1. Calculation of the length of the plate under compression (x):

x L
+e=
3 2

⇒ x=3 ( L2 −e )
2. Calculation of the width of the base plate:

Compressive force(C) in concrete = area of stress triangle × width

0.45 f ck x
C= × B=P
2

2P
⇒ B=
0.45 f ck x

2P
⇒ B=
0.45 f ck × 3 ( L2 −e)
3. The thickness of base plate is computed by equating the moment capacity of the base plate
to the moment at the critical section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column
flange.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:07)

Case III (e > L3 )
Part of the base will be in compression with substantial tension in the remaining part and will
be taken up by anchor bolts.

1. The size of the base plate (L×B) is determined as before or assumed.

2. From the equilibrium of forces,

P=0.45 f ck x B−F b

And M =0.45 f ck x B ( L2 − 2x )−F a

b

Where, P=¿ axial compressive force

Fb =¿ Tensile force in the bolt

a=¿ Distance of line of anchor bolts from c.g. of the column.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:43)

The value of x may be determined from the above force and moment equations,
0.5

[( ) { }]
2
L L ( M + Pa )
x= +a− +a − 2×
2 2 0.45 f ck B
The maximum moment is determined at the critical section.

x
(
M =0.45 f ck x B c 2−
2 )
Where, c 2=¿ outstand of base plate from the column flange.

3. The thickness of base plate is computed by equating the moment capacity of the base plate
to the moment at the critical section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column
flange.

4. Calculation of design tensile force in the bolt:

P=0.45 f ck x B−F b

⇒ Fb =0.45 f ck x B+ P

(Refer Slide Time: 27:33)

5. Welded connection is designed to join the column section with the base for the maximum
tension in the column flange due to the applied moment.

So this is whole about the eccentrically loaded base plate and the slab base with these three
lecture we have covered. In next lecture we will go to the gusset base where we will see when
the moment is also coming into picture then how to design the gusset base, one is design of
the base plate and another is the design of the angle which is connected to the base plate or
gusset base plate with the column.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 62
Module 12
Gusset Base

This lecture will focus on gusset base. So in last few lectures we have discussed about the
slab base. Now in case of gusset base the column is connected to the base plate through the
gusset plate. So here the load will be transferred from column to base plate not only directly
through bearing but also through the gusset plate, so the load is going to be distributed to the
base plate through bearing and through gusset plate and this gusset base is used when load is
heavy that means the compressive load which are coming into the column is heavy or if the
moment is acting on the column then gusset base will be suitable.

(Refer Slide Time: 1:22)

So it will be clear to us if we go through one diagram of the gusset base then we will be able
to know how it is connected and as I told the load is transferred to the base plate partly
through bearing and partly through the gusset plate. So if this is a column which are resting
on the base plate now in case of slab base we are resting the column directly to the base plate.
So here we are providing additional gusset plate on the column and this gusset plate is again
connected with the gusset angle. So the load whatever is coming whether it is load, or
moment, or both are transferred to the base plate through gusset plate and through bearing. So
in both the ways it is transferring the load and if we see here the because of the gusset and
stiffness bear the base slab against bending therefore a thinner base plate can be provided.

The base plate is undergoing the pressure coming from the concrete pedestal because of the
reaction. Now again this gusset angle is also connected to the column by the use of bolt, so
here we can provide certain number of bolts the height of the gusset plate should be sufficient
to take care the number of bolts because here number of bolts should be used because of the
load is used the concentrate load when it becomes use then only we use this type of gusset
base.

And the critical section at which the maximum moment will develop is the maximum
overhang portion, so this we can say C the maximum overhang portion. So now this column
may face for complete bearing or may face for incomplete bearing. If it is facing complete
bearing then generally 50 percent of the load are transferred to the base plate directly and 50
percent load are transferred through the gusset plate and if it is not complete bearing then we
assume that whole load is transferred through the gusset plate. So this is how we are going to
design.

Now if we see the side view then we can see how the gusset plates are connected. So here if
we see that we are basically seeing the side view so bolt will be connected here with the angle
in both the side and also bolt will be connected to the gusset plate which is connected here.

Say if we provide bolts in two rows then at each flange in this case we are providing 8
number of bolts in each flange. So basic objective of providing gusset plate is to carry the
load from the column to the base plate through this gusset plate that means the load is going
to disperse not only through the bearing of the system but also through the gusset plate we are
providing certain amount of load.

So here if we see the maximum moment whatever coming will be calculated in this position
and the thickness of the base plate can be found from the flexural strength of the base plate.

For unit width of plate, bending moment at the critical section

 2
wc
M=
2

Where, w=¿ intensity of pressure from concrete under the slab base.

c=¿ The portion of the base plate acting as a cantilever

Now here another thing we have to remember that upto this portion the thickness is becoming
the thickness of base plate plus thickness of the gusset angle. So basically when we are going
to provide the gusset plate then the thickness of base plate is going to be reduced.

(Refer Slide Time: 9:35)

The design bending strength at the critical section

fy
M d =1.2 Z
γ m0 e

2
fy 1×t 2 f t
¿ 1.2×
γm0 ( )
×
6
=0.2 y
γm0

Now, M =M d

2
w c2 f t
⇒ =0.2 y
2 γm0

w γm0
⇒ t=c 2.5
√ fy
Where, t is the aggregate thickness of base plate and cleat angle for bolted gusset base and
thickness of the base plate for welded gusset base, at the critical section.

However this is true if we are going to provide gusset angle and gusset angle when it is bolted
connections but for welded connections we do not need to provide gusset angle.

Now we will go through step by step design procedure for the gusset base. So designing a
gusset base means we have to design the base plate base plate means the dimension of the
bases which includes thickness, length and breadth and once it is decided then we have to
decide what will be the number of bolts required for the connection of the gusset plate with
the column sections.

Another thing is that when we are going to provide a gusset plate we have to know what will
be the plate thickness, what will be the gusset plate thickness and what should be the gusset
plate size that means length and width. So these are the few things which we need to know.
So in the steps when we are going to discuss we will try to address all this issue. Then the
dimension of gusset angle and the number of bolts required for connecting the system or the
weld length for connecting the systems will be calculated.

Step-1: Assume a suitable grade of concrete. Depending upon the grade of concrete used, the
bearing strength of concrete is determined by 0.45 f ck.

Step-2: The area of a slab base may be computed by

P
A=
0.45 f ck

Where P is the factored load on column.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:14)

Step-3: The size of the gusset plate is assumed.

• The gusset plate should not be less than 16 mm in thickness for bolted gusset base.

• The gusset/cleat angle is chosen so as to accommodate two rows of bolts in the

vertical leg and one row of bolts in the horizontal leg. Therefore, an unequal angle
section is provided.

• The thickness of cleat angle is kept approximately equal to the thickness of gusset
plate.

• The length of the gusset material is normally kept equal to the length of the base plate,
parallel to the flange of the column.

• For welded gusset plate, cleat angles will not be required.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:26)

Step-4: The dimension of base plate parallel to the web

For bolted connection:

L=¿ depth of section + 2 (thickness of gusset plate + leg

length of angle + overhang)

For welded connection:

L=¿depth of section + 2× (thickness of gusset plate + overhang)

• The dimension of base plate parallel to flange,

A
B=
L
(Refer Slide Time: 21:16)

Step-5: The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal is determined by

P
w=
Area of base plate provided

Step-6: The thickness of the base plate is computed by flexural strength at the critical section.

Step-7: Holding down bolts 2 or 4 in numbers and of 20-mm diameter are usually provided.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:15)

The design bending strength at the critical section

fy
M d =1.2 Z
γ m0 e

2
fy 1×t 2 f t
¿ 1.2×
γm0 ( )
×
6
=0.2 y
γm0

Now, M =M d

2
w c2 f t
⇒ =0.2 y
2 γm0

w γm0
⇒ t=c 2.5
√ fy

Where, t is the aggregate thickness of base plate and cleat angle for bolted gusset base and
thickness of the base plate for welded gusset base, at the critical section.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:32)

Now following these steps we can go through this example, okay and this example will be
working out in next lecture. I hope you have understood the process means how to find out
the dimension of the base plate and the gusset plate and the cleat angle or the gusset angle. So
these are the main members which need to be designed for the gusset base. So this things will
be clear if we go through one example then it will be much more clear.
 Course on Design of Steel Structures
Professor Damodar Maity
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture 63
Module 12
Design of Gusset Base

In this lecture I will be discussing about a design example of the gusset base. So in last
lecture we have discussed the design procedure of the gusset base and which includes the
determination of the gusset plate dimensions and the base plate dimensions and the number of
bolts. So how to find out step by step that will be clear if we go through this example.

(Refer Slide Time: 0:53)

Example. A column section ISHB 350 @ 710.2 N/m carries a factor axial compressive load
of 1700 kN and factored bending moment of 85 kN-m. Design the base plate and its
connections. Assume concrete pedestal of M-20 grade.

(Refer Slide Time: 2:30)

Solution:

Assume Fe 410 grade of steel: f u =410 MPa, f y=250 MPa

For M20 grade of concrete:

Bearing strength of concrete¿ 0.45 f ck =0.45 × 20=9 N/mm2

Partial safety factor: (Table 5, IS 800: 2007)

γ m0 =1.1 γ mb=1.25

Properties of ISHB 350 @ 710.2 N/m: [table 1, SP-6(1)-1964]

t f =11.6 mm t w =10.1 mm

D=350 mm bf =250 mm

A=9221 mm2

Design compressive load, P=1700 kN

Design bending moment, M =85 kN-m

6
M 85 ×10
Eccentricity, e= = =50 mm
P 1700 × 103
(Refer Slide Time: 4:42)

Let us provide 16 mm thick gusset plate, one on each side of the column flanges and two
cleat angles ISA 200×150×15 mm.

Provide a length of base plate, L=550 mm.

e 50 1 1
Now, = = <
L 550 11 6

Hence, the base plate is in compression throughout.

(Refer Slide Time: 6:42)

To limit the bearing pressure from concrete to 0.45 f ck, the width required,

3
2P 2 ×1700 ×10
B= = =686.87 mm ≃ 690 mm
L× 0.45 f ck 550 ×0.45 × 20

(Refer Slide Time: 9:10)

Projection of base plate beyond leg angle toe

690−( 350+2×16 +2×150 )

¿ =4 mm
2

Let us provide a base plate 690×550 mm in size.

3
Area provided, A=690× 550=379.5× 10 mm2

Section modulus of the base plate,

2
550 ×690 6
Ze = =43.64 ×10 mm3
6
(Refer Slide Time: 11:48)

Maximum pressure,

3 6
P M 1700 × 10 85 ×10
f max = + = 3+
A Z e 379.5 ×10 43.64 ×10 6

¿ 6.43 N/mm2 < 9 N/mm2

(Refer Slide Time: 13:13)

Minimum pressure,
 3 6
P M 1700 ×10 85 ×10
f min = − = −
A Z e 379.5×10 3 43.64 ×10 6

¿ 2.53 N/mm2 < 9 N/mm2

350
x

551 x
2.53
5.64 6.43

690

Calculation for the thickness of base plate:

Base pressure at section x-x,

551
¿ 2.53+ ( 6.43−2.53 ) × =5.64 N/mm2
690

Moment at critical section x-x,

139 1 2
¿ 5.64 ×139 × + ×139 × ( 6.43−5.64 ) × ×139
2 2 3 ( )
¿ 59573.1 N-mm

(Refer Slide Time: 18:48)

Moment capacity of base plate,

fy
M d =1.2 Z
γ m0 e

250 1
¿ 1.2×
1.1 6 ( )
× ×1×t 2a =45.45t 2a N-mm

2
⇒ 45.45t a =59573.1

⇒ t a =36.2 mm (aggregate thickness of base plate and cleat angle)

Therefore, thickness of base plate,

t b =36.2−15=21.2 mm ≃ 22 mm > 11.6 mm

Provide a base plate 690×550×22 mm in size.

Bolted connection:

Provide 24-mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6.

The bolts will be in single shear.

Strength bolt in single shear (cl. 10.3.3, IS 800:2007)

f ub π ×24 2 400

¿
A nb ( )(
√3
=
0.78 ×
4 )( )
×
√3
×10−3= 65.2 kN
γ mb 1.25
(Refer Slide Time: 23:09)

Strength of bolt in bearing ¿ 2.5k b dt f u /γ mb (cl. 10.3.4, IS 800:2007)

For 24 mm diameter bolts the minimum edge distance,

e=1.5× d0 =1.5× ( 24+2 ) =39 mm

The minimum pitch, p=2.5 ×24=60 mm

Let us provide an edge distance of 40 mm and pitch of 65 mm.

k b is smaller of

( 3ed = 3×4026 =0.51) ,( 3 pd −0.25= 3×26

0 0
65
)
−0.25=0.58 ,

f ub 400
( =
f u 410 )
=0.98 and 1.0

Hence k b =0.51

410
∴ Strength in bearing ¿ 2.5×0.51 ×24 ×11.6 × ×10−3
1.25

¿ 116.43 kN

Hence, the strength of bolt ¿ 65.2 kN

Assuming column end and gusset material to have complete bearing, 50% of the load will be
assumed to pass directly and 50% of the load will pass through the connections.
Number of bolts required to connect column flanges with gusset plates,

0.5 ×1700
n1 = =13.03≃ 16
65.2

Provide 8, 24 mm diameter bolts on each flange in two rows as shown in the figure.

The number of bolts required to connect the cleat angle with gusset plate will be the same.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:29)

Dimension of gusset plate:

Height of gusset plate ¿ 200+2 ×40 +65=345 mm

Length of gusset plate ¿ length of base plate ¿ 550 mm

Provide gusset plate 550×345×16 mm in size.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:36)

 250

Gusset plate
550×345×16 mm

Cleat angle
200×150×15 mm

550

Fig. Gusseted base with bolted connections

So this is how one can design a gusset plate when the column is under compression and
moment, okay. So this is all about the todays lecture and before going to finish this entire
lecture I would like to suggest one thing that please go through the IS code 800-2007 IS: 800-
2007, this is not a mathematical course or some structural analysis course that everything you
will be understanding through logic, here logic is definitely there but numerical equations are
there expressions are there which is derived from some experimental observations like some
coefficients are obtained from experimental observations, right.

So and those are given in tabulated form which will be to remember few of them or we have
to go through that code and then we can find out. so when you will be going through my
lecture I would suggest you take a code and try to follow that code with this lecture then it
will be easier and you do not have to remember all the expressions many big expressions are
given where many numerical expressions means are given which is difficult to remember its
coefficients are difficult to remember so those things you can follow from the code, okay.

So whenever you will go through the lecture please sit with the code as well and revise the
things along with code and try to find out in which page or which clause these codal
provisions are there so that you can remember, right. And through this lecture you will not
understand everything unless you go through some workout example, okay and if you go
through workout example then it will be clear and when you will be going through workout
example please refer the code so that how the coefficients are obtaining, how the equations
we are going to get that you can find out and accordingly you can design the thing.

So through this lecture means entire lecture means I hope that you will get a concept of
design of limit state method for steel structure. So how to design a steel member using limit
state method that concepts I hope it will be clear however it will be much clear if you work
out some example then the concept will be much clear, I thank for your patients and I hope
you will enjoy this lecture, thank you.
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 1
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 15 Total marks: 15 X 1 = 15
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
What is the mass density of steel?

a. 7150 kg/m3
b. 7850 kg/m3
c. 6850 kg/m3
d. 2400 kg/m3

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 7, Lecture 2

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
Hardness is defined as:

a. the property of material by virtue of which, it offers resistance to indentation

and scratching
b. the property of material by virtue of which, it offers resistance to large inelastic
deformation
c. the property of material by virtue of which, it offers resistance to fracture
against the action of impact loading.
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 9, Lecture 2

___________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
Which of the following is a disadvantage of steel?

a. High strength per unit mass

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b. Fire and corrosion resistance

c. High durability
d. Reusable

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution: Steel is poor against fir and corrosion attack.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
What is the permissible stress of steel in bending compression in Working Stress Method?

a. 0.5fy
b. 0.4fy
c. 0.66fy
d. 0.75fy

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 3, Lecture 3

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
What is the factor of safety against axial compression in Working Stress Method?

a. 1.2
b. 1.5
c. 1.75
d. 1.67

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 3, Lecture 3

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
Characteristic values (loads/stresses) are defined as the values that are not expected to be
exceeded within the life of the structure with more than:
a. 5% probability
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b. 2.5% probability
c. 7.5% probability
d. 10% probability

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 9, Lecture 3

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
What is the partial safety factor of shop fabricated welds?

a. 1.2
b. 1.1
c. 1.5
d. 1.25

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution: Table 5, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
Which factor is denoted by k3 in the calculation of design wind speed?

a. Probability factor
b. Terrain, height and structure size factor
c. Topography factor
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 18, Lecture 3

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
The centre to centre distance of adjacent rivets or bolt holes measured in the direction of stress
is called:
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a. Edge distance
b. Gauge distance
c. Pitch
d. Nominal diameter

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 16, Lecture 4

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 10:
A row of rivets/bolts which is parallel to the direction of stress is called:

a. Pitch line
b. Gauge line
c. End line
d. Center line

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 17, Lecture 4

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 11:
Minimum edge distance for rivet/bolt is:

a. 0.5 × hole diameter

b. 1.0 × hole diameter
c. 1.5 × hole diameter
d. 1.5 × bolt diameter
Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 17, Lecture 4

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 12:
Which of the following is correct?

a. Size of hole = nominal diameter of bolt - clearances

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b. Size of hole = nominal diameter of bolt × clearances

c. Size of hole = nominal diameter of bolt / clearances
d. Size of hole = nominal diameter of bolt + clearances

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 20, Lecture 4

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 13:
What is the minimum pitch distance?

a. 1.5 x nominal diameter of fastener

b. 2.0 x nominal diameter of fastener
c. 2.5 x nominal diameter of fastener
d. 2.50 x nominal hole diameter of fastener

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: Slide no. 16, Lecture 4 (cl. 10.2.2 of IS 800: 2007)

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 14:
In case of staggered pitch, pitch may be increased by:

a. 50%
b. 20%
c. 30%
d. 10%

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution: Clause 10.2.3.4 of IS 800:2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 15:
What is the load factor for Live load (LL) for the load combination DL + LL + AL in case of limit
state of strength? (DL = Dead Load, AL = Accidental Load)
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a. 0.35
b. 1
c. 1.2
d. 1.5

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution: Table 4, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 2
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 15 Total marks:20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
Two plates of thickness 16 mm and 22 mm are connected with fillet weld. What should be the
minimum size of weld?
1
a. 6 mm
b. 2 mm
c. 3 mm
d. 4 mm

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Thickness of thicker plate is 22 mm

Hence, minimum of the weld should be 6 mm as per Table 21, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
Two plates of thickness 20 mm and 22 mm are connected with fillet weld. What should be the
maximum size of weld?
1
a. 6 mm
b. 15 mm
c. 18.5 mm
d. 21.5 mm

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:

Maximum size of the fillet = thickness of thinner plate – 1.5 mm

= 20 – 1.5 = 18.5 mm (Slide no. 15, Lecture 9)

______________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 3:
What is the effective throat thickness of the fillet weld if the angle between two fusion faces is
103°? (S = size of the weld)
1
a. 0.2S
b. 0.6S
c. 0.4S
d. 0.5S

Correct Answer:b

Detailed Solution:Table 22, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
What is the minimum size of effective throat thickness?
1
a. 2 mm
b. 5 mm
c. 4 mm
d. 3 mm

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 17, Lecture 9

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
The length of end return, provided at each end of longitudinal fillet weld, is:
1
a. Twice the size of weld
b. Thrice the size of weld
c. Four time the size of weld
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 21, Lecture 9

____________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 6:
If the ultimate stress of the fillet weld is 400 MPa and the effective throat thickness is 4.5 mm
then what is the strength of the weld in case of site welding?
2
a. 284 N/mm
b. 400 N/mm
c. 589 N/mm
d. 693 N/mm

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

f u = 400 MPa

t e = 4.5 mm

γ mw = 1.5 (site welding)

𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒
p dw = � = (400 × 4.5)/(√3 × 1.5) = 693 N/mm
√3𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
If the size of the weld is 6 mm and the angle between two fusion faces is 110° then what is the
effective throat thickness?
2
a. 2.3 mm
b. 3.3 mm
c. 3.5 mm
d. 4.5 mm

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Angle between fusion faces is 110° then k value is 0.55. (Table 22: IS 800: 2007)

Hence, effective throat thickness, 0.55 × 6 = 3.3 mm

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______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
The net tensile area of bolt to be considered at the root of the threads is:
(d = nominal diameter of the bolt)
1
a. π × d2/4
b. 0.58 × π × d2/4
c. 0.78 × π × d2/4
d. 1.38 × π × d2/4

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 4, Lecture 6

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
As per IS 800: 2007, the partial safety factor for bolt is:
1
a. 1.00
b. 1.10
c. 1.25
d. 1.50

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:Table 5, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 10:
If the length of a long bolted joint is 350 mm and the nominal diameter of bolt is 16 mm then
the reduction factor, β lj is:
2
a. 0.67
b. 0.97
c. 1.00
d. 1.97

Correct Answer: b
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Detailed Solution:

If length of joint l j > 15d, where d = nominal diameter of bolts,

Then,β lj = 1.075 – l j / (200d), 0.75 ≤ β lj ≤ 1.0

So β lj = 1.075 – 350/(200×16) = 0.9656 ≈ 0.97

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 11:
The nominal bearing strength of the bolt is given by 2.5𝑘𝑘 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 , where the maximum value of
𝑘𝑘 𝑏𝑏 can be taken as:
1

a. 0.01
b. 0.1
c. 1.00
d. 10.00

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: Clause 10.3.4 of IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 12:
A 16 mm diameter bolt of grade 4.6 is in single shear. The shearing strength of bolt will be:
(assume threads in the shear planes)
2
a. 29 kN
b. 58 kN
c. 45 kN
d. 90 kN

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

Shear Area, A nb = 0.78× π/4 ×162 = 157 mm2

nn = 1 , ns = 0
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For grade 4.6 bolts; f ub = 400 MPa

fub
=Vdsb ( nn Anb + ns Asb )
3 × γ mb

400 ×10−3
= (1×157
= + 0 ) 29kN
3 ×1.25

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 13:
The design shear capacity of bolts carrying shear through a packing plate, should be decreased
by a factor, β pk if the thickness of packing plate is:
1
a. less than 6 mm
b. 6 mm
c. greater than 6 mm
d. none of the above

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Clause 10.3.3.3 of IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 14:
If the diameter of a bolt is 16 mm then minimum end distance in case of rolled edges will be
2
a. 16 mm
b. 27 mm
c. 30.6 mm
d. 33 mm

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 4, Lecture 7

Minimum end distance, e = 1.5 d 0 (for rolled edge) =1.5× (16 + 2) = 27 mm

______________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 15:
In a connection if the strength of the joint is 200 kN and the strength of solid plate is 400 kN
then the efficiency of the joint will be:
1
a. 20%
b. 30%
c. 50%
d. Cannot be determined

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

200
Efficiency, h = ´ 100 = 50%
400
______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 3
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 8 Total mark:20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
In case of incomplete penetration of butt weld the effective throat thickness is taken as:
1

a. 7/8 th of the thickness of the thinner plate

b. 3/4 th of the thickness of the thinner plate
c. 3/5 th of the thickness of the thinner plate
d. 2/3 th of the thickness of the thinner plate

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 5, Lecture 11

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
In case of combination of stresses of normal stress (f a ) and shear stress (q), the equivalent
stress (f e ) is given by:
1

a. �𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎2 + 3𝑞𝑞 2
b. �𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑞𝑞 2
c. �3𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑞𝑞 2
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 10, Lecture 11

______________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 3:
Two plates of thickness 8 mm and 10 mm are to be joined with double V groove weld. If the
effective length of the weld is 100 mm, find the strength of the weld in case of shop welding?
(f y = 250 MPa)
2

a. 120 kN
b. 130 kN
c. 160 kN
d. None of the above

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:

Throat thickness = thickness of thinner plate = 8 mm

𝐿𝐿𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦
Strength of weld = = (100 × 8 × 250)/1.25 × 10-3 = 160 kN
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
A joint is subjected to a tensile force 200 kN. Assuming Single-V groove weld joint and the
throat thickness of 6 mm, find the effective length of weld? (Site welding)
2
a. 100 mm
b. 200 mm
c. 300 mm
d. 250 mm

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:
𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = = (200 × 103 × 1.5)/(6 × 250) = 200 mm
𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦

______________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 5:
A pipe of 80 mm dia and 6 mm thick is connected to a 12 mm thick plate. It is subjected to
factored vertical load 8 kN at a distance of 0.6 m from welded end. Calculate the size of the
weld assuming shop welding and grade of steel Fe410?
4

a. 6 mm
b. 5 mm
c. 8 mm
d. 7 mm

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Diameter of the pipe = 80 mm

Thickness of pipe = 6 mm

Vertical load, P = 8 kN

Moment, M = P×e = 8 × 0.6 = 4.8 kN-m

Say, the throat thickness of the weld is t.

I p = 2×π×403×t = 402123.85t mm4

I zz = I p /2 = 201061.9 t mm4

Shear stress,

q = P/(2πrt) = (8×103)/(2π×40×t)=31.83/t N/mm2

Normal stress,

f a = (M/I zz )×r = (4.8×106×40)/201061.9t =954.92/t N/mm2

2
954.92 2
31.83 2
Equivalent stress due to normal and shear stress, fe = �fa2 + 3q2 = �� t � + 3 × � t �
2

fu
= 956.51/t ≤
√3γ mw

410
= 956.51/t ≤ = 189.37 N/mm2
√3×1.25
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So, t = 5.05 mm

Hence, S = t/0.707 = 7.144 ≈ 8 mm

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
If the value of resultant stress, shear stress and bending stress are 68 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa
respectively then what is the value of critical angle between the line of action of bending stress
and shear stress? (Load lying in the plane of welded joint)
2

a. 30°
b. 20°
c. 28°
d. 60°

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Pr = �Pb2 + Ps2 + 2Pb Ps cosθ

68 2 −30 2 −40 2
or, cosθ = = 0.885
2×30×40

or, θ = 28°

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
In an eccentric connection if an end load of 300 kN is acting with an eccentricity of 200 mm as
shown in the figure, the required number of bolts n in one row in a bolt group with bolts having
pitch p = 50 mm, number of rows nʹ =2 and bolt value B sd = 50 kN, should be:
3
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eo =200 mm

300 kN
ISHB 200

Bracket plate

a. 7
b. 8
c. 9
d. 10

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

We know that if moment on the joint is much high compare to the direct load, then required
number of bolt

6M
n=
n '× p × Bsd

We have, P = 300 kN and e 0 = 200 mm

Moment due to eccentricity, M = 200×300 = 60000 kN-mm

Pitch, p = 50 mm

Number of rows, nʹ =2

Bolt value B sd = 50 kN

6 × 60000
Therefore=n = 8.48 ≈ 9
2 × 50 × 50
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_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
A factored load P is acting with an eccentricity of 200 mm as shown in the figure. The steel used
is of grade Fe 410. The bolts are used of grade 4.6 with a bolt value of 45.26kN.The value of P
will be:
5

200
P

40
60
60
60
60
40
120

a. 148 kN
b. 210 kN
c. 278 kN
d. 324 kN

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

Bolt value = 45.26 kN

Total number of bolts in the joint, n = 10

The direct force, 𝐹𝐹1 = 𝑃𝑃/10

Pe0 rn
The force in the bolt due to twisting moment, F2 =
∑ r2
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200
P

40
60 θ
60 rn

60
60
40
120

rn = ( 60 + 60 ) + 602 = 134.164 mm
2
e 0 = 200 mm;

∑ r2 =
4 × [(1202 + 602 ) + (602 + 602 )] + 2 × 602 =
108000 mm2

P × 200 × 134.164
=F2 = 0.248 P
108000

Cosθ = 60/134.164 = 0.4472

Resultant force

45.26 ≤ (( P /10) 2 + (0.248 P) 2 + 2 × ( P /10 ) × 0.248 P × 0.4472)

= =
P 45.26 / 0.3061 148 kN

_____________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 4
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 8 Total mark:18
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
A 12 mm thick bracket is connected to the flange of a column by using groove weld as shown in
figure. Calculate the horizontal shear stress due to bending?
2
60 kN
200 mm

300 mm

12 mm thick

a. 50.2 MPa
b. 66.67 MPa
c. 80.7 MPa
d. 96.67 MPa

Correct Answer: b
Detailed Solution:

Effective throat thickness(t t ) = thickness of the bracket = 12 mm

6𝑀𝑀 6×𝑃𝑃×𝑒𝑒
So, 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡 = = (6×60×103×200)/(12×3002) = 66.67 MPa
𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑 2

_____________________________________________________________________________
QUESTION 2:
A 12 mm thick bracket is connected to the flange of the column using fillet weld as shown in
figure. Calculate the size of the weld. Assume Fe410 grade steel. The yield stress of weld is
same as parent material and it is shop welding.
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70 kN
175 mm

250 mm

12 mm thick

a. 5 mm
b. 4 mm
c. 3.5 mm
d. 12 mm

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

Say, the size of the weld = s, effective throat thickness (t e ) =0.707s

Vertical shear stress (q) = (70 × 103)/ (2 × 250 × 0.707s) = 198/s

Horizontal shear stress due to bending (f b ) = (6 × 70 × 103 × 175)/ (2 × 0.707s × 2502) =831.68/s

198 2 831.68 2
Equivalent stress (f e ) = �� 𝑠𝑠
� +� 𝑠𝑠
� = 854.9/s

Weld strength (R w ) = 410/ (√3×1.25) = 189.37 MPa

So, 854.9/s = 189.37

or, s = 4.51 mm

so, adopt a weld size of 5 mm

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
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Calculate the net area of the angle ISA 100 × 100 × 8 which is connected to the gusset plate
with 20 mm diameter bolt through single leg?

a. 1000 mm2
b. 1360 mm2
c. 1536 mm2
d. 2000 mm2
Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Hole diameter = 20+2 = 22 mm

Net area of connected leg (A nc ) = (100 – 8/2 – 22) × 8 = 592 mm2

Gross area of outstanding leg (A go ) = (100 – 8/2) × 8 =768 mm2

Net area, A n = A nc + A go = 592 + 768 = 1360 mm2

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
Calculate the minimum net area for the plate shown below connected to 12-mm thick gusset
plate with 20 mm bolts.
4

Plate 10-mm thick

1 2 3 30
20
140 mm

T 20
20
20
1 2 3 30
Gusset 12-mm thick

30 25 25 40

a. 512.5 mm2
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b. 712 mm2
c. 676.25 mm2
d. 612.5 mm2

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

A n (path 11) = (140 - 3×22)×10 = 740 mm2

A n (path 1221) = [(140 - 4×22) + (2×252)/(4×20)]×10 = 676.25 mm2

A n (Path 12321) = [(140 - 5×22) + (4×252)/(4×20)]×10 = 612.5 mm2

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
The tension and shear force (both in kN) in each bolt of the joint, as shown below, respectively
are:
3

a. 240 kN and 180 kN

b. 180 kN and 240 kN
c. 40 kN and 30 kN
d. 30 kN and 40 kN
Correct Answer: c
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Detailed Solution:

P x = P u cosθ = 4/5 P u

P y = P u sinθ = 3/5 P u

Tension in each bolt = 4P u / (5×6) = (4×300)/ (5×6) = 40kN

Shear in each bolt = 3P u / (5×6) = (3×300)/ (5×6) = 30kN

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
Clip angle connection are designed to:
1

a. transfer small end moments in addition to large end shear

b. transfer large end shear only
c. transfer small end moments only
d. transfer bending moments

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

Explanation: When additional pair of angles in angle seat connection is used to connect the web
of beam to flange of column, the connection can be designed to transfer small end moments in
addition to large end shear. Such connections are called clip angle connections or light moment
connection.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
The effectiveness of a tension member depends on:
1
a. Ductility factor
b. Method of fabrication
c. Shear lag effect
d. All of the above

Correct Answer: d
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Detailed Solution:

Explanation:The net section strength increases with the ductility of the steel. Effectiveness
varies depending on punched holes or drilled holes. Shear lag effect also alter the effectiveness.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
In bolted moment end plate connection, bending moment, axial force and shear force are
transferred by:
1

a. tension only
b. compression only
c. tension and compression
d. friction

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Explanation: In bolted moment end plate connection, bending moment, axial force and shear
force are transferred by tension and compression or shear through flange welds and by shear
through the web welds to the end plate.

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 5
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 20 Total marks: 20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
The slenderness ratio of a member which is subjected to compressive forces resulting only from
combination of earthquake/wind forces, is:
1
a. 275
b. 250
c. 300
d. 400

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:Table 3: IS 800:2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
The design tensile strength of a single angle due to rupture of critical section is given by:
1
0.9 Anc f u βAgo f y
=
a. Tdn +
γ m1 γ m0
0.8 Anc f u βAgo f y
=
b. Tdn +
γ m1 γ m0
βAnc f u 0.9 Ago f y
=Tdn +
c. γ m1 γ m0
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

Slide no. 5, Lecture 21

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______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
For a single angle unequal angle tie member, the leg preferred for making connection is the:
1

a. Longer one
b. Shorter one
c. Any of the two
d. Longer if bolted, shorter if welded.

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Conceptual

QUESTION 4:
What is the shear lag width for ISA 100×75×10 in case of bolt connection?
(Outstanding leg is shorter side, assume gauge distance = 45 mm)
2
a. 100 mm
b. 130 mm
c. 105 mm
d.
110 mm

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

The length of the outstanding leg is 75 mm (w) and w 1 = 45 mm

So the shear lag width, b s = w+ w 1 - t = 75+ 45 -10 = 110 mm

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
What is the shear lag width of ISA 75×75×8 in case of weld connection?
1
a. 75 mm
b. 80 mm
c. 67 mm
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d. 83 mm

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

Length of the outstanding leg, w = 75 mm

So shear lag width, w = b s = 75 mm

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
For preliminary sizing the rupture strength of a net section can be approximately taken as,
αA f
Tdn = n u
γ
. The value of α for three bolts is:
m1

1
a. 0.5
b. 0.8
c. 0.7
d. 0.6

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 7, Lecture 21

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
A single angle section 75X60X8 is connected with gusset plate with 5 bolts of 20 mm diameter
in one line at pitch of 50 mm and edge distance of 30 mm. What is the design tensile strength
of the section for rupture of net section?
(Assume the section is connected with longer leg and gauge distance = 35 mm)
4
a. 398 kN
b. 243kN
c. 351 kN
d. 180 kN

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:
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A nc = (75 - 8/2 - 22) × 8 = 392 mm2

A go = (60 - 8/2) × 8 = 448 mm2
A n = 392 +448 = 840 mm2
The length of outstanding leg will be w = 60 mm and w 1 = 35 mm.
So the shear lag width, b s = w + w 1 – t = 60 + 35 – 8 = 87 mm.
Distance between end bolts, L c = 4 × 50 = 200 mm.
𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 87 60 250
𝛽𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑡
× 𝑓𝑓 = 1 .4 − 0.076 × 200 × 8
× 410 = 1.249
𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢

0.9𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 0.9×410×392 1.248×250×448

Thus, 𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = + = +
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 1 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 0 1.25 1.1

= 242.78 × 103 N = 243kN.

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
A single ISA 100 × 75 × 10 is connected (longer leg) with gusset plate using 5 bolts of 20 mm
diameter in one line at pitch of 50 mm and edge distance of 30 mm. What is the Design tensile
strength due to block shear failure?
(Assume gauge distance = 50 mm)
4
a. 337kN
b. 417kN
c. 351kN
d. 450 kN

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:

A vg = 10 × (4 × 50 + 30) = 2300 mm2

A vn = 10 × (4 × 50 + 30 – 4.5 × 22) = 1310 mm2
A tg = 10 × 50 = 500 mm2 [assuming gauge g = 50 for 100 mm leg]
A tn = 10 × (50 – 0.5 × 22) = 390 mm2
0.9𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 0.9×410×1310 250×500
𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 = + = + = 336.9 × 103 N = 337kN
√3𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 1 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 0 √3×1.25 1.1
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𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 0.9 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2300 ×250 0.9×410×390

𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 = + = + = 416.9 × 103 N = 417kN
√3𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 0 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 1 √3×1.1 1.25

So, T db = 337kN.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
For block shear failure of a tension member, the failure occurs along a path through the
connection involving:
1
a. Tension on one plane and shear on the other perpendicular plane.
b. Tension on the two perpendicular planes.
c. Shear on the two perpendicular planes.
d. Tension on the plane of connection and compression on the other perpendicular
plane

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Conceptual

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 10:
An ISA 100×75×10 of Fe 410 grade is connected to 12 mm gusset plate by longer leg by weld as
shown in figure. Calculate the design tensile strength due to rupture of critical section.
(All dimensions are in mm)
4

75

100 T

75

a. 221kN
b. 891kN
c. 448kN
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d. 580kN

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

A nc = (100 – 10/2)×10 = 950 mm2

A go = (75 – 10/2)× 10 = 700 mm2

The length of outstanding leg (w) = 75 mm

So, shear lag width (b s ) = 75 mm

The average length of weld along the direction of force (L c )= (75+75)/2 = 75 mm

𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
Hence, 𝛽𝛽 = 1.4 − 0.076 × 𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑡
× 𝑓𝑓
𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢

= 1.4 – 0.076×(75/75)× (75/10)×(250/410) = 1.052

T dn = (0.9×410×950/1.25) + (1.052×250×700/1.1) = 448kN

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 6
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 13 Total mark:20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
Gusset plates are designed to resist:
1
a. Direst stress
b. Flexural stress
c. Shear stress
d. All of the above

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:Conceptual

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
Calculate the number of M20, grade 4.6 bolts required for the connection of the member OC as
shown below in the figure. Thickness of gusset plate = 12 mm, assume pitch and end distance
50 mm and 35 mm respectively:
4

140 kN
160 kN
ISA 90×75×8
D
C ISA 90×60×6

500 kN 250 kN
A O B
2- ISA 100×75×8
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a. 3
b. 5
c. 4
d. 6

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Shear strength of M20 bolts in single shear

𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
(𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 +𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) (400/√3)×(1×245)
√3
= = = 45.3 × 103 N = 45.3 kN
𝛾𝛾 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1.25

Shear strength of M20 bolts in double shear = 45.3 × 2 = 90.6 kN.

Assuming pitch and end distance 50 mm and 35 mm respectively.
k b = 35/(3 × 22), 50/(3 × 22) - 0.25, 400/410, 1 = 0.505
Force in member, OC = 160kN
Bearing strength of bolts on 8 mm thick angle = 2.5 × d × t × k b × f ub /γ mb
= 2.5 × 20 × 8 × 0.505 × 400/1.25 = 64.6 × 103 N = 64.6kN
Strength of angle per pitch length =
0.9×𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 ×𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 0.9×410×[(50−22)×8]
𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = = 66.12 × 103 N
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 1 1.25
= 66.12 kN
So the bolt value = 45.3kN (i.e., lesser of 45.3 kN, 64.6 kN and 66.12 kN)
No. of bolts required = 160/45.3 = 3.53 ≈ 4
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
Calculate the length of the gusset plate required to connect the member OD with M16, grade
4.6 bolts.Thickness of gusset plate = 10 mm, assume pitch and end distance 40 mm and 30 mm
respectively:
4
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125 kN
160 kN
ISA 90×75×8
D
C 2- ISA 75×60×6

500 kN 250 kN
A O B
2- ISA 100×75×8

a. 120 mm
b. 140 mm
c. 240 mm
d. 160 mm

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Shear strength of M20 bolts in single shear

𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
(𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 +𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ) (400/√3)×(1×157)
√3
= = = 45.3 × 103 N = 29kN
𝛾𝛾 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1.25

Shear strength of M20 bolts in double shear = 29 × 2 = 58kN.

Assuming pitch and end distance 40 mm and 30 mm respectively.
k b = 30/(3 × 18), 40/(3 × 18) - 0.25, 400/410, 1 = 0.49
Force in member, OD = 125kN
Bearing strength of bolts on 10 mm thick gusset plate = = 2.5 × d × t × k b × f ub /γ mb
= 2.5 × 16 × 10 × 0.49 × 400/1.25 = 62.72 × 103 N = 62.72kN
Strength of angle per pitch length =
0.9×𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 ×𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 0.9×410×[(40−18)×10]
𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = = 64.94 × 103 N
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 1 1.25
= 64.94kN
So the bolt value = 58kN (i.e., lesser of 58 kN, 62.72 kN and 64.94 kN)
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No. of bolts required = 125/58 = 2.15 ≈ 3

Length of the gusset plate required = 2×40 + 2×30 = 140 mm
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
In case of angle sections, how much excess force in above the force in outstanding leg of the
angle, lug angles and their connection to gusset plate should capable to develop:
1

a. 10%
b. 30%
c. 20%
d. 40%

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Conceptual

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
The compressive member in a roof truss or bracing is called:
1

a. Stanchion
b. Strut
c. Boom
d. Beam

Correct Answer:b

Detailed Solution:Lecture No- 29, Slide no- 2

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
For very short compression member:
1

a. failure stress will be greater than yield stress

b. failure stress will be less than yield stress
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c. failure stress will equal yield stress

d. failure stress will be twice the yield stress

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:Lecture No- 29, Slide no- 5

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
Effective length of compression member is:
1

a. distance between ends of members

b. distance between end point and midpoint of member
c. distance between points of contraflexure
d. distance between end point and centroid of member

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:

Explanation: Effective length of compression member is distance between points of

contraflexure. It should be derived from actual length and end conditions.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
The effective length of a structural steel compression member of length L effectively held in
position and restrained against rotation at one end but neither held in position nor restrained
against rotation at the other end, is:
1

a. L
b. 1.2L
c. 1.5L
d. 2L

Correct Answer:d

Detailed Solution:Table 11, IS 800: 2007.

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______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
The design compressive stress of an axially loaded compression member in IS: 800-2007 is given
by:
1

a. Rankine formula
b. Secant formula
c. Merchant Rankine formula
d. Perry Robertson formula
Correct Answer:d

Detailed Solution:Lecture no - 30, Slide no – 4.

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 10:
The maximum slenderness ratio for a steel member carrying compressive loads resulting from
dead loads and imposed loads is:
1

a. 145
b. 180
c. 350
d. 400

Correct Answer:b

Detailed Solution:Table 3, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 11:
For hollow section (hot rolled) the following curve is used for buckling:
1
a. Curve A
b. CurveB
c. Curve C
d. CurveD
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Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Table 10, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 12:
The imperfection factor (α) for buckling class ‘c’ as per IS 800:2007 is:
1

a. 0.21
b. 0.34
c. 0.49
d. 0.76

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:Table 7, IS 800: 2007.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 13:
A compression member has a centre to centre length of 4.0 m. It is fixed at one end and hinged
at the other end. The effective length of the column is:
2

a. 4.0 m
b. 3.2 m
c. 2.8 m
d. 2.0 m

Correct Answer:b

Detailed Solution:

Le = 0.8×4 = 3.2 m (Table 11, IS 800:2007)

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 7
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 10 Total mark:20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
The buckling class for angle section about any axis is:
1
a. a
b. b
c. c
d. d
Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Table 10, IS 800:2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
Why is built up section used?

1
a. to sustain seismic loads only
b. for aesthetic appearance
c. used when rolled section do not furnish required sectional area
d. for resisting bending moment
Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Size and shape of rolled sections are limited because of limitation of rolling mills. When rolled
section do not furnish required sectional area or when special shape or large radius of gyration is
required in two different direction, a built up section is used.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
The best double angle compression member section is:
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1
a. equal angles on same side of gusset plate
b. unequal angles with long legs back to back
c. unequal angles with short legs back to back
d. equal angles on opposite sides of gusset plate
Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

See example of lecture 33.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
When the single angle is loaded concentrically through one leg of its legs, the equivalent
slenderness ratio as per IS 800: 2007 is:
1

a. 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘𝑘3 𝜆𝜆2𝜙𝜙

b. 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝜆𝜆2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘𝑘3 𝜆𝜆2𝜙𝜙

c. 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝜆𝜆2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘𝑘3 𝜆𝜆𝜙𝜙

d. 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘𝑘3 𝜆𝜆𝜙𝜙

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Clause 7.5.1.2 of IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
The yield stress ratio (ε) of Fe 410 grade of steel is
1
a. 0.25
b. 0.5
c. 0.75
d. 1
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Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

For Fe 410 steel,f y = 250 MPa

250 250
Yield stress ratio, 𝜀𝜀 = � 𝑓𝑓 = �250 = 1
𝑦𝑦

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
The value of design compressive strength is limited to:
1
a. f y + γ m0
b. fy
c. f y × γ m0
d. f y / γ m0
Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

The value of design compressive strength is given by f cd = [f y / γ m0 ] / [φ + (φ2-λ2)0.5] ≤ f y / γ m0

i.e. f cd should be less than or equal to f y / γ m0 .

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
A column section with a buckling class ‘c’, has a minimum radius of gyration of 35.4 mm. The
effective length of the column is 2.275 m. The design compressive stress for f y =250 MPa (as per
IS 800: 2007) will be:
2
2
a. 180.5 N/mm
b. 168.3 N/mm2
c. 161.2 N/mm2
d. 152.2 N/mm2
Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:
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Slenderness ratio, l e = 2275/35.4 = 64.265

From table 9 (c) of IS 800:2007, f cd = 168-(168-152)/10×4.265=161.176 N/mm2

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
An ISA 130×130×10 used as a strut has the length between the intersections at each end as 3.5
m and the yield stress f y = 250 MPa. If it is connected with gusset plate by two bolts at each end
(assume fixed condition), then the equivalent slenderness ratio will be:
4
a. 1.03
b. 1.21
c. 1.34
d. 1.62

Correct Answer:b

Detailed Solution:

For ISA 130×130×10, A = 2506 mm2, [Table III, SP: 6(1)-1964]

r vv = 25.4 mm b 1 = b 2 = 130 mm t = 10 mm

For angle sections, buckling curve ‘c’ is used. [Table 10, IS 800:2007]

Imperfection factor, α = 0.49 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

Assuming fixed conditions, for two bolts at each end,

k 1 = 0.20, k 2 = 0.35, k 3 = 20 [Table 12, IS 800:2007]

c/c length, l = 3500 mm

Yield stress ratio, 𝜀𝜀 = �(250/𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 ) = �(250/250) = 1

(𝑙𝑙/𝑟𝑟𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ) 3500 /25.4 137.7953

𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = = = = 1.551
𝜀𝜀�(𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸/250) 1×�(𝜋𝜋 2 ×2×10 5 )/250 88.858

(𝑏𝑏1 +𝑏𝑏2 )/2𝑡𝑡 (130+130)/(2×10)

𝜆𝜆𝜙𝜙 = = = 0.1463
𝜀𝜀�(𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸/250) 1×�(𝜋𝜋 2 ×2×10 5 )/250

Now the equivalent slenderness ratio, 𝜆𝜆𝑒𝑒 = �(𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝜆𝜆2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘𝑘3 𝜆𝜆2𝜙𝜙 )
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= �(0.20 + 0.35 × 1.5512 + 20 × 0.14632 )

= 1.212

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
A discontinuous strut of length 3.2 m (L) consists of two unequal angles ISA 100×75×8 and is
connected to a 12 mm thick gusset plate by its longer leg on opposite side of the gusset plate.
Whereas the effective length (KL) of the double angle strut is 0.85L. Assume steel of grade Fe
410.The strength of the strut will be:
Relevant properties of ISA 100×75×8:
A= 1336 mm2, r x = 31.4 mm, r y = 21.8 mm, r u = 34.8 mm
r v = 15.9 mm, C x = 31.0 mm, C y = 18.7 mm, I x = 131.6×104 mm4,
I y = 63.3×104 mm4
4

a. 258.5 kN
b. 300.5 kN
c. 336.9kN
d. 436.9kN

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:

For double angle struts

𝐴𝐴′ = 2×1336 = 2672 mm2

𝑟𝑟𝑥𝑥′ = 31.4 mm (same as for single angle)

2
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦′ = 2 �𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 + 𝐴𝐴�𝑐𝑐𝑦𝑦 + 𝑡𝑡𝑔𝑔 /2� �

= 2 × [63.3×104 + 1336 × (18.7 + 12/2)2 ]

= 289.62×104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚4

𝐼𝐼 ′ 289.62×10 4
𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦′ = �𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦′ = � = 32.92 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2672

Thus, r min = 31.4 mm

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Effective Length, 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = 0.85 𝑙𝑙 = 0.85 × 3.2 = 2.72 𝑚𝑚

𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒
Slenderness Ratio, λ = 𝑟𝑟
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

2.72 × 1000
= 31.4
= 86.62 < 180 [Table 3, IS 800 2007]

Buckling class for angle section – ‘c’ [Table 10, IS 800:2007]

For 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 = 250 MPa and 𝜆𝜆 = 86.62 and buckling class c, using Table 9(c) of IS 800:2007, we
have
(136−121)
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 136 − × 6.62 = 126.07 MPa
10

Hence strength of the member = 126.07 × 2672 × 10−3

= 336.86 𝑘𝑘𝑁𝑁

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 10:
Determine the design axial load on the column section ISMB 400, given that the height of the
column is 3.0 m and is pin-ended. Also assume the following:
2 2 5 2
𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦 = 250 N/mm , 𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢 =410 N/mm ; E = 2×10 N/mm :
4

a. 4035 kN
b. 855 kN
c. 1102 kN
d. 1775 kN

Correct Answer:b

Detailed Solution:

Properties of ISMB 400 [Table I,SP: 6(1)-1964]

Depth of section, h = 400 mm

Flange thickness, 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓 = 16 mm
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Thickness of web, 𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤 = 8.9 mm

Flange width, b = 140 mm

Cross-sectional area, A = 7846 mm2

𝑟𝑟 𝑧𝑧 = 161.5 mm, 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦 = 28.2 mm

a) Buckling curve classification (Table 10, IS 800:2007):

ℎ/𝑏𝑏=400/140=2.86 >1.2; 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓 =16 mm<40 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Hence, we should use buckling curve ‘a’ about z-z axis and ‘b’ about y-y axis.

b) Effective length:

Since both ends are pinned effective length, 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑦𝑦 =𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑧𝑧 =3.0𝑚𝑚 = 3000 mm

c) Non-dimensional slenderness ratio (7.1.2.1 of IS 800:2007):

About z-z axis: 𝛼𝛼=0.21 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 2
𝜆𝜆𝑧𝑧 = �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 /𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 � � /(𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸)
𝑟𝑟𝑧𝑧

3000 2
= �250 × �161.5� /(𝜋𝜋 2 × 2 × 105 )

=0.209

Now

𝜙𝜙 = 0.5[1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝜆𝜆 − 0.2) + 𝜆𝜆2 ]

= 0.5[1 + 0.21(0.209 − 0.2) + 0.2092 ]

= 0.523

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 /𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚0
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝜙𝜙 + [𝜙𝜙 2 − 𝜆𝜆2 ]0.5

250/1.1
=
0.523 + [0.523𝟐𝟐 − 0.209𝟐𝟐 ]𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
= 226.72 N/mm2
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About y-y axis: 𝛼𝛼 = 0.34 [Table 7, IS 800:2007]

2
𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦
𝜆𝜆𝑌𝑌 = �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 /𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 � � /(𝜋𝜋 2 𝐸𝐸)
𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦

3000 2
= �250 × � 28.2 � /(𝜋𝜋 2 × 2 × 105 )

= 1.197

𝜙𝜙 = 0.5[1 + 0.34(1.197 − 0.2) + 1.1972 ] = 1.386

250/1.1
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = 109.02N/mm2
1.386+[1.386 2 −1.197 2 ]0.5

d) Design stresses:

About zz direction, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 226.72 N/mm2

About yy direction, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 109.02 N/mm2

Hence, design axial compressive stress, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 109.02 N/mm2

The design strength,

𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑 = 7846 × 109.02 × 10−3

= 855.37 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 8
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 10 Total mark:17
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
What is the maximum allowable slenderness ratio of lacing bars in built-up columns?

1
a. 200
b. 180
c. 145
d. 110
Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Clause 7.6.6.3, IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
The thickness of the lacing bar for double lacing should not be less than:

1
th
a. 1/30 of effective length of the lacing bar
b. 1/40th of effective length of the lacing bar
c. 1/50th of effective length of the lacing bar
d. 1/60th of effective length of the lacing bar
Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:Lecture 36, Slide No- 13

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
In single lacing system the angle of inclination of lacing bar to the axis of the member should be
in the range of:
1
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a. 5° to 15°
b. 15° to 40°
c. 40° to 70°
d. 70° to 105°
Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:Lecture 36, Slide 13

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
Battens provided for a compression member shall be designed to carry a transverse shear equal
to:
1

a. 2.5% of axial force in the member

b. 5% of axial force in the member
c. 10% of axial force in the member
d. 15% of axial force in the member
Correct Answer:a

Detailed Solution:Clause 7.7.2.1, IS 800: 2007.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
Thickness of batten plates shall be:
1

a. not less than 1/50th of distance between innermost connecting transverse

bolts/rivets
b. less than 1/50th of distance between innermost connecting transverse
bolts/rivets
c. less than 1/60th of distance between innermost connecting transverse
bolts/rivets
d. less than 1/80th of distance between innermost connecting transverse
bolts/rivets

Correct Answer:a
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Detailed Solution:Clause 7.7.2.3 of IS 800: 2007

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
In a laced column 20 mm diameter bolts are used for the connection. In that case, the minimum
width of the lacing flat should be:
2

a. 10 mm
b. 20 mm
c. 40 mm
d. 60 mm

Correct Answer:d

Detailed Solution:

As per clause 7.6.2, IS 800:2007

The minimum width of lacing flat = 3d (where d is the nominal diameter of bolt)

So, the minimum width of lacing flat = 3×20 = 60 mm

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
A laced column 10 m long is carrying a factored axial load of 1000 kN. The column is restrained
in position but not in direction at both the ends. Two ISMC 250 @298.2 N/m (r zz = 99.4 mm, r yy
= 23.8 mm) are placed back-to-back in a distance such that slenderness ratio about both the
direction becomes equal. The effective length of the laced column will be:
2

a. 10 m
b. 10.5 m
c. 11.0 m
d. 12.5 m

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:
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Depending upon the end condition, the effective length of the column, L e = 1×10 =10 m

The effective length of the laced column = 1.05×10 = 10.5 m

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
A steel column in a multistoried building carries an axial load of 400 kN. It is built up of two
ISMC 300 channels connected by lacing. The lacing carries a load of:
2

a. 4 kN
b. 10 kN
c. 12 KN
d. 15 kN

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

As per clause 7.6.6.1 of IS 800:2007,

2.5
𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡 = 100 × 400 = 10kN

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
Two ISMC 350 are placed back to back with a spacing of 190 mm and a single lacing system with
an inclination of lacing bar of 45° is used. If the gauge length is 50 mm, the minimum radius of
gyration of the lacing bar will be:
2

a. 1.18 mm
b. 1.54 mm
c. 2.16 mm
d. 2.96 mm

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

Length of lacing flat,𝑙𝑙 = (190 + 50 + 50)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐45° = 410.122 mm

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1
Minimum thickness of lacing flat40 × 410.122 = 10.25mm

𝑡𝑡 10.25
Minimum𝑟𝑟 = = = 2.96 mm
√12 √12

QUESTION 10:
Two ISMC 350 are placed back to back with a spacing of 200 mm and a single lacing system with
an inclination of lacing bar of 45° is used. If the gauge length is 50 mm and the grade of steel is
Fe 415, the design compressive stress of the lacing bar will be:
4

a. 74.3 MPa
b. 85.6 MPa
c. 67.3 MPa
d. 96.4 MPa

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Length of lacing flat,𝑙𝑙 = (200 + 50 + 50)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐45° = 424.26 mm

1
Minimum thickness of lacing flat40 × 424.26 = 10.61 mm

𝑡𝑡 10.61
Minimum𝑟𝑟 = = = 3.06 mm
√12 √12

424.26
Now l/r of the lacing bar = 3.06
= 138.65 < 145

For 𝑙𝑙/𝑟𝑟= 138.65, 𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦 =250 MPa and buckling class c, the design compressive stress from Table 9c
of IS 800: 2007
74.3−66.2
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 74.3 − 10
× 8.65 = 67.29MPa

__________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 9
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 7 Total marks:16
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
In a building, a beam on the outside perimeter of a floor, supporting the exterior walls, is called:
1
a. Girt
b. Rafter
c. Lintel
d. Spandrel beam

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:Slide No. 05, Lecture 45

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
Joist is:
1
a. used to carry roof loads in trusses.
b. a closely spaced beams supporting floors or roofs of building but not supporting
the other beams.
c. used to support stair steps.
d. a roof beam usually supported by purlins.

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:Slide No. 04, Lecture 45

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
Two ISMC 300 are placed back-to-back to make a battened column. If the distance between the
innermost connecting welds for batten is 250 mm, the required thickness of the batten should
be:
2
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a. 2 mm
b. 3 mm
c. 4 mm
d. 5 mm

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

As per clause 7.7.2.3, IS 800:2007

The minimum thickness of batten plate = (1/50) ×250= 5 mm

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
Two ISMC 350 (h = 350 mm, b = 100 mm) are placed back-to-back with a spacing of 200 mm. If
batten plates are used to make the built-up column by bolted connection, then length of batten
should be:
2
a. 200 mm
b. 300 mm
c. 350 mm
d. 400 mm

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

For ISMC 350; width (b) = 100 mm

So length of the batten = S + b = 200 +2×100 = 400 mm

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
A batten column is carrying a factored load of 1000 kN. Two channel section are placed back to
back with a spacing of 200 mm. Assume gauge length of 50 mm and number of parallel plane of
batten as 2. If the spacing of battens, C = 1200 mm, longitudinal shear and moment on the
batten are:
4
a. 7.5 kN and 50 kN-m
b. 50 kN and 7.5 kN-m
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c. 5.5 kN and 70 kN-m

d. 70 kN and 5.5 kN-m

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:
2.5
Transverse shear, 𝑉𝑉 = 100 × 1000 = 25 kN
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Longitudinal shear, 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

Given, C = 1200 mm
Number of parallel planes of batten, N = 2
Minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the bolt/weld group,
S = (200 + 50×2) = 300 mm
25×1200
Therefore, 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙 = 2×300
= 50 kN
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 25×1200
Moment, 𝑀𝑀 = 2𝑁𝑁 = 2×2
= 7500 kN-mm = 7.5 kN-m

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
The cross-sectional area of the splice plate is calculated by:
1
𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 1 +𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 2
a. c/s area =
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 1 −𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 2
b. c/s area =
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 1 ×𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 2
c. c/s area =
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 1 /𝑃𝑃𝑢𝑢 2
d. c/s area =
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution: Slide No. 07, Lecture 43

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
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A column ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m is to support a factored load of 1080 kN. The column section is
to be spliced at a height of 2.0 m. Steel of grade Fe 410 is used. Assume the thickness of the
splice as 6 mm. Assume the ends of the column sections are to be machined for complete
bearing.If 20mm diameter bolts of grade 4.6 is used for the connection, number of bolts
required:
5
a. 3
b. 6
c. 9
d. 12

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:
1080
The load on the splice plate and connection = 4
= 270 kN
𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Design shear strength, 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = × 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 × 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
√3×𝛾𝛾 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

400
= × 1 × 245 × 10−3 = 45.26 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
√3 × 1.25
e = 1.5 d h = 1.5×22 = 33 mm
p = 2.5 d = 2.5×20 = 50 mm
𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 is smaller of
𝑒𝑒 33 𝑝𝑝 50
�3𝑑𝑑 = 3×22 = 0.5� , �3𝑑𝑑 − 0.25 = 3×22 − 0.25 = 0.51�,
ℎ ℎ

𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 400
� = 410 = 0.98� and 1.0
𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢

Hence 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 = 0.5

410
Strength in bearing = 2.5 × 0.5 × 20 × 6 × 1.25 × 10−3 = 49.2 kN

∴ Bolt value = 45.26 kN

Number of bolts required = 270/45.26 = 5.96 ≈ 6
______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 10
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 10 Total mark:20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
The maximum deflection in the beam (shown in figure) is:
(E = Modulus of elasticity, I = Moment of inertia)
1
W

a. WL3/192EI
b. 5WL3/584EI
c. WL3/48EI
d. WL3/384EI

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 16, Lecture 46

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
What is the effective length of a beam if compression flange partially restrained against lateral
bending and partially free to rotate in plane at the bearings?
(Span of the beam = L)
1
a. 0.65L
b. 0.8L
c. 0.85L
d. 0.9L
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Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 16, Lecture 46

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
What is the shear area of a rectangular hollow section if it is loaded parallel to width?
(b = width of I-section flanges, h = overall depth of the section, A = cross-section area)
1
a. Ab/(b+h)
b. Ah/(b+h)
c. A
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Cl. 8.4.1.1, IS 800-2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
What is the effective depth of the web in case of web buckling if it is not restrained against
rotation and lateral deflection?
(depth of web = d 1 )
1
a. d 1 /5
b. d1
c. 2d 1
d. None of the above

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 9, Lecture 47

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
Design bending strength of a simply supported beam should be less than:
1
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a. 1.4Z e f y /γ m0
b. 1.2Z e f y /γ m0
c. Z e f y /γ m0
d. 1.5Z e f y /у m0

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 3, Lecture 47

____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
A proposed cantilever beamsupports a dead load of 18 kN/m and live load 10 kN/m. The length
of the beam is 4.5 m. Which of the section from the following is the most suitable trial section?
4
a. ISHB 350
b. ISHB 300
c. ISHB 400
d. ISHB 450

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

Step 1: Calculation ofload

Dead load = 1.5 × 18 = 27 kN/m
Live load = 1.5 × 10 = 15 kN/m
Total load = (27 + 15) = 42 kN/m
Step 2: Calculation of BM and SF
𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙 2 42×4.52
BM = = = 425.25 kN-m
2 2
SF = w×l = 42×4.5 = 189 kN
Step 3: Choosing a trial section
𝑀𝑀×𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 0 425×10 6 ×1.1
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = = 1871.1×103 mm3
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 250
The most suitable trial section is ISHB 450 with Zp = 1955.03×103 mm3

_____________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 7:
What is the design shear strength of ISHB 250 @ 54.7 kg/m?
2
a. 188 kN
b. 460 kN
c. 289 kN
d. 921 kN

Correct Answer:c

Detailed Solution:

Design shear strength of the section,

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 250
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 = ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 = × 250 × 8.8 = 288675N = 288.67 kN
√3𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 0 √3×1.1
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
What is the web buckling strength of ISMB 250 @ 37.3 kg/m (assume bearing width 100 mm)?
5
a. 123 kN
b. 157 kN
c. 194 kN
d. 236 kN

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

Check for web buckling

Cross sectional area of web for buckling 𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏 = (𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑛𝑛1 )𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤
b 1 = 100 mm
n 1 = 250/2 = 125 mm
A b = (100 + 125) × 6.9
= 1552.5 mm2
Effective length of the web = 0.7 × d = 0.7 × 199 = 139.3 mm [d = 250 – 2×(13+12.5) = 199
mm]
𝑏𝑏×𝑡𝑡 3 100×6.93
𝐼𝐼 = 12𝑤𝑤 = 12 = 2737.57 mm3
A = 100 × 6.9 = 690 mm2
2737.57
𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = �
690
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= 1.99 mm
𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 139.3
𝜆𝜆 = = = 70
𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1.99
Allowable stress = 152 N/mm2 (from Table 9(c), IS 800: 2007)
Capacity of the section against web buckling, = 152 × 1552.5 = 236 kN
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
What is the web crippling strength of ISLB 250 @ 27.9 kg/m (assume bearing width 100 mm)?
be:
3
a. 310.2 kN
b. 212.1 kN
c. 110.9 kN
d. 450.3 kN

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Check for web crippling

(𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) × 𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 × 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 =
𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚0
n 2 = 2.5 (R + t f ) = 2.5×(13 + 8.2) = 53 mm
(100+53)×6.1×250
𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 = 1.1
= 212113N = 212.11 kN
____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 10:
What is the imperfection factor for lateral torsional buckling of beams for rolled steel sections?
1
a. 0.20
b. 0.25
c. 0.21
d. 0.35

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Slide no. 3, Lecture 51

______________________________________________________________________________
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************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 11
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 9 Total mark: 20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
What is the bending stress reduction factor (X LT ) to account for lateral torsion buckling for a
welded steel section if the slenderness ratio, λ LT =1.1 ?
2
a. 0.42
b. 0.55
c. 0.48
d. 0.53

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

∅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.5[1 + 𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝜆𝜆𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 0.2) + 𝜆𝜆2𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ]

∅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.5[1 + 0.49 × (1.1 − 0.2) + 1.12 ] = 1.325
1 1
Χ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = 0.484
2
∅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + �𝜑𝜑𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 𝜆𝜆2𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 1.325 + √1.3252 − 1.12
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
Determine the plastic section modulus of ISLB 400 @ 56.9 kg/m about the strong axis and weak
axis. (Neglect the fillets).
4
a. 1080 cm3 , 176 cm3
b. 1699 cm3, 258 cm3
c. 1778 cm3, 350 cm3
d. 176 cm3, 1080 cm3

Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:
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𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 (𝐷𝐷 − 2𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 )2

𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 �𝐷𝐷 − 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 � +
4
Z pz = 165×12.5×(400 – 12.5) + 8×(400-2×12.5)2/4 = 799.22×103 + 281.25×103 = 1080.47×103
mm3 =1080.47 cm3
𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑓𝑓2 (ℎ − 2𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 )𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤2
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = +
2 4
12.5 × 1652 (400 − 2 × 12.5) × 82
= +
2 4
3
= 176.15 cm
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
A beam of length 6 m is carrying a load 12 kN/m. ISLB 350 @49.5 kg/m3is selected after design
procedure. What is the maximum deflection in the beamconsidering bending in strong axis?
(neglect self-weight)
2
a. 8.5 mm
b. 9.2 mm
c. 7.7 mm
d. 4.5 mm

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

I xx = 13200 × 104 mm4 [SP: 16]

5𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙 4 5×12×6000 4
𝛿𝛿 = 384𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 384×2×10 5 ×13200 ×10 4 = 7.67 mm

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
The required plastic section modulus of anangle section purlin is generally calculated by,
1
𝑀𝑀
a. 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 1.33×0.66×𝑓𝑓
𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀
b. 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 1.5×𝑓𝑓
𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀
c. 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓
𝑦𝑦

d. None of the above

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Correct Answer: a

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 11, Lecture 54

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
A proposed simply supported beam is built into a concrete wall. It supports a dead load of 18
kN/m and a live load 12 kN/m. The length of the beam is 5 m. But the beam depth is restricted
to 300 mm, so ISMB 250 @ 37.3 kg/m has been chosen as beam section. Calculate the
minimum width of the plate that has to be connected to both flanges if the thickness of the
plates is 8 mm. (Neglect deflection check and self-weight)
4
a. 60 mm
b. 80 mm
c. 100 mm
d. 120 mm

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Dead load = 1.5 × 18 = 27 kN/m

Live load = 1.5 × 12 = 18 kN/m
Total load = (27 + 18) = 45 kN/m
𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙 2 45×52
BM = = = 140.625 kN-m
8 8
𝑀𝑀×𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 0 140.625×10 6 ×1.1
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = = 618.75×103 mm3
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 250
Properties of ISMB 250 @ 37.3 kg/m
3
Z pz = 465.71 cm
3 3
Additional plastic section modulus to be provided by the plate = (618.75×10 – 465.71×10 ) =
3 3
153.04 × 10 mm
Thickness of the plate is 8 mm
Thus, the total depth of the beam = 250+16 = 266 mm.
Distance between the c/c of the plates = 258 mm.
3 2
So, required area of plate = 153.04 × 10 /258 = 593.17 mm
Thus the width of plate = 593.17/8 = 74.14 mm ≅ 80 mm

____________________________________________________________________________
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QUESTION 6:
What is the additional vertical impact load for hand operated cranes?
1
a. 20% of the maximum static wheel load
b. 1% of the maximum static wheel load
c. 5% of the maximum static wheel load
d. 10% of the maximum static wheel load

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 4, Lecture 56

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
What is the IS 875 recommendation for lateral loads for electric operated cranes?
1
a. 50% of the total weight including lifted weight and trolley weight.
b. 12% of the total weight including lifted weight and trolley weight.
c. 10% of the total weight including lifted weight and trolley weight.
d. 20% of the total weight including lifted weight and trolley weight.

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 5, Lecture 56

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
An industrial building is to support a galvanized iron sheet roof for the following data:
Slope of truss = 30°
Spacing of truss c/c = 6.0 m
spacing of purlins c/c = 2.5 m
wind speed = 40 m/s
Weight of galvanized sheets = 110 N/m2
Dead load of purlin = 120 N/m
Calculate the magnitude of the factored bending moment due to normal load.
4
a. 8 kN-m
b. 11 kN-m
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c. 15 kN-m
d. 17kN-m

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

For steel of grade Fe 410: f y = 250 MPa

Weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets = 110 × 2.5 = 275 N/m
Dead load of purlin = 120 N/m
Total dead load = 275 + 120 = 395 N/m.
The dead load acts vertically downwards.
The component of dead load normal to roof = 395cos30° = 342 N/m
Wind pressure, 𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧=0.6𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧2 = 0.6×402=960 N/m2
Wind load is assumed to act normal to the roof.
Wind load = 960×2.5×1 = 2400 N/m
Total load on purlin normal to roof = 2400+342 = 2742 N/m
Factored load normal to roof, P = 1.5×2742 = 4113 N/m
Factored bending moment = PL/10 = (4113×6)×6/10 = 14806 N-m ≅ 14.8 kN-m

_____________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 9:
What is the permissible deflection of the gantry girder (span = L) for electric operated cranes
with a weight more than 50t ?
1
a. L/500
b. L/1000
c. L/750
d. L/250

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:Slide no. 6, Lecture 56

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
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Design of Steel Structures

Assignment- Week 12
TYPE OF QUESTION: MCQ/MSQ
Number of questions: 8 Total mark: 20
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 1:
Calculate the factored load transferred to the gantry girder through single wheel.
Span of crane girder = 20 m
Self-weight of crane girder excluding trolley = 200 kN
Crane capacity = 250 kN
Self-weight of trolley, hook and electric motor = 50 kN
Minimum hook approach = 1.5 m
2

a. 378 kN
b. 189 kN
c. 283 kN
d. 200 kN

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Weight of trolley + lifted load = 50+250 = 300 kN

Self-weight of the crane = 200 kN

RA = (300 × 18.5)/20 + 200/2 = 377.5 kN

Factored load to the single wheel = (377.5/2) × 1.5 = 283 kN

300 kN

1.5 m 200 kN

20 m

RA RB
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______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 2:
The span of a gantry girder = 6 m (Hand Operated Crane). The factored load of a single wheel =
250 kN. The distance between two wheels = 3 m. What is the maximum factored moment due
to vertical loads including impact? (Neglect self-weight of girder)
4
a. 500 kN
b. 321 kN
c. 421 kN
d. 464 kN

Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution:

250 kN 250 kN
1.5 m 1.5 m
0.75 m 2.25 m

3m 3m

RA 6m RB

RB = {(250×0.75) +250×(3+0.75)}/6 = 187.5 kN

Max ME = 187.5×2.25 = 421.87 kNm

Moment due to impact = 0.1 × 421.87 = 42.18 kNm

Max. factored moment due to all loads = 421.87 + 42.18 = 464 kNm
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 3:
The most suitable and economic base for lightly loaded column is:
1
a. Slab base
b. Gusseted base
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of this

Correct Answer: a
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Detailed Solution: Slide no-4, Lecture no- 59

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 4:
In case of an axially loaded column machined for full bearing, the fasteners connecting the
column to the base plate in gusseted base are designed for
1

a. Erection loads only

b. 25% of the column load
c. 50% of the column load
d. 100% of the column load
Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution: See lecture no 63, slide no-10.

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 5:
As per IS 800: 2007 the maximum bearing pressure between the base plate and the support
below should not exceed:

1
a. 0.40 fck
b. 0.45 fck
c. 0.50 fck
d. 0.60 fck
Correct Answer: d

Detailed Solution: Clause 7.4.1 of IS 800: 2007

______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 6:
A column ISHB 350 @ 710.2 N/m (tf = 11.6 mm, tw = 10.1 mm, D = 350 mm, bf = 250 mm) is
subjected to a factored axial compressive load of 1400 kN. A base rest on concrete pedestal of
grade M 25 as shown in the figure. The thickness of the slab will be
4
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a. 12 mm
b. 14 mm
c. 16 mm
d. 18 mm

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:

Properties of ISHB 350 @710.2 N/m:

tf = 11.6 mm, tw = 10.1 mm, D = 350 mm, bf = 250 mm
1400
Required area for slab base, 𝐴 = 0.45×25 = 124.44 × 103 mm2

Length of the base plate, L = 350 + 2×50 = 450 mm

Breadth of the base plate, B = 250 +100 = 350 mm
The intensity of pressure from the concrete pedestal,
1400×103
𝑤= = 8.89 N/mm2
450×350

2.5𝑤
Thickness of the slab, 𝑡𝑠 = √ (𝑎2 − 0.3𝑏 2 )𝛾𝑚0
𝑓𝑦

2.5×8.89
=√ (502 − 0.3 × 502 ) × 1.1
250

= 13.08 mm
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 7:
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A column section carries a factor axial compressive load of 1000 kN and factored bending
moment of 100 kN-m. If a square base plate having 400 mm sides is provided, then the base
plate will experience
3
a. compression throughout
b. most part is in under compression
c. part of the plate will be in compression with substantial tension.
d. none of this

Correct Answer: b

Detailed Solution:
𝑀 100×106
Eccentricity, 𝑒 = = 1000×103 = 100 mm
𝑃
𝑒 100 1
Now, = 400 = 4
𝐿
𝐿 𝐿
Therefore <𝑒<3
6

So most part of the base plate will be in compression with negligible tension on the remaining
part.
______________________________________________________________________________

QUESTION 8:
A column carries a factor axial compressive load of 1200 kN and factored bending moment of
70 kN-m. If a base plate with the length of 400 mm and width of 500 mm is provided, then the
maximum and minimum pressure experienced by the plate will be
4
2
a. 12.2 N/mm and 7.2 N/mm 2

b. 7.2 N/mm2 and 2.2 N/mm2

c. 10.2 N/mm2 and 1.8 N/mm2
d. 12.2 N/mm2 and 10.2 N/mm2

Correct Answer: c

Detailed Solution:

Area of the base plate, 𝐴 = 400 × 500 = 200 × 103 mm2

Section modulus of the base plate,
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400×5002
𝑍𝑒 = = 16.67 × 106 mm3
6

Maximum pressure,
𝑃 𝑀 1200×103 70×106
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = + = +
𝐴 𝑍𝑒 200×103 16.67×106

= 10.2 N/mm2
Minimum pressure,
𝑃 𝑀 1200×103 70×106
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = − = −
𝐴 𝑍𝑒 200×103 16.67×106

= 1.8 N/mm2

______________________________________________________________________________

************END*******
To
 ABOUT CONNECTIONS IN STEEL FRAME BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION

 In current construction practice, steel members are joined by either

bolting or welding. When fabricating steel for erection, most connections

have the connecting material attached to one member in the fabrication

shop and the other members attached in the field during erection.

This helps simplify shipping and makes erection faster.

Welding that may be required on a connection is preferably performed in

the more-easily controlled environment of the fabrication shop. If a

connection is bolted on one side and welded on the other, the welded side

will usually be the shop connection and the bolted connection will be the

field connection.
FIG. 1 BASIC FORCE TRANSFERS IN CONNECTION
FIG. 2 EXAMPLE OF TRANSFER OF TENSILE OR
COMPRESSIVE AXIAL MEMBER FORCE
FIG. 3 EXAMPLE OF TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCE
FIG. 4 EXAMPLE OF TRANSFER OF LOCAL
TENSILE FORCE
FIG. 5 EXAMPLE OF TRANSFER OF LOCAL
COMPRESSIVE FORCE
FIG. 6 EXAMPLE OF TRANSFER OF SHEAR FORCE
THROUGH A SHEAR PANEL
•The principal structural requirement of a connection is that it be
capable of safely transferring load from the supported members
to the supporting member.
•The above requirement implies that three properties of the
connection needs to be considered: strength, stiffness and
deformation capacity.
•Beam-to-column connections can be classified by their stiffness
as nominally pinned, semi-rigid or rigid. For their capability to
transfer moments, they can be classified as nominally pinned,
partial-strength and full-strength connections.
•The analysis of connections implies the assumption of a realistic
internal distribution of forces that are in equilibrium with the
external forces, where each element is capable of transferring the
assumed force and the deformations are within the deformation
capacity of the elements.
•In the analysis of connections, a number of basic load transfers
can generally be identified.
BEAM-TO-BEAM CONNECTIONS
FIG. 7a BEAM TO BEAM CONNECTIONS
FIG. 7b BEAM TO BEAM CONNECTIONS
FIG. 7c BEAM TO BEAM CONNECTIONS
FIG. 7d BEAM TO BEAM CONNECTIONS
BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
FIG. 8a BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
FIG. 8b BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
FIG. 8c BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
FIG. 8d BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
FIG. 8e BEAM TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
FIG. 9 MODE OF FAILURE FOR FIN PLATES
COLUMN SPLICES
FIG. 10a COLUMN SPLICES
FIG. 10b COLUMN SPLICES
FIG. 10c COLUMN SPLICES
BRACING CONNECTIONS
FIG. 11a BRACING CONNECTIONS
FIG. 11b HORIZONTAL BRACING CONNECTIONS
FIG. 11c VERTICAL BRACING CONNECTIONS
COLUMN BASES
FIG. 12a COLUMN BASES
FIG. 12b COLUMN BASES
FIG. 12c ANCHORAGES OF HOLDING DOWN BOLTS
FIG. 12d ANCHORAGES OF HOLDING DOWN BOLTS
BEAM-TO-CONCRETE WALL CONNECTIONS
FIG. 13 BEAM TO CONCRETE WALL CONNECTIONS
Moment Connections
FIG. 14 TYPICAL MOMENT CONNECTIONS
FIG. 15 CRITICAL COMPONENETS IN MOMENT
CONNECTIONS
FIG. 16 STIFFENING / STRENGTHENING
POSSIBILITIES
PITCHED-ROOF PORTAL FRAME
FIG. 17 PORTAL FRAME CONNECTIONS
Horizontal Knee Connection Details
Vertical Knee Connection Details
Vertical Knee Connection (straight column)
TOP RUNNING CRANE BRACING DETAILS
UNDERHUNG CRANE BRACING
SECTION 10 CONNECTIONS - Contents
10.1 General
10.2 Fasteners spacing and edge distance
10.3 Bearing Type Bolts
10.4 Friction Grip Type Bolts
10.5 Welds and Welding
10.6 Design of Connections
10.7 Minimum Design Action on Connection
10.8 Intersections (Joints)
10.9 Choice of fasteners
10.10 Connection Components
10.11 Analysis of a Bolt/Weld Group
10.12 Lug Angles
 GENERAL OBJECTIVES AND CONTENTS

To enable the designer to complete the design without

the need to refer several other codes for simple values

• strengths of bearing and friction grip bolts

• strengths of welds for various fusion angles

• guidelines for design of splices, connections etc

• Analysis of bolt/weld groups kept simple

• guidelines for design of semi-rigid connections

10.2 Fasteners spacing and edge distance
10.2.1 Minimum Spacing - 2.5 times the nominal diameter
10.2.2 Maximum Spacing - shall not exceed 32t or 300 mm,
whichever is less, where t is thickness of the thinner plate

10.2.2.2 pitch shall not exceed 16t or 200 mm, in tension

members and 12t or 200 mm, whichever is less, in
compression members

10.2.3 Edge and End Distances minimum edge shall be not less
than that given in Table 10.1. maximum edge distance should not
exceed 12 t, where  = (250/fy)1/2

10.2.4 Tacking Fasteners spacing in line not exceeding 32t or 300

mm If exposed to the weather, 16 t or 200 mm
max. spacing in tension members 1000 mm
max. spacing in compression members 600 mm
 FORCE TRANSFER MECHANISM
(a) Bearing
Connection
T
Bearing stresses

(b) Friction
Connection
T Tension
Frictional Force in bolt
Clamping Force, T
PO T

Clamping Force,
PO

Bolt Shear Transfer – Free Body Diagram

Bolts and Bolting
Bolt Grade: Grade 4.6 :- fu = 40 kgf/mm2 and fy = 0.6*40 =
24 kgf/mm2
Bolt Types: Black, Turned & Fitted, High Strength
Friction Grip

(a) Standard (b) Oversized

(c )Short Slot (d) Long slot

Hole types for HSFG bolts

10.3 Bearing Type Bolts

Vsb 
fu
nn Anb  ns Asb  / mb
3
10.3.1.1 Reduction factor in shear for Long Joints
β lj  1.075 - (l j /200d)
but 0.75  β lj  1.0
10.3.1.2 Reduction factor in shear for Large Grip Lengths
 lg = 8 d /(3 d+lg)

10.3.2.3 Reduction factor for Packing Plates

 pk = (1 - 0.0125 tpk)
 10.3 Bearing Type Bolts

10.3.3 Bearing Capacity of bolt on any ply

Vsb = (2.5 d t fu )/ γmb

10.3.4 Tension Capacity

Tb =(0.90 fub An)/ γmb < (fyb Asb (γm1 / γm0))/ γmb

10.3.5 Bolt subjected to combined shear and tension

2 2
 V   T 
   e   1.0
V  T 
 sd   nd 
10.4 Friction Grip Type Bolting
10.4.3 Slip resistance
Vsf = (µf ne Kh Fo)/ γmf
Where,
µf = coefficient of friction (slip factor) as in Table 10.2 (µf < 0.55)
ne = number of effective interfaces offering frictional resistance to
slip
Kh = 1.0 for fasteners in clearance holes
= 0.85 for fasteners in oversized and short slotted holes
= 0.7 for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded parallel to
the slot.
γmf = 1.10 (if slip resistance is designed at service load)
γmf = 1.25 (if slip resistance is designed at ultimate load)
Fo = minimum bolt tension (proof load) at installation ( 0.8 Asb fo)
Asb = shank area of the bolt
fo = proof stress (= 0.70 fub)

Note: Vns may be evaluated at a service load or ultimate load

using appropriate partial safety factors, depending upon whether
slip resistance is required at service load or ultimate load.
TABLE 10.2 TYPICAL AVERAGE VALUES FOR
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION (µf)

Coefficient
Treatment of surface of friction
(µf)
Clean mill scale 0.33

Sand blasted surface 0.48

Red lead painted surface 0.1

 10.4 Friction Grip Type Bolting

10.4.2 Bearing capacity

Vbf = (2.2 d t fup ) / γmf < (3 d t fyp)/ / γmf

10.4.3 Tension capacity

Tf = (0.9 fu A)/ / γmf

10.4.4 Combined Shear and Tension

Reduction factor in shear for Long Joints will apply

here
10.4 Friction Grip Type Bolting
10.4.5 Prying Force

   f b t 4
l  o e 
Q v T 
2l  e 2 
e 27 l l 
 e v 

 = 2 for non-pretensioned and 1 for pretensioned

 = 1.5 for LSM
be = effective width of flange per pair of bolts

(Conti….)
10.5 Welds and Welding

10.5.1 End returns- not less than twice the size of

the weld
10.5.2 Lap joint - not less than four times the
thickness of the thinner part
10.5.3 Size of weld
10.5.4 Effective throat thickness - shall generally not
exceed 0.7t , K times the fillet size
10.5.5 Effective length or Area of weld
10.5.6 Intermittent welds - effective length of not
less than four times the weld size, with a
minimum of 40 mm,
10.5.7 weld types and quality – Confirm to IS:814
10.5.8 Design stresses in welds fwd = fu/(3) mw
(Conti….)
 10.5 Welds and Welding

10.5.8 Fillet weld applied to the edge of a plate or section

1. 5 ¼t
mm
Specifi t
ed size

(b)
(a)
Fig. 10.1 fillet welds on square edge of plate or round toe of rolled
section

a) desirable b) acceptable c) not acceptable because

because of full of reduced throat thickness
throat thickness
Fig10.2 Full size fillet weld applied to the edge of a plate or
section
10.5.9 Stresses due to Individual forces
P
fa or q =
t t lw

10.5.10 Combination of stresses

10.5.10.1 Fillet welds f
f  f 2  3q 2  u
e a 3
mw

Combined bearing, bending and shear

2 2
f = f +f + f f + 3q 2
e b br b br (Conti….)
10.6 Design of Connections
 Connections and adjacent regions of the
members shall be designed such that :
a) the design action effects distributed to various
elements shall be in equilibrium with the design
action effects on the connection,
b) the required deformations in the elements of the
connections are within their deformations
capacities,
c) all elements in the connections and the adjacent
areas of members shall be capable of resisting the
design action effects acting on them,
d) the connection elements shall remain stable
under the design action effects and deformations
10.7 Minimum Design Action on Connection

Connections carrying design action effects, shall be designed to transmit

the greater of.
a) The design action in the member; and
b) The minimum design action effects expressed either as the value or the
factor times the member design capacity for the minimum size of
member required by the strength limit state, specified as follows:

i) Connections in Rigid Construction  a bending moment of at least 0.5

times the member design moment capacity
ii) Connections to Beam in Simple Construction  a shear force of at least
0.15 times the member design shear capacity or 40 kN. Whichever is
lesser.
iii) Connections at the ends of Tensile or Compression Member  a force
of at least 0.3 times the member design capacity
iv) Splices in Members Subjected to Axial Tension  a force of at least 0.3
times the member design capacity in tension.

71
v) Splices in Members Subjected to Axial Compression –
for ends prepared for full contact – adequate fasteners
to keep line and transmit 0.15Pd
for ends not prepared for full contact – adequate
fasteners to keep line and transmit 0.3Pd and a moment
of Pd L/1000 where L= dist. bet. lat supports
vi) Splices in Flexural Members – a bending moment of 0.3
times the member design capacity in bending unless
designed to transmit shear only
vii) Splices in Members Subject to Combined Actions – a
splice in a member subject to a combination of design
axial tension or design axial compression and design
bending moment shall satisfy requirements in (iv), (v) and
(vi) above
Other details
10.8 Intersections
At a joint, the member centroidal axes shall meet at
a point, otherwise the members shall be designed
for the bending moment arising due to
eccentricity
10.9 Choice of fasteners  Use HSFG, weld or
fitted bolts to avoid slip in serviceability.When
ordinary bolts are subjected to impact or
vibration use locking devices
10.10 Connection Components  (Cleats, gusset
plates, brackets and the like) shall have their
capacities assessed using the provisions of
Sections 5,6,7,8 and 9 as applicable.
 GENERAL ISSUES IN CONNECTION DESIGN

Assumptions in traditional analysis

• Connection elements are assumed to

be rigid compared to the connectors
• Connector behavior is assumed to be T
linearly elastic V d
• Distribution of forces arrived at by C e
V
assuming idealized load paths
• Provide stiffness according to the M=
assumed behavior (A) Td (b)
• ensure adequate ductility and
Rotation capacity Standard Connections (a)
• provide adequate margin of safety moment connection (b) simple
connection
10.11 Analysis of a Bolt/Weld Group
10.11.1 Bolt/Weld Group Subject to In-plane Loading
The design force in a bolt/weld shall be determined by
a) considering the connection plates to be rigid and to rotate
relative to each other about a point known as the
instantaneous centre of rotation ICR of the group.
b) In the case of a group subject to a pure couple only, the ICR
coincides with the group centroid. In the case of in-plane
shear force applied at the group centroid, the ICR is at infinity
and the design force is uniformly distributed throughout the
group. In all other cases, either the results of independent
analyses for a pure couple alone and for an in-plane shear
force applied at the group centroid shall be superposed, or a
recognized method of analysis shall be used.
c) The design force in a bolt or design force per unit length at
any point in the group shall be assumed to act at right angles
to the radius from that point to the instantaneous centre, and
shall be taken as proportional to that radius.
 COMBINED SHEAR AND MOMENT IN PLANE

• Bolt shear due to Px and Py Rmi x’

Rxi = Px/n and Ryi = Py/n
ri P y’
• M = Px y’ + Py x’ 
• Rmi = k ri
Mi = k ri2 O
MR =  k ri2 = k  ri2
• Bolt shear due to M
Rmi=M ri/ ri2 Bolt group eccentrically
loaded in shear
Combined shear
Ri  R xi  Rmi cos  i 2  R yi  Rmi sin  i 2 
 P 
2
 
2

 x Myi P Mxi 
Ri     
y
   
 n  i i    i i  
( x 2
 y 2
) n ( x 2
 y 2
)
 10.11 Analysis of a Bolt/Weld Group

10.11.2 Bolt/Weld group Subject to Out-of-Plane Loading

The design force shall be determined by
a) The design force resulting from shear or axial force shall be
considered to be equally shared by all bolts or over the length
weld
b) The design force resulting from a bending moment shall be
considered to vary linearly with the distance from the centroidal
axes for the calculation of centroid and second moment:

i) In bearing type of bolt group, plates in the compression side of

the NA and only bolts in the tension side may be considered.

ii) In the friction grip bolt group only the bolts shall be considered

iii) The fillet weld group shall be considered in isolation

from the connected element; of the weld length.
COMBINED SHEAR AND MOMENT OUT-OF-PLANE

Ti

d li Li Li
NA
d/6 C

(a) (b) (c)

Bolt group resisting out-of-plane moment

Ti = kli where k = constant

M =  Ti Li = k  li Li

Ti = Mli/ li Li

Shear assumed to be shared equally and bolts

checked for combined tension+(prying)+shear
10.12 Lug Angles
1.4 Fo 1.2 Fo

1.2 Fo 1.1 Fo
Fo Fo

Fc Fc
 G.2 Beam Splices

G.2.1 For rolled section, assumed that flange splice carries

the moment and web splice carries shear
For a deep girder, the moment may be divided. The web
connection should then be designed to resist its share of
moment and shear.
Even if web splice is designed to carry only shear force, the
bolt group on either side should be designed for moment
due to eccentricity.
Flange splice area = 1.05 flange area

M M M V VM
V V

Inner Splice Plates Stiffener Plate

(optional) (optional)
G.3 Column Splice
 Where the ends of compression
members are machined for
bearing over the whole area, they
shall be spliced to hold the line

 Else splices shall be designed to

transmit all the force

 splices shall be proportioned and

arranged so that centroidal axis of
FIG. G.2 COLUMN
the splice coincides with member SPLICE
(TYPICAL)
CONNECTION BEHAVIOUR
10.6.2.3 Moment- rotation relationship
10.6.2.4 Classifications of connections according to
Bjorhovde (1990)
TABLE G.1 CONNECTION CLASSIFICATION LIMITS
Nature of the In terms of In terms of
connection Strength Stiffness

Rigid connection m1 > 0.7 m1 > 2.51

Semi-Rigid 0.7> m1 > 0.2 2.51 > m1 >0.51

connection

Flexible connection m1 < 0.2 m1 < 0.51

 SEMI-RIGID CONNECTION MODEL
 Frye-Morris polynomial model
r = C1(Km)1 + C2 (Km)3 + C3 (Km)5
K is a standardization parameter Table G 2
Connection type Curve-fitting Standardization constants
constants
Top and seat C1 = 8.46 x 10-4 K =1.2810-6d - 1.5 t -0.5 l - 0.7
a
angle connection C2 = 1.01 x 10-4 db-1.5
C3 = 1.24 x 10-8
End plate connection C1 = 1.83 x 10-3 K =9.1010-7 dg- 2.4 tp- 0.4 db-
without column C2 = -1.04 x 10-4 1.5
stiffeners C3 = 6.38 x 10-6

End plate connection C1 = 1.79 x 10-3

C2 = 1.76 x 10-4 K = 6.1010-5dg- 2.4 tp- 0.6
with column stiffeners
C3 = 2.04 x 10-4
C1 = 2.1 x 10-4 K = 4.610-6d - 1.5 t - 0.5 l - 0.7 d -
t b
T-stub connection C2 = 6.2 x 10-6 1.1

C3 = -7.6 x 10-9
Fig G.7 Size parameter for various connection type

t
dg
d

tp
Top and seat angle End plate connection
connection without column stiffeners

dg d

tp t
End plate connection T-stub connection
with column stiffeners
 SUMMARY
 Design of Connections
 Minimum Design Action on Connection
 Other Details
 Analysis of a Bolt/Weld Group
 Beam and Column Splices
 Lug Angles
 Connection classification
 Semi-rigid Connection Models

88
CONCLUDING SUMMARY
•Connections are required when a change of
component occurs, at changes in framing directions,
and to ensure manageable member sizes.
•Connections must satisfy the requirements of
structural behaviour. They should be strong enough
to transmit the design loads and at the same time
have the intended degree of flexibility or rigidity.
•Connection design has a major influence on the
costs of real structures.
•Two types of fasteners are used for connections -
welds and bolts.
•Normally welding is applied in the fabrication shop
and bolts are used for erection.
•When detailing connections, thought should be given
to fabrication practicalities and erection sequence and
method.
ADDITIONAL READING
Boston, R.M. and Pask, J.W. 'Structural Fasteners and their Applications',
BCSA 1978.
Drawings of bolts of all kinds and photographs of fixings procedures, plus
examples of connection design.
Interfaces: Connections between Steel and other Materials, Ove Arup and
Partners. Edited by R. G. Ogden, 1994.
Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., 'Standardized structural connections',
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981, 3rd Ed, 1985.
Presents design models and resistance tables for the main connection
types.
Blodgett, O.W., 'Design of welded structures', James F Lincoln Arc
Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.
Informative and well illustrated reference manual covering all aspects of
welded design and construction.
Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M., 'Theory and design of steel structures',
Chapman and Hall, London, 1983.
Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals
extensively with connections. A detailed treatment of combined loads on
fillet welds is of particular interest.
Draft for Development DD ENV 1993-1-1: 1992 Eurocode 3: Design of
Steel Structures, Part 1, General Rules and Rules for Buildings.
 LECTURE NOTES

ON

STEEL STRUCTURES DESIGN AND

DRAWING
(A60130)

III B-Tech –II Semester (JNTUH-R15)

Mr. B. Suresh
Assistant Professor

Mr. G. Anil Kumar

Assistant Professor

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad – 500 043

1
SYLLABUS
UNIT - I
Materials - Making of iron and steel - Types of structural steel - Mechanical properties of steel -
Concepts of plasticity - Yield strength. Loads - Combined loads - Wind loads on roof trusses,
Behavior of steel, local buckling. Concept of limit state design - Different limits states as per IS
800-2007- Design strengths - Deflection limits - Serviceability - Bolted connections - Welded
connections - Design Strengths - Efficiency of joint - Prying action - Types of welded joints -
Design of Tension members - Design strength of members.

UNIT – II
Design of compression members - Buckling class- Slenderness ratio - Strength design
Laced and Battened columns - Column spice - Column base - Slab base.

UNIT - III
Design of Beams - Plastic moment - Bending and shear strength laterally / supported
beams design - Built-up sections - large plates Web buckling Crippling and Deflection of
beams - Design of Purlin.

UNIT – IV
Design of eccentric connections with brackets - End beam connections - Web angle -
Unstiffened and stiffened seated connections (bolted and welded types) Design of truss
joints.

UNIT - V
Design of welded plate Girders - Optimum depth - Design of main section - Design of end
bearing, stiffness bearing and intermediate stiffness. Connection between web and flange -
Design of flange splice and web splices.

Suggested Text Books

1. Design of Steel Structures by N. Subramanian, Oxford Higher Education University press.
2. Design of Steel Structures by S.S. Bhavikatti
3. Limit State Design Steel Structures by S.K. Duggal
4. Design of steel structures by P. Dayaratnam
5. Design of steel structures by L.S. Negi
6. Design of Steel Structures by S. Ramamrutham and R. Narayanan
Suggested Reference Books for your Knowledge
1. Design of Steel Structures by S.S. Ray, Blackwell Science
2. Design of Steel Structures by E.H. Gaylord, C.N. Gaylord, and J.E. Stallmeyer,
McGrawHill
3. Design of Steel Structures by Elias G. Abu Saba, CBS Publishers and Distributors

Codes:
1. Code of Practice for general construction in steel – IS 800 -1984, IS 800-2007.
2. Handbook for Structural Engineers – SP 6(1) -1964
3. Code of Practice for design loads (other than earthquake) for buildings and structures -IS
875: Part I-V: 1987.

2
 UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION

When the need for a new structure arises, an individual or agency has to arrange the
funds required for its construction. The individual or agency henceforth referred to as the owner
then approaches an architect. The architect plans the layout so as to satisfy the functional
requirements and also ensures that the structure is aesthetically pleasing and economically
feasible. In this process, the architect often decides the material and type of construction as well.
The plan is then given to a structural engineer who is expected to do locate the structural
elements so as to cause least interference to the function and aesthetics of the structure. He then
makes the strength calculations to ensure safety and serviceability of the structure. This process
is known as structural design.
Finally, the structural elements are fabricated and erected by the contractor. If all the
people work as a team then a safe, useful, aesthetic and economical structure is conceived.
However in practice, many structures fulfill the requirements only partially because of
inadequate coordination between the people involved and their lack of knowledge of the
capabilities and limitations of their own and that of others. Since a structural engineer is central
to this team, it is necessary for him to have adequate knowledge of the architects and contractors
work. It is his responsibility to advise both the architect and the contractor about the possibilities
of achieving good structures with economy.
Ever since steel began to be used in the construction of structures, it has made possible
some of the grandest structures both in the past and also in the present day (The Hooghly cable
stayed bridge, Jogighopa Road-cum-rail bridge across the river Brahmaputra). In the following
paragraph, some of the aspects of steel structures, which every structural engineer should know,
are briefly discussed.

Steel is by far the most useful material for building structures with strength of approximately ten
times that of concrete, steel is the ideal material for modern construction. Due to its large
strength to weight ratio, steel structures tend to be more economical than concrete structures for
tall buildings and large span buildings and bridges. Steel structures can be constructed very fast
and this enables the structure to be used early thereby leading to overall economy. Steel
structures are ductile and robust and can withstand severe loadings such as earthquakes.

Steel structures can be easily repaired and retrofitted to carry higher loads. Steel is also a
very eco-friendly material and steel structures can be easily dismantled and sold as scrap. Thus
the lifecycle cost of steel structures, which includes the cost of construction, maintenance, repair
and dismantling, can be less than that for concrete structures. Since steel is produced in the
factory under better quality control, steel structures have higher reliability and safety. To get the
most benefit out of steel, steel structures should be designed and protected to resist corrosion and
fire. They should be designed and detailed for easy fabrication and erection. Good quality control
is essential to ensure proper fitting of the various structural elements. The effects of temperature

3
should be considered in design. To prevent development of cracks under fatigue and earthquake
loads the connections and in particular the welds should be designed and detailed properly.
Special steels and protective measures for corrosion and fire are available and the designer
should be familiar with the options available.

NOTES ON STEEL MATERIAL

Steel is a term given to alloys containing a high proportion of iron with some carbon.
Other alloying elements may also be present in varying proportions. The properties of steel are
highly dependent on the proportions of alloying elements, so that their levels are closely
controlled during its manufacture. The properties of steel also depend on the heat treatment of
the metal.

Steel is by far the most important metal, in tonnage terms, in the modern world, with the
annual global production of over 700 million tonnes dwarfing the approximately 17 million
tonnes of the next most prolific, aluminium. The low price and high strength of steel means that
it is used structurally in many buildings and as sheet steel it is the major component of motor
vehicles and domestic appliances. The major disadvantage of steel is that it will oxidize under
moist conditions to form rust. Typical steel would have a density of about 7.7 g cm-3 and a
melting point of about 1650oC.

MAKING OF IRON AND STEEL

Steel refers to any iron-carbon alloy, although steels usually contain other elements as
well.

Iron occurs mainly as oxide ores, though it is also found in smaller quantities as its sulfide and
carbonate. These other ores are usually first roasted to convert them into the oxide. On a world
scale the most important ore is hematite (Fe2O3). The oxides are reduced with carbon from coal,
through the intermediate production of carbon monoxide.

The carbon initially burns in air to give carbon dioxide and the heat, which is necessary for the
process. The carbon dioxide then undergoes an endothermic reaction with more carbon to yield
carbon monoxide:

C + O2 → CO2 ΔH = -393 kJ mol-1

C + CO2 → 2CO ΔH = +171 kJ mol-1

The oxide ores are then principally reduced by the carbon monoxide produced in this reaction,
the reactions involving very small enthalpy changes:

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 ΔH = -22 kJ mol-1

Fe3O4 + 4CO → 3Fe + 4CO2 ΔH = -10 kJ mol-1

4
In conventional iron making, this reduction occurs in a blast furnace. The iron produced in this
way always contains high levels of impurities making it very brittle. Steel making is mainly
concerned with the removal of these impurities. This is done by oxidizing the elements
concerned by blowing pure oxygen through a lance inserted into the molten alloy. The oxides
produced are either evolved as gases, or combine with limestone to form an immiscible slag
which floats on the surface of the liquid metal and so is easily separated.

THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Iron ore is converted to steel via two main steps. The first involves the production of molten iron
and the second is that of actual steel manufacture. The details of these steps are outlined below.

Step 1 - The production of molten iron

The Primary Concentrate is mixed with limestone and coal and heated. The iron oxides are
reduced in the solid state to metallic iron, which then melts, and the impurities are removed
either as slag or gas. The flow diagram for this process is shown in Figure 1.

The multi-hearth furnaces

There are four multi-hearth furnaces, each of which feeds a rotary kiln. The furnaces preheat the
materials fed into the rotary kiln and reduce the amount of volatile matter present in the coal
from about 44% to about 9%. This is important because the large volumes of gas produced
during the emission of the volatile matter would otherwise interfere with the processes in the
rotary kiln.

There are 12 hearths in each furnace and the feedstock passes down through these. In the first
three hearths, hot gases from the lower stages preheat the material in the absence of air to about
450oC. Air is introduced in hearths 4 to 9 to allow combustion of the volatile material, so as to

5
increase the temperature to about 650oC. The supply of air is adjusted to control the percentage
of residual volatiles and coal char in the product. In the final hearths (10 - 12) the char and the
primary concentrate equilibrate and the final temperature is adjusted to 620oC. The total
residence time in the multi-hearth furnace is 30 - 40 minutes.

The multi-hearth furnaces also have natural gas burners at various levels. These are used to
restart the furnace after shutdown and to maintain the temperature if the supply of materials is
interrupted.

The waste gas from the multi-hearth furnace contains water vapour and other volatile compounds
from the coal (e.g. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other combustion products) as well as
suspended coal and primary concentrate dust particles. These solids are removed and returned to
the furnace. This gas along with gas from the melter (mainly carbon monoxide) is mixed with air
and burnt. The heat so produced is used to raise steam for the production of electricity. As well
as providing a valuable source of energy, this combustion of the waste gases is necessary to meet
emission controls.

The pre-heated coal char and primary concentrate from the furnaces is mixed with limestone and
fed into the kiln. In the first third of the kiln, known as the pre-heating zone, the feed from the
multi-hearth furnace is further heated to 900 - 1000oC. This increase in temperature is partly a
result of the passage of hot gases from further along the kiln and partly a result of the combustion
of the remaining volatile matter in the coal.

The last two-thirds of the kiln is known as the reduction zone, and is where the solid iron oxides
are reduced to metallic iron. In this region the air reacts with the carbon from the coal to produce
carbon dioxide and heat:

𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2

The carbon dioxide then reacts with more carbon to produce carbon monoxide, the principal
reductant, in an exothermic reaction:

𝐶 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂

Some of the carbon monoxide burns with the oxygen to produce heat, whilst the remainder
reduces the magnetite1 to iron in a reaction that is almost thermo-chemically neutral.

2𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2
𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 + 4𝐶𝑂 → 3𝐹𝑒 + 4𝐶𝑂2

Note: 1Magnetite can be regarded as 1:1 combination of wustite (FeO) and haematite (Fe2O3).
The separate reduction processes from these two components are:
𝐹𝑒𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐶𝑂2
𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 3𝐶𝑂 → 2𝐹𝑒 + 3𝐶𝑂2

6
Step 2 - Steel making
The steel making process is shown in Figure 2.

Vanadium recovery

Before conversion into steel, vanadium is recovered from the molten iron. This is done firstly
because of the value of the vanadium rich slag produced (15% vanadium as V2O5) and secondly
because a high vanadium content can make the steel too hard. In the vanadium recovery unit a
ladle containing 75 tonnes of molten iron has oxygen blown over the surface, where it oxidizes
silicon, titanium, manganese and vanadium to form a slag that floats on the surface. At the same
time argon is blown through the molten metal to stir it. When the composition of the molten
metal has reached the required vanadium specification, the slag is scraped off, cooled and
crushed. Additional advantages of this pre-treatment are that it causes the molten metal to reheat,
so permitting temperature control, and, if required, the procedure can be modified by the addition
of lime to reduce sulfur levels.

The Klockner Oxygen Blown Maxhutte process (KOBM Process)

The KOBM steel making process, like most modern processes involves oxidizing dissolved
impurities by blowing oxygen through the molten metal. The KOBM is unusual in that it blows
oxygen through the bottom of the furnace as well as through a lance inserted from the top. This
type of furnace was selected for Glenbrook because of its capacity to cope with high levels of
titanium and vanadium coupled with its very fast turn round time. The disadvantage of this type
of furnace is that it is technically rather more complex than those that are blown only by a lance.

7
The KOBM is initially charged with about 6 tonnes of scrap steel. 70 tonnes of molten metal
from the vanadium recovery unit is then added. Oxygen is then blown through six holes in the
base of the furnace, at a total rate of about 1500 lts per second. Oxygen is also blown through a
lance inserted from the top of the furnace at a rate of over 2500 lts per second.

The oxygen oxidizes the elements other than iron (including any free carbon) to their oxides. In
this way contaminants are removed as the oxides form a slag which floats on the surface of the
molten metal. Powdered lime is blown in to help with slag formation and this particularly
reduces the levels of sulfur and phosphorous by combining with their acidic oxides. Due to its
low melting point, iron(II) sulfide (FeS) is particularly harmful to the high temperature properties
of steel. So sulfur level must be reduced before further processing. Typical levels of the major
elements in the metal fed into the furnace and in a typical steel are shown in Table 1.

The molten iron is analyzed just before being added to the furnace and the temperature taken.
This determines the length of the oxygen blow and it also to a certain extent affects the amount
and composition of the scrap added. The length of the oxygen blow required is also judged by
monitoring the CO:CO2 ration in the gases from the furnace. Blow times vary, but 15 minutes
would be typical. During the oxygen blow the temperature would typically rise from 1500oC to
1700oC owing to the exothermic reactions that are occurring.

The slag is firstly tipped off and, after cooling, it is broken up so that the iron trapped in it can be
recovered magnetically. The slag, which contains sulfur and phosphorous and has a high lime
content, is then sold for agricultural use. Aluminium, which removes excess dissolved oxygen,
and alloying materials, such as ferro-silicon and ferro-manganese (which increase the hardness
of the steel) are added at this point so that they are well mixed as the molten metal is tipped into
a ladle. The whole cycle in the KOBM takes about 30 minutes.

The Glenbrook site also has an electric arc furnace for steel making, the feed for this being
mainly scrap steel. The cycle time for the final charge of 75 tonne is about 3½ hours, so that is
only responsible for a small fraction of the total steel production. It is, however, a very flexible
process and it may be economically used to produce small batches of specialized steel.

Ladle treatment

The final stage of steel making is the ladle treatment. This is when fine adjustments are made to
bring the composition of the molten steel, from either furnace, into line with the required
composition. The bulk of the alloying elements are added in the furnace and, after blowing argon
through the molten metal to ensure homogeneity, the temperature is measured and a sample
removed for analysis after stirring. The analysis by optical emission spectrometry, which
8
measures the levels of 15 elements, takes about five minutes. Alloying materials are added to
adjust the composition. If the metal requires cooling, scrap steel is added. If the temperature is
too low, aluminium is added and oxygen blown through. When all adjustments are complete
argon is blown through once again to ensure mixing and the ladle taken to the continuous casting
machine. Here it is cast into slabs of 210 mm thickness and a width of between 800 and 1550
mm. This slab is cut into lengths of from 4.5 m to 10 m and sent for further processing. Most of
the production is converted to steel coil.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

Due to the nature of the steel making process, large amounts of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes
are generated in the steel plant. Careful planning is necessary to ensure that these do not have a
negative impact on the environment.

The steel mill requires 1.2 to 1.4 million tonnes of ironsand each year, which means that up to 10
million tonnes of pure sand must be mined. The non-magnetic sand is returned to the area from
which it was mined, and marram grass and radiata pines planted to stabilise the deposits.

Wet scrubbers and bag houses are the principal means of controlling air pollution. The wet
scrubbers (see oil refining article) wash the dust out of the hot process waste gases which result
from iron and steel making while the cloth bags inside a bag house filter dust out of the gas. The
dust collection system is shared by the steel production and steel processing sections, and
collects a total of between five and ten tonnes of dust every hour.

Extensive water recycling is used in the plant to minimise the quantity of waste water produced,
and all waste water and storm water is treated in settling ponds on site before being discharged
into the Waiuku Estuary.

ADVANTAGES OF STEEL DESIGN

1. Better quality control
2. Lighter
3. Faster to erect
4. Reduced site time – Fast track construction
5. Large column free space and amenable for alteration
6. Less material Handling at site
7. Less percentage of floor area occupied by structural elements
8. Has better ductility and hence superior lateral load behavior, better earthquake
performance

DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL DESIGN

1. Skilled labor is required
2. Higher cost of construction
3. Maintenance cost is high (Due to corrosion)
4. Poor fire proofing as at 1000oF (538oC) 65% and at 1600oF (871oC) 15% of strength
remains
5. Electricity may be required (to hold joints, etc.)

9
10
11
12
ANATOMY OF A STEEL STRUCTURE
Q. What is the anatomy of a steel structure?
Ans.
Beams
Columns
Floors
Bracing systems-- which is very important for higher rise cases
Foundation
Connections
So these are the anatomy of a steel building.
(Anatomy means usually the study or an examination of what something is like, the way it works or why it works)

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Now let us discuss some rolled steel sections

ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS

The steel sections manufactured in rolling mills and used as structural members are
known as rolled structural steel sections. The steel sections are named according to their cross
sectional shapes. The shapes of sections selected depend on the types of members which are
fabricated and to some extent on the process of erection. Many steel sections are readily
available in the market and have frequent demand. Such steel sections are known as regular steel
sections. Some steel sections are rarely used. Such sections are produced on special requisition
and are known as special sections. „SP 6-1 (1964) ISI Handbook for Structural Engineers -Part- 1
Structural Steel Sections gives nominal dimensions, weight and geometrical properties of various
rolled structural steel sections.

13
For Example:
TYPES OF ROLLED STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

The various types of rolled structural steel sections manufactured and used as structural members
are as follows:

1. Rolled Steel I-sections (Beam sections).

2. Rolled Steel Channel Sections.

3. Rolled Steel Tee Sections.

4. Rolled Steel Angles Sections.

5. Rolled Steel Bars.

6. Rolled Steel Tubes.

7. Rolled Steel Flats.

8. Rolled Steel Sheets and Strips.

9. Rolled Steel Plates.

2.3 ROLLED STEEL BEAM SECTIONS

The rolled steel beams are classified into following four series as per BIS : (IS : 808-1989)

1. Indian Standard Joist/junior Beams ISJB

2. Indian Standard Light Beams ISLB

3. Indian Standard Medium Weight Beams ISMB

4. Indian Standard Wide Flange Beams ISWB

The rolled steel columns/heavy weight beams are classified into the following two series as per
BIS (IS: 808-1989)

1. Indian Standard Column Sections ISSC

2. Indian Standard Heavy Weight Beams ISHB

The cross section of a rolled steel beam is shown in Figure below.

14
The beam section consists of web and two flanges. The junction between the flange and the web
is known as fillet. These hot rolled steel beam sections have sloping flanges. The outer and inner
faces are inclined to each other and they intersect at an angle varying from 1½ to 8˚ depending
on the section and rolling mill practice. The angle of intersection of ISMB section is 8˚.
Abbreviated reference symbols (JB, LB, MB, WB, SC and HB) have been used in designating
the Indian Standard Sections as per BIS (IS 808-1989)

The rolled steel beams are designated by the series to which beam sections belong (abbreviated
reference symbols), followed by depth in mm of the section and weight in kN per metre length of
the beam, e.g., MB 225 @ 0.312 kN/m. H beam sections of equal depths have different weights
per metre length and also different properties e.g., WB 600 @ 1.340 kN/m, WB 600 @ 1.450
kN/m, HB 350 @0.674 kN/m, HB 350 @0.724 kN/m.

I-sections are used as beams and columns. It is best suited to resist bending moment and shearing
force. In an I-section about 80 % of the bending moment is resisted by the flanges and the rest of
the bending moment is resisted by the web. Similarly about 95% of the shear force is resisted by
the web and the rest of the shear force is resisted by the flanges. Sometimes I-sections with cover
plates are used to resist a large bending moment. Two I-sections in combination may be used as a
column.

ROLLED STEEL CHANNEL SECTIONS

The rolled steel Channel sections are classified into four categories as per ISI, namely,

1. Indian Standard Joist/Junior Channels ISJC

2. Indian Standard Light Channels ISLC

3. Indian Standard Medium Weight Channels ISMC

4. Indian Standard Medium Weight Parallel Flange Channels ISMCP

The cross section of rolled steel channel section is shown in Figure below.

15
The channel section consists of a web and two flanges. The junction between the flange and the
web is known as fillet. The rolled steel channels are designated by the series to which channel
section belong (abbreviated reference symbols), followed by depth in mm of the section and
weight in kN per metre length of the channel, e.g., MC 225 @ 0.261 kN/m

Channels are used as beams and columns. Because of its shape a channel member affords
connection of an angle to its web. Built up channels are very convenient for columns. Double
channel members are often used in bridge truss. The channels are employed as elements to resist
bending e.g., as purlins in industrial buildings. It is to note that they are subjected to twisting or
torsion because of absence of symmetry of the section with regards to the axis parallel to the
web, i.e., yy-axis. Therefore, it is subjected to additional stresses. The channel sections are
commonly used as members subjected to axial compression in the shape of built-up sections of
two channels connected by lattices or batten plates or perforated cover plates. The built-up
channel sections are also used to resist axial tension in the form of chords of truss girders.

As per IS : 808-1989, following channel sections have also been additionally adopted as Indian
Standard Channel Secions
1. Indian Standard Light Channels with parallel flanges ISLC(P)
2. Medium weight channels MC
3. Medium weight channels with parallel flanges MCP
4. Indian Standard Gate Channels ISPG
In MC and MCP channel sections, some heavier sections have been developed for their intended
use in wagon building industry. The method of designating MC and MCP channels is also same
as that for IS channels.

ROLLED STEEL TEE SECTIONS

The rolled steel tee sections are classified into the following five series as per ISI:

1. Indian Standard Normal Tee Bars ISNT

2. Indian Standard Wide flange Tee Bars ISHT
3. Indian Standard Long Legged Tee Bars ISST
4. Indian Standard Light Tee Bars ISLT
5. Indian Standard Junior Tee Bars ISJT

16
The cross section of a rolled steel tee section has been shown in Figure below.

The tee section consists of a web and a flange. The junction between the flange and the web is
known as fillet. The rolled steel tee sections are designated by the series to which the sections
belong (abbreviated reference symbols) followed by depth in mm of the section and weight in
kN per metre length of the Tee, e.g., HT 125 @ 0.274 kN/m. The tee sections are used to
transmit bracket loads to the columns. These are also used with flat strips to connect plates in the
steel rectangular tanks.

A per IS: 808-1984, following T-sections have also been additionally adopted as Indian Standard
T-sections.

1. Indian Standard deep legged Tee bars ISDT

2. Indian Standard Slit medium weight Tee bars ISMT

3. Indian Standard Slit Tee bars from I-sections ISHT

It is to note that as per IS 808 (part II) 1978, H beam sections have been deleted.

ROLLED STEEL ANGLE SECTIONS

The rolled steel angle sections are classified in to the following three series.

1. Indian Standard Equal Angles ISA

2. Indian Standard Unequal Angles ISA

3. Indian Standard Bulb Angles ISBA

Angles are available as equal angles and unequal angles. The legs of equal angle sections are
equal and in case of unequal angle section, length of one leg is longer than the other. Thickness
of legs of equal and unequal angle sections are equal. The cross section of rolled equal angle
section, unequal angle section and that of bulb angle section is shown in Fig. 2.4. The bulb angle
consists of a web a flange and a bulb projecting from end of web.

17
The rolled steel equal and unequal angle sections are designated by abbreviated reference
symbols ∟ followed by length of legs in mm and thickness of leg, e.g.,

∟130 x 130 x 8 mm (∟130 x 130 @ 0.159 kN/m)

∟200 x 100 x 10 mm (∟ 200 x 100 @ 0.228 kN/m)

The rolled steel bulb angles are designated by BA, followed by depth in mm of the section and
weight in kN per metre length of bulb angle.

Angles have great applications in the fabrications. The angle sections are used as independent
sections consisting of one or two or four angles designed for resisting axial forces (tension and
compression) and transverse forces as purlins. Angles may be used as connecting elements to
connect structural elements like sheets or plates or to form a built up section. The angle sections
are also used as construction elements for connecting beams to the columns and purlins to the
chords of trusses in the capacity of beam seats, stiffening ribs and cleat angles. The bulb angles
are used in the ship buildings. The bulb helps to stiffen the outstanding leg when the angle is
under compression.

As per IS : 808-1984, some supplementary angle sections have also additionally adopted as
Indian Standard angle sections. However prefix ISA has been dropped. These sections are
designated by the size of legs followed by thickness e.g., ∟200 150 x 15.

ROLLED STEEL BARS

The rolled steel bars are classified in to the following two series:

1. Indian Standard Round Bars ISRO

2. Indian Standard Square Bars ISSQ

The rolled steel bars are used as ties and lateral bracing. The cross sections of rolled steel bars
are shown in Figure below. The rolled steel bars are designated by abbreviated reference symbol
RO followed by diameter in case of round bars and ISSQ followed by side width of bar sections.
The bars threaded at the ends or looped at the ends are used as tension members.

18
ROLLED STEEL TUBES
The rolled steel tubes are used as columns and compression members and tension members in
tubular trusses. The rolled steel tubes are efficient structural sections to be used as compression
members. The steel tube sections have equal radius of gyration in all directions. The cross
section of rolled steel tube is shown in Figure below.

ROLLED STEEL FLATS

The rolled steel flats are used for lacing of elements in built up members, such as columns and
are also used as ties. The cross section of rolled steel flat is shown in Figure below. the rolled
steel flats are designated by width in mm of the section followed by letters (abbreviated
reference symbol) F and thickness in mm, e.g., 50 F 8. This means a flat of width 50 mm and
thickness 8 mm. The rolled steel flats are used as lattice bars for lacing the elements of built up
columns. The rolled steel flats are also used as tension members and stays.

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ROLLED STEEL SHEETS AND STRIPS
The rolled steel sheet is designated by abbreviated reference symbol SH followed by length in
mm x width in mm x thickness in mm of the sheet. The rolled steel strip is designated as ISST
followed by width in mm x thickness in mm, e.g., SH 2000 x 600 x 8 and ISST 250 x 2.

ROLLED STEEL PLATES

The rolled steel plates are designated by abbreviated reference symbol PL followed be length in
mm x width in mm x thickness in mm of the plates, e.g., PL 2000 x 1000 x 6.

The rolled steel sheets and plates are widely used in construction. Any sections of the required
dimensions, thickness and configuration may be produced by riveting or welding the separate
plates. The rolled plates are used in the web and flanges of plate girders, plated beams and chord
members and web members of the truss bridge girders. The rolled steel plates are used in special
plate structures, e.g., shells, rectangular and circular steel tanks and steel chimneys.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SECTIONS

The rolled steel beam sections with parallel faces of flanges are recently developed. These beam
sections are called as parallel flange sections. These sections have increased moment of inertia,
section modulus and radius of gyration about the weak axis. Such sections used as beams and
columns have more stability. Theses sections possess ease of connections to other sections as no
packing is needed as in beams of slopping flanges. The parallel flange beam sections are not yet
rolled in our country.

New welded sections using plates and other steel sections are developed because of welding. The
development of beams with tapered flanges and tapered depths is also due to welding. The open
web sections and the castellated beams were also developed with the rapid use of welding.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

Stress – strain behavior: tensile test
The stress-strain curve for steel is generally obtained from tensile test on standard specimens as
shown in Figure below. The details of the specimen and the method of testing is elaborated in IS:

20
1608 (1995). The important parameters are the gauge length „Lc‟ and the initial cross section
area So. The loads are applied through the threaded or shouldered ends. The initial gauge length
is taken as 5.65 (So) 1/2 in the case of rectangular specimen and it is five times the diameter in
the case of circular specimen. A typical stress-strain curve of the tensile test coupon is shown in
Fig.1.5 in which a sharp change in yield point followed by plastic strain is observed. After a
certain amount of the plastic deformation of the material, due to reorientation of the crystal
structure an increase in load is observed with increase in strain. This range is called the strain
hardening range. After a little increase in load, the specimen eventually fractures. After the
failure it is seen that the fractured surface of the two pieces form a cup and cone arrangement.
This cup and cone fracture is considered to be an indication of ductile fracture. It is seen from
Fig.1.5 that the elastic strain is up to ey followed by a yield plateau between strains ey and esh and
a strain hardening range start at esh and the specimen fail at eult where ey, esh and eult are the
strains at onset of yielding, strain hardening and failure respectively.

Depending on the steel used, εsh generally varies between 5 and 15 εy, with an average value of
10 εy typically used in many applications. For all structural steels, the modulus of elasticity
can be taken as 205,000 MPa and the tangent modus at the onset of strain hardening is
roughly 1/30th of that value or approximately 6700 MPa. High strength steels, due to their

21
specific microstructure, do not show a sharp yield point but rather they yield continuously as
shown in Fig. 1.6. For such steels the yield stress is always taken as the stress at which a line at
0.2% strain, parallel to the elastic portion, intercepts the stress strain curve. This is shown in Fig.
1.6.

The nominal stress or the engineering stress is given by the load divided by the original area.
Similarly, the engineering strain is taken as the ratio of the change in length to original length.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

1. Yield stress of steel (fy) = range from 220 to 540 Mpa
2. Ultimate tensile strength = 1.2 fy
3. Modulus of Elasticity (Es) = 2 x 105 N / mm2
4. Shear Modulus of steel = 0.4 E
5. Poissons Ratio
(i) Elastic Range = 0.3
(ii) Plastic Range = 0.5

STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

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1.3.2 Hardness
Hardness is regarded as the resistance of a material to indentations and scratching. This is
generally determined by forcing an indentor on to the surface. The resultant deformation in steel
is both elastic and plastic. There are several methods using which the hardness of a metal could
be found out. They basically differ in the form of the indentor, which is used on to the surface.
They are presented in Table 1.2. In all the above cases, hardness number is related to the ratio of
the applied load to the surface area of the indentation formed. The testing procedure involves
forcing the indentor on to the surface at a particular road. On removal, the size of indentation is
measured using a microscope. Based on the size of the indentation, hardness is worked out. For
example, Brinell hardness (BHN) is given by the ratio of the applied load and spherical area of
the indentation i.e.

Where P is the load, D is the ball diameter, d is the indent diameter. The Vickers
test gives a similar hardness value (VHN) as given by

Where L is the diagonal length of the indent.

Both the BHN and VHN for steel range from 150 to 190.

1.3.3 Notch-toughness
There is always a possibility of microscopic cracks in a material or the material may develop
such cracks as a result of several cycles of loading. Such cracks may grow rapidly without
detection and lead to sudden collapse of the structure. To ensure that this does not happen,

23
materials in which the cracks grow slowly are preferred. Such steels are known as notch-tough
steels and the amount of energy they absorb is measured by impacting a notched specimen with a
heavy pendulum as in Izod or Charpy tests. A typical test set up for this is shown in Fig. 1.7 and
the specimen used is shown in Fig. 1.8.

The important mechanical properties of steel produced in India are summarized in Table 1.3. In
Table 1.3, the UTS represent the minimum guaranteed Ultimate Tensile Strength at which the
corresponding steel would fail.

24
Channel Section with Lacing

This is a channel section face to face lacings are provided. These lacings are provided in a zig-zag way in
order to strengthen the column. These lacings are rectangular flats which are attached to fix the column in
order to strengthen it making more stable for carrying upcoming load. Safely without displacing the
column from its position. This built-up section is commonly used in Huge industries, heavy trusses, and
railway stations. This is used as column and made up of steel members.

I-Section with Cover Plate

25
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Some are commonly or mostly preferred properties are

1. Stiffness
2. Elasticity
3. Plasticity
4. Ductility
5. Brittleness
6. Malleability
7. Toughness
8. Hardness
9. Creep
10. Fatigue

i) STIFFNESS:

It is the ability of materials to resist deformations under the action of loads. That is a material
should not change its shape when the load is applied.

*Its unit is N/mm or kN/mm. It is load applied to produce per unit deflection. i.e., in order to
produce deflection of 1mm, how much load should be applied i.e., in terms of Newtons.

* It is mostly considered in the design of springs.

Stiffness is given by the formula:

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑊)
K = 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝛿)

(ii) ELASTICITY:

It is a property by which a material changes its shape when load is applied and will regain its
original shape when load is removed. So this the definition of Elasticity.

For example when we apply load over rubber band, then its shape will change. The moment I
removed load over this, the rubberband come back to its original position.

Elasticity is measured by a term called as „Youngs Modulus‟ or „Modulus of Elasticity‟

*Its Unit is „N/mm2‟ (or) „kN/mm2‟

*Young‟s modulus decides how much elastic the material is.

26
For example, if „Young‟s Modulus‟ or „Elastic Modulus‟ is very high, it means the material is
very elastic. If the value of Elastic Modulus is less, it means that material will behave in a less
elastic manner.

(iii) PLASTICITY: It is the property by which a material is not able to regain it‟s original shape
when the load is removed.

It means here in case of plasticity, the material will not regain it‟s original shape.

For example, if I have a pen and load is applied on this. It will change its shape. On the removal
of load, the pen will not regain its original shape.

It is a permanent deformation. Materials used in machines are never allowed to behave in a

plastic manner. See this is very important consideration like whatever the materials we are using
for the machine design, that materials they should not operate in a region where the deformation
would be plastic. i.e., they are not allowed to behave in a plastic manner. That means whatever
the machines we are seeing in the machines, they are designed on the concept of elasticity. That
is they should regain their original shape when the load is removed. They should not behave in a
plastic manner.

(iv) DUCTILITY:

It is a property by which materials can be drawn into wires. A very important property that if a
material is having ductility it means it can be drawn into wires. Now whatever wires we are
seeing like incase of electrical connections those wires the material with the help of material
which they are made that material it is called as ductile material. So here I can say that

 Ductile materials have the ability to flow. To flow means when the load is applied the
material will elongate. It will change its shape.
Example: Copper wires used in electric cables.
Aluminum which is soft material is also a ductile material.
(v) BRITTLENESS: It is ability of a material by which it can break or develop cracks when
loaded. Brittle materials are those in which when we are applying load either they can break
suddenly or cracks would be developing in that material.

Example: Wood, Concrete, cast-iron (Contains more amount of carbon, the more amount of
carbon we add, the more brittle it becomes)
 Brittle materials can break without any prior warning or they can develop cracks

(vi) MALLEABILITY: It is the property by which materials are able to be beaten or converted
into thin sheets. See whatever the sheets of metal which we are seeing that metal it has the
property of malleability that is why it is conerted into sheets.

27
Materials which are elastic are better in malleability
Examples: steel, copper, Aluminum, brass, bronze, Zinc

(vii) TOUGHNESS:
It is the property by which a material is able to resist shocks or impact loading. Impact loading
refers to load falling from a height.

Like if I can give the example by drawing the diagram.

Load
h Bar / rod

Collar

Here I have height „h‟ through which the load is falling on to this collar. So now toughness
means the ability of this collar to resist this load like for example this load is falling from a
height „h‟ then this collar should not deform much. By toughness we mean that on the
application of this load, this collar should be able to resist this load. It should not go or it should
not deflect suddenly. The deflection should be minimum.

If I can draw the diagram, that after deflection it will look something like this. So this much is
the amount of deflection „δL‟

This property is very useful in the design of springs. Like previously we have seen the property
which was stiffness. Stifness is required in the design of springs. At the same toughness is also
considered in the design of springs.

(viii) HARDNESS:
Hardness is the opposite of Toughness. It is the property of a material by which it can resist
scratches, marks, or wear and tear. Hardness is the independent of the weight of a material. This
property is mostly preferred while designing components which slide over one another.
Brittle materials are more hard. It means brittle materials are able to resist scratches more. Like
for example, Cast iron, Concrete, Glass, Diamond.

(ix) CREEP: It is the ability of materials to resist high or extremely high temperatures. So as
from the definition I think it is very much clear that any material which is able to resist high
amount of temperatures that material we will say that it is CREEP RESISTANT. And if the
material changes its shape when the temperature is high then it would be called as the
material is not able to resist the high temperature, then it would be LESS IN CREEP.

28
 Because of Creep, high amount of temperature stresses are developed. As we know when we
have a metal when we heating that metal we know that it will expand. Because of that
expansion there is some stress which is stored in the material. That stress would be called as
temperature stress.
Examples: I.C. Engines (Internal Combustion Engines), Boilers, Steam-turbines, and
Furnaces require creep resistant materials.

What is Rolling Process?

In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one
or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The concept is
similar to the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the
metal rolled.

The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls. Rolling is the most
widely used process which provides high production and close control of final product. The
metal is subjected to high compressive stresses as a result of the friction between the rolls and
the metal surface.

Terminology
An ingot is a piece of relatively pure material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for
further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step among semi-finished casting products.
Bloom is the product of first breakdown of ingot (Cross sectional area greater than 100 cm2)

Billet is the product obtained from a further reduction by hot rolling (Cross sectional area greater
than 40 x 40 mm2)

Slab is the hot rolled ingot (cross sectional area greater than 100 cm2 and with a width greater
than or equal to 2 x thickness)

Plate is the product with a thickness greater than 6 mm.

Sheet is the product with a thickness less than 6 mm and width greater than 600 mm.

Strip is the product with a thickness greater than 6 mm and width less than 600 mm.

Recrystallization: the formation of new strain-free grain structure from that existing in cold
worked metal.

29
Annealing:
There are different types of heat treatments. Annealing is one of the heat treatments given to
metals. Main aim of annealing is to increase the ductility of the metal. Annealing is a heat
treatment in which the metal is heated to a temperature above its re-crystallization temperature,
kept at that temperature some time for homogenization of temperature followed by very slow
cooling to develop equilibrium structure in the metal or alloy. The steel is heated 30 to 50 oC
above Ae3 temperature in case of hypo-eutectoid steels and 30 to 50oC above Acm temperature in
case of hyper-eutectoid temperature.

The cooling is done in the furnace itself. In case of annealing of steels, the steel is heated to
different temperatures depending upon the aim of annealing followed by furnace cooling.

Annealing is a heat treatment designed to eliminate the effects of cold working. The properties of
a metal may revert back to the precold-work states by annealing, through recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth.

HOT ROLLING

It is a metal working process that occurs above the re-crystallization temperature of the material.
Hot rolled metals generally little directionality in their mechanical properties and deformation
induced residual stresses. However, I certain instances non-metallic inclusions will impart some
directionality.

Non-uniformed cooling will induce a lot of residual stresses which usually occurs in shapes that
have a non-uniform cross-section, such as I – Beams and H-beams.

Application
Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross sections such as rail tracks.

COLD ROLLING
Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its re-crystallization temperature. (usually at room
temperature). It also improves the surface finish and holds tighter tolerances. Due to smaller size
of the work pieces and their greater strength than hot rolled stock , four-high or cluster mills are
used .commonly cold-rolled products include sheets, strips and rods; products being smaller than
the same products that are hot rolled.

30
CONCEPT OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF BEAM COLUMNS
Steel structures are important in a variety of land-based applications, including industrial (such
as factory sheds, box girder cranes, process plants, power and chemical plants etc.),
infrastructural (Lattice girder bridges, box girder bridges, flyovers, institutional buildings,
shopping mall etc.) and residential sector. The basic strength members in steel structures include
support members (such as rolled steel sections, hollow circular tubes, square and rectangular
hollow sections, built-up sections, plate girders etc.), plates, stiffened panels/grillages and box
girders. During their lifetime, the structures constructed using these members are subjected to
various types of loading which is for the most part operational, but may in some cases be
extreme or even accidental.

Steel-plated structures are likely to be subjected to various types of loads and deformations
arising from service requirements that may range from the routine to the extreme or accidental.
The mission of the structural designer is to design a structure that can withstand such demands
throughout its expected lifetime.

The structural design criteria used for the Serviceability Limit State Design (hereafter termed as
SLS) design of steel-plated structures are normally based on the limits of deflections or vibration
for normal use. In reality, excessive deformation of a structure may also be indicative of
excessive vibration or noise, and so, certain interrelationships may exist among the design
criteria being defined and used separately for convenience.

The SLS criteria are normally defined by the operator of a structure, or by established practice,
the primary aim being efficient and economical in-service performance without excessive routine
maintenance or down-time. The acceptable limits necessarily depend on the type, mission and
arrangement of structures. Further, in defining such limits, other disciplines such as machinery
designers must also be consulted.

The structural design criteria to prevent the Ultimate Limit State Design (hereafter termed as
ULS) are based on plastic collapse or ultimate strength. The simplified ULS design of many
types of structures has in the past tended to rely on estimates of the buckling strength of
components, usually from their elastic buckling strength adjusted by
a simple plasticity correction. This is represented by point A in Figure 7.1. In such a design
scheme based on strength at point A, the structural designer does not use detailed information on
the post-buckling behavior of component members and their interactions. The true ultimate
strength represented by point B in Figure 7.1 may be higher although one can never be sure of
this since the actual ultimate strength is not being directly evaluated.

In any event, as long as the strength level associated with point B remains unknown (as it is with
traditional allowable stress design or linear elastic design methods), it is difficult to determine
the real safety margin. Hence, more recently, the design of structures such as offshore platforms
and land-based structures such as steel bridges has tended to be based on the ultimate strength.

The safety margin of structures can be evaluated by a comparison of ultimate strength with the
extreme applied loads (load effects) as depicted in Figure 7.1. To obtain a safe and economic

31
structure, the ultimate load-carrying capacity as well as the design load must be assessed
accurately. The structural designer may even desire to estimate the ultimate strength not only for
the intact structure, but also for structures with existing or premised damage, in order to assess
their damage tolerance and survivability.

In the structural design process, “analysis” usually means the determination of the stress
resultants, which the individual structural members must be capable to resist. “Design” can
mean the development of the structural layout, or arrangement of members, but it usually means
the selection of sizes of members to resist the imposed forces and bending moments. Three
methods of analysis are available, i.e. elastic analysis, plastic analysis and advanced analysis.
Limit state design is a design method in which the performance of a structure is checked against
various limiting conditions at appropriate load levels. The limiting conditions to be checked in
structural steel design are ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state.Limit state theory
includes principles from the elastic and plastic theories and incorporates other relevant factors to
give as realistic a basis for design as possible.

32
Ultimate Limit State Design of Steel Structures reviews and describes both fundamentals and
practical design procedures in this field. Designs should ensure that the structure does not
become unfit / unserviceable for the use for which it is intended to. The state at which the
unfitness occurs is called a limit state.

Figure 7.2 shows how limit-state design employs separate factors γf, which reflects the
combination of variability of loading γl, material strength γm and structural performance γp. In the
elastic design approach, the design stress is achieved by scaling down the strength of material or
member using a factor of safety γe as indicated in Figure 7.2, while the plastic design compares
actual structural member stresses with the effects of factored-up loading by using a load factor of
γp.

Special features of limit state design method are:

• Serviceability and the ultimate limit state design of steel structural systems and
their components.
• Due importance has been provided to all probable and possible design conditions
that could cause failure or make the structure unfit for its intended use.

33
 The basis for design is entirely dependent on actual behaviour of materials in structures and the
performance of real structures, established by tests and long-term observations
• The main intention is to adopt probability theory and related statistical methods in the design.
• It is possible to take into account a number of limit states depending upon the particular
instance.
• This method is more general in comparison to the working stress method. In this method,
different safety factors can be applied to different limit states, which is more rational and
practical than applying one common factor (load factor) as in the plastic design method.
• This concept of design is appropriate for the design of structures since any development in the
knowledge base for the structural behavior, loading and materials can be readily implemented.

CONNECTIONS

Today we are going to introduce new topic name is „connections‟. When we are going to design
a steel structure completely, first we have to know the elementary design. Elementary design
means design of Beam member (flexural member), Design of a compression member (Column
member), Design of a tension member, Base plate, the foundations and similarly the
„Connections‟.

The utility of the connection is that to withstand the load and to transfer the load from one
member to another member. Like suppose beam and column. Now the load from beam to
column is going to pass through that joint. If joint is not sufficiently strong then chances of
failure will be there. In general we see we use to give much importance on design of different
types of elements. But often we forget to design the connections properly. We must give due
importance to the connection aspects because steel structure may fail, if their connections are
improper. So the beam member or the column member may be strong enough to send the load. If
their joint is weak, then as rule the structure will fail. So we have to consider the connections as
important so that failure doesn‟t occur at the joint level.

Now Connections means different type of members are connected at a joint. Different type of
members means like say:
 Beam & column
 Beam & Beam
 Beam & cross beam
 Column & column
 Column & brackets
 Column & caps
 Base plate of trusses
 Truss member connections through gussets
 Purlins & rafter
 Wind braces and columns
 Rails & columns

34
I am just showing one picture. Say suppose one column is there and another beam is here. So
how to connect it. So this is a column and this is a beam. Now connection is to be made. So what
we used to do? That connections can be made either temporarily or permanent in nature. Say
suppose we are providing some bolted or riveted connection to with stand the load coming from
the beam to column.

Column

Beam

Now connections means different type of connections are there. As per the requirement in the
field, we need to choose the connections like riveted connections, Bolted connections, Pin
connections and welding connections. In general Bolted Connection and Pin connections are
temporary in nature that means we can use as a temporary basis. Rivetted connection and welded
connection are permanent in nature. Other types of connections made like stiffeners in plate
girders, Diaphragms in plate girders, Flange and web connections in plate girders, and stiffener
plates in column joints.

As I told that method of fabrications is

Riveted joints
Welded joints
Bolted joints (or Pin joints we can say)
The combination of two or three of the above (means any of the combinations also can be made)

Now these two (Riveted joints, Welded joints) joints are permanent in nature and these two joints
(Bolted joints, The combination of two or three of the above) are temporary.

Now when we are going to talk about the connections, we must know “what are the requirements
for the good connections?”. Means what are the points we have to remember to make a good
connection.

i.e., 1. it (Connection) should be rigid enough to avoid fluctuating stresses which may cause
fatigue failure.

2. It should be such that there is the least possible weakening of the parts to be joined.
3. It should be such that it can be easily installed, inspected, & maintained.

Now connections we have told. There are three types of connections basically, one is riveting,
another is welding and another is bolted connection.

35
Now we will discuss in details about the Riveted connections.

In case of rivet connections analysis is in general difficult. Certain assumptions have been made
to make the analysis simple. What are those assumptions? Assumptions like
1. Friction between the plates is neglected.
2. The shear stress is uniform on the crosssection of the rivet
3. The distribution of direct stress on the portion of the plates between the rivet holes
is uniform.
4. Rivets in group subjected to direct loads share the load equally. (that means if the
„n‟ number of rivets are there and then total load is connect by as „P‟, then the
load shared by each rivet become „P/n‟
5. Bending stress in the rivet is neglected.
6. Rivets fill completely the holes in which they are driven.
7. Bearing stress distribution is uniform and contact area is d x t. where „d‟ is the
diameter of the rivet and „t‟ is the thickness of the plate.
So with these assumptions the analysis would be done. Analysis means, what is the strength of
the rivet, how many rivets should be required to connect the particular joint. All these things will
be decided under these assumptions.

Now how the rivet look like?

As you know,
Rivet

It has a head and another part is shank. So a rivet consist of shank and head. The length of shank
is depends or decided based on thickness of the plate. How much shank length is required
accordingly shank will be decided.

36
Now Nominal diameter is the diameter of the shank. Now here another term we will get is the
“Gross diameter” which is basically the some clearance that means hole diameter. Hole
diameter is made nominal diameter + some additional clearance.
As per the codal provisions, if the nominal diameter is below the 25 mm, then 1.5 mm extra
clearance has been taken for calculating the gross diameter and if the nominal diameter is more
than 25 mm, then 2.0 mm extra clearance has been taken for calculating the gross diameter.

That means gross diameter will be say „d g‟ = dn + 1.5 (dn is below 25 mm)
= dn + 2.0 (dn is more than 25 mm)

So rivet looks like this.

Now Rivet can be divided into two categories

One is power driven riveting or Hot rivet.
Another is Hand driven rivet or Cold rivet.

Now Power driven rivet is of two types

One is Power driven shop rivet (PDS) and
another is Power driven field rivet (PDF). In short we use „PDS‟ or „PDF‟.

Similarly in case Hand driven riveting, we use to categorize as „Hand driven shop rivet (HDS)
and Hand driven field rivet (HDF).

Now we will show some commonly used rivet head.

1.) One is „Snap Head‟. This is the most commonly used rivet in practice we make and the
standard dimension is like this. If the nominal diameter of the rivet is „d‟, the diameter of
head will become „1.6d‟ and the height of head will become „0.7d‟.
This is called length ‘l’ whatever is required to fit the connections, to fit the thickness of the
plate. So snap head is looking like this.

37
 2. Another type of rivet is called „PAN Head‟
In this Pan Head, the head will look like this. Here if the diameter is „d‟then the height of head
will be „0.7d‟ like the previous one (like the height of head of „Snap Head‟). The maximum
width of head will be „1.6d‟. so the specialty of PAN head is that the head will be „0.7d‟ and the
maximum width will become „1.6d‟ where the width at the top will become „d‟.

3. Another Common head is called „Mushroom Head‟. Mushroom Head means here the
maximum diameter of head will be „2.25d‟ and the height of head will become „0.5d‟.
The centre of the curve will be at the „1.516d‟. So the specialty of mushroom head is
Height of head will be „0.5d‟ and width of head will become „2.25d‟, where the centre of circle
will be at „1.516d‟.

4. Another is Countersunk Head 120o. Here if the diameter is „d‟, then the width of the
head will become „2d‟, and the height of head will become „0.29d‟, and the slope will be

38
 made in such a way that this will become 120o. The angle between this two slopes will
become 120o.

5. Another type of rivet is „Flat Countersunk 90o. Here if the diameter is „d‟, then the
width of the head will become „2d‟, and the height of head will become „0.5d‟, and the
slope will be made in such a way that this will become 90 o. The angle between this two
slopes will become 90o.

6. Another type of rivet is „Flat Countersunk head 60o‟. Here if the diameter is „d‟, then
the width of the head will become „1.5d‟, and the height of head will become „0.433d‟,
and the slope will be made in such a way that the angle will become 60o. The angle
between this two will be 60o.

7. Another type of rivet is round counter sunk head 60 o.

39
Here the anagle between these two will become 60o. This radius will become „1.5d‟. so the width
will become 1.5d of the circle and height of head will become „0.433d‟.

8. Another type of rivet is Flat head. In case of flat head, the height of the head will
become „0.25d‟ where d is the nominal diameter of the sunk, and the width of head will
become „2d‟.

NOW WE WILL DISCUSS ABOUT THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONVENTIONAL

SYMBOLS

These conventional symbols has to be known for knowing the drawing and the engineer
executing the construction at the site, must know how to read the drawing. That means in a
drawing some symbols are given for the connections so he should know, what is the meaning
and what type of connections the design engineer has made and accordingly he has to make. So
for the sake of simplicity certain convention symbols has been used which are given below for
our learning purpose.

1. One is generally rivet. One plate is this. Another plate is

Plate-1 Plate-2 40
 Section

Connection View
2. Suppose Rivet countersunk on backside. RivetTo mean this, the drawing will be something like
General
this. So to represent the Rivet countersunk on backside, the view and section will be looking
like shown below.

Section

Connection View
Rivet
countersunk
on backside

3. Suppose Rivet countersunk on front side. To mean this, the drawing will be something like
this. So to represent the Rivet countersunk on front side, the view and section will be looking
like shown below.

Section

Connection View
Rivet
countersunk
on backside

41
4.

Rivet Counter sunk on

front and back side

5.

Bolt General

6.

Bolt head counter sunk on back side

7.

Bolt head counter sunk on front side

8.

Bolt to distinguished from the rivet

9.

Bolt, place of Nut indicated

42
 Terminology

What is pitch distance?

For connecting two members, we need to know what will be the Pitch distance, Edge distance
and other things.

Pitch distance means the distance between two rivets in a plane in a particular direction and
Edge distance means the distance from the outer most rivet to the edge.

q. What should be the minimum edge distance, What should be maximum pitch, minimum pitch,
Min edge distance
Max edge distance
All these things has been given in the code IS 800:1984. In that (this) code, all the details has
been given and according to the codal provisions we have to follow and design accordingly. So
before designing, before going to analyse the details of the rivet joints, we must know what are
the codal provisions and we should know some of the terminology, so that we can know all these
things before going to the analysis.

Say this is one plate another plate is here overlapped. Now say rivets are there like this. Now the
load is acting in this direction. Then the Pitch will be along the action of load, the distance
between two rivets.( Distance between two rivets is called Pitch) and this is called „Lap‟ means
Lap length. That means overlapping of two plates. This is one plate and this is another plate. This
plate is continue upto this and this plate is continue upto this. So Overlapping is from this to this
which is called „Lap‟ and Edge distance is this one.
The distance between two pitch perpendicular to the action of load is called gauge. So this gauge.
So we should not mix up with Pitch and Gauge.

This „p‟ basically stands for Pitch. So what are the terminology we got from here.
One is Edge, „e‟, another is Pitch, „p‟, and another is gauge. „g‟. so these three terms will be
required frequently for analysis of the rivet joints.

Pitch, p Pitch is the centre to centre distance of adjacent rivets or bolt holes measured in the
direction of stress
Gauge, g A row of rivets which is parallel to the direction of stress is called gauge line. The
normal distance between two adjacent gauge lines is called gauge.

Edge distance, e The distance between the edge of a member or cover plate from the centre of
the nearest rivet hole.

So this three terminology is important and the codal provision has been given that what is the
minimum edge distance and gauge distance and pitch distance should be maintained. Those
things has been told in Codal provisions we will come to them later through which we have to
design the details of the joint.

43
Nominal diameter, d It is the diameter of the shank of the rivet. For bolts the diameter of the
unthreaded portion of the shank is called its nominal diameter.

Gross diameter, D The diameter of the rivet hole or bolt hole is called its gross diameter. This
gross diameter can be calculated from the given formula.

As per clause 3.6.1.1 of IS 800:

D = d + 1.5 mm for d< 25 mm
= d + 2 mm for d >= 25 mm

So in short if I repeat once again using Figure given below.

This is called edge distance, This is the „Pitch‟, and this is the „gauge‟ and this is the „Lap‟. In
short we have to say, if the load, „P‟ is acting in this direction. Remember, see first the load in
which direction it is acting, accordingly we have to decide which one will be the pitch and which
one will the gauge. Pitch distance is the distance along the action of the load and the gauge
distance will be the perpenidcular to the action of the load.

TYPES OF RIVET JOINTS

Now the rivet joints can be classified into three category.

1. Depending upon arrangement of rivets and plates (That means how the plates and rivets
have been arranged. on that basis the classification can be made.)
2. Depending upon mode of load transmission (How that load is transmitted on that basis
the rivet joint can be classified)
3. Depending upon nature and location of load (that means where is the load and what type
of load like whether the load is concentric or eccentric or only tensile coming into picture
or only compression force on that basis rivet joint can be classified.)

44
 1. Depending upon arrangement of rivets and plates (This first case it can be divided
into two category. Depending upon arrangement of rivets and plates, the rivet joint
can be classified as „Lap Joint‟ and „Butt Joint‟.)

Lap Joint (so Lap joint is again classified into three category)
(a) Single riveting
(b) Chain riveting
(c) Staggered or Zig-Zag riveting

Butt Joint
(a) Single riveting
(b) Chain riveting
(c) Staggered or Zig-Zag riveting

2. Depending upon the mode of load transmission, the rivet joints can be classified into
four category:
(a) Single shear
(b) Double shear
(c) Multiple shear
(d) Bearing
That means in how the load is getting transmitted on that basis the rivet joints has been classified
whether it is single shear or double shear or Multiple shear or bearing

3. Depending upon the nature and location of load

(a) Direct shear connection
(b) Eccentric connection
(c) Pure moment connection
(d) Moment shear connection

[So all this types will be discussed now. What type of joints should be made in case of different
type of rivet thing arrangement. Those things will be discussed now] say first let us consider now
say

45
SINGLE RIVETED LAP JOINT

Chain riveting lap JOINT

STAGGERED OR ZIG ZAG RIVETTING LAP JOINT

46
 CONCEPTS OF PLASTICITY
There are five basic concepts in the theory of plasticity:
1. Yield condition
2. Hardening curve
3. Incompressibility
4. Flow rule
5. Loading/unloading criterion
All of the above concept will _rst be explained in the 1-D case and then extended to the
general 3-D case.

Hardening Curve and Yield Curve

If we go to the lab and perform a standard tensile test on a round specimen or a at dog- bone specimen
made of steel or aluminum, most probably the engineering stress-strain curve will look like the one shown
in Fig. (12.1a). The following features can be distinguished:

Point A - proportionality limit

Point B - 0.02% yield
Point C - arbitrary point on the hardening curve showing different trajectories on loading/unloading
Point D - fully unloaded specimen

For most of material the initial portion of the stress-strain curve is straight up to the
proportionality limit, point A. From this stage on the stress-strain curve becomes slightly curved
but there is no distinct yield point with a sudden change of slope. There is in international
standard the yield stress is mapped by taking elastic slope with 0.02% strain (ε= 0:0002) offset
strain. Upon loading, the material hardens and the stress is increasing with diminishing slop until
the testing machine (either force or displacement controlled) is stopped. There are two
possibilities. On unloading, meaning reversing the load or displacement of the cross-load of the
testing machine, the unloading trajectory is straight. This is the elastic unloading where the slop
of the stress-strain curve is equal to the initial slope, given by the Young's modulus. At point D
the stress is zero but there is a residual plastic strain of the magnitude OD. The experiment on
loading/unloading tell us that the total strain _total can be considered as the sum of the plastic
strain _plastic and elastic strain _elastic. Thus

The elastic component is not constant but depends on the current stress

The plastic strain depends on how far a given specimen is loaded, and thus there is a di_erence
between the total (measured) strain and known elastic strain. Various empirical formulas were

47
suggested in the literature to _t the measured relation between the stress and the plastic strain.
The most common is the swift hardening law

where A is the stress amplitude, n is the hardening exponent and _o is the strain shift parameter.

In many practical problems the magnitude of plastic strain is mud larger than the parameter _o,
giving rise to a simpler power hardening law, extensively used in the literature.

For most metals the exponent n is the range of n = 0:1�0:3, and the amplitude can vary a lot,
depending on the grade of steel. A description of the reverse loading and cycling plastic
loading is beyond the scope of the present lecture notes.

Various other approximation of the actual stress-strain curve of the material are in common use
and some of then are shown in Fig. (12.3).

A further simplification is obtained by considering the average value _o of the stress- strain
curve, illustrated in Fig. (12.3b). This concept gave rise to the concept of the rigid-perfectly
plastic material characteristic time, depicted in Fig. (12.4). The material model shown in Fig.
(12.4) is adopted in the development of the limit analysis of structures. The extension of the
concept of the hardening curve to the 3-D case will be presented later, after deriving the
expression for the yield condition.

12.2 Loading/Unloading Condition

In the 1-D case the plastic ow rule is reduced to the following statement:

48
In the case of unloading, the stress follow the path CD on the _-_p graph. If the strain rate is an
independent variable, the path of all unloading cases is the same CBO, as shown in Fig. (12.4).

12.3 Incompressibility
Numerous experiments performed over the past 100% have shown that metals are practically
incompressible in the plastic range. Let's explore the consequences of this physical fact in the
case of one-dimensional case. Denote the gauge length of the prismatic bar by l and its cross-
sectional area by A. The current volume of the gauge section is V = Al. Incompressibility means
that the volume must be unchanged or dV = 0.

From Eq. (12.5) we infer that the strain increment d_ can be calculated either by tracking down
the gauge length or the cross-sectional area

Integrating the first part of Eq. (??)

The integration constant is obtained by requiring that the strain vanishes when the length
l is equal to the gauge initial, reference length lo, which gives C = �ln lo. Thus

which is the logarithmic de_nition of strain, introduced in Lecture 2. Similarly, integrating

the second part of Eq. (??) with the initial condition at A = Ao, _ = 0, one gets

49
In tension l > lo or A < Ao, so both Eqs. (??) and (??) gives the positive strain. In compression
the strain is negative. The same is true for strain increments d_ or strain rates

From the above analysis follows a simple extension of the plastic incompressibility condition
into the 3-D case. Consider an infinitesimal volume element V = x1x2x3, Fig. (12.5).

The plastic incompressibility requires that

Dividing both sides of the above equation by the volume, one gets

The sum of the diagonal components of the strain rate tensor must vanish to ensure
incompressibility. It follows from the ow rule (to be formulated later) that in uniaxial tension in

50
x1 direction the components _ _22 = _ _33. Therefore _ _11 + 2_ _22 = 0 or _ _11 + 2_ _33 = 0.
Finally we obtain

The coefficient 0.5 can be interpreted as the Poisson ratio

We can conclude that plastic incompressibility requires that the Poisson ratio be equal to 1=2,
which is different from the elastic Poisson ratio, equal to 0:3 for metals. Many other materials
such as rubber, polymers and water are incompressible.

51
First let us discuss about the I-sections. I section means how does it look and what are the things
we have, let us discuss.

Let us draw the I- section how it looks. (Draw it on Board)

52
This total depth of the I-section is denoted in the code book [means SP: 6-(1): Hand Book for
Structural Engineers] is denoted by ‘h’.

and the width of the flange is denoted by ‘b’

and this is called „web‟. Thickness of web is ‘tw’.

Another thing is, thickness of flange is written as ‘tf’.

This is the X-X direction and this is Y-Y direction.

and this „tf‟. As you see thickness of flange is varying from here to here. Right it is varying! so
Where to measure this is a measure at a distance of (b - tw) / 4. All this things details will get in
SP: 6-(1). Right. where „b‟ is the width of the flange and „t w‟ is the thickness of the flange

So (b-tw)/4, at a distance of (b-tw)/4 from end of the flange, the thickness of the flange come is
called „tf‟ the thickness of flange. Right!.

and „this is the slope of flange. This is termed as „D‟

this is called „r1‟ “radius at root”.

this is called „r2‟ “radius at toe”.

So these are the standard things which are given in the SP: 6-1 code. right So we have to know
what are terms and accordingly the specifications has been given and value has been given.
Right! now let us see how the terms are coming. Like

We use to say ISJB or JB what is this INDIAN STANDARD JUNIOR BEAM (ISJB) – JB
Indian Standard Junior Beam. It is denoted by ISJB or JB

Similarly, INDIAN STANDARD LIGHT BEAM (ISLB) that is denoted by LB

Indian Standard Light Beam, denoted by ISLB or LB

Similarly, INDIAN STANDARD MEDIUM WEIGHT BEAM (ISMB) – MB

Similarly Indian Stanadard Medium Weight Beam, denoted by ISMB or MB

Right! So different type of I- section beam means I section is available and mainly these are used
for beams

INDIAN STANDARD WIDE FLANGE BEAM (ISWB) – WB

Similarly Indian Standard Wide Flange Beam, denoted by ISWB or WB

INDIAN STANDARD HEAVY WEIGHT BEAM (ISHB) – HB

Similarly Indian Standard Heavy Weight Beam, denoted by ISHB or HB

INDIAN STANDARD COLUMN SECTION (ISSC) – SC

53
Similarly Indian Standard Column Section, denoted by ISSC or SC

Now in Table-1 of SP: 6-1, there you see what the things are given in Table 1.
Suppose for ISMB 550, in Table 1 Corresponding to ISMB 550 we will get several parameter
details.

First we will get „w‟ which is weight per meter in Kg. so ISMB 550 when we are telling we
know what is the weight of the beam.

Then you will get the „a‟ „a‟ is the section area. i.e., what is the cross-sectional area of ISMB 550
Section. That is also given there.

Then „h‟ i.e., depth of section in mm

Then „b‟ i.e., width of flange
Then „tf‟ - thickness of flange
Then „tw‟ - thickness of web

So in this way all the details will be given there. Apart from these what the other things are
given. Along with these ‘D’, ‘r1’, ‘r2’ are also given

So like Ixx Moments of Inertia about X-direction value, Iyy Moments of Inertia about Y-direction
value, rxx – radius of gyration about X direction, ryy radius of gyration about Y-direction.
then section Modulus in X-direction, Zxx ,
section modulus in Y-direction, Zyy
r1, radius at root,
r2 radius at toe,
and D slope of flange
so these are things will be getting from HandBook.

Along with these, other things will get i.e., connection details. Because as it is a rolled section
so some standard things are there which is given. so through that, we have to calculate. These are
all standard. So for ISMB 550, the values has been given like „h1 ‟, „h2‟, „b1‟, „C‟, „g (gauge
distance)‟, „g1‟ and also maximum size of rivet. So all these you will get in the tabular form.
So if you go through the code you will understand in details.

Similarly for channel section how does it look. For channel section it will be like this.

54
 Unit-II
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Introduction Column, top chords of trusses, diagonals and bracing members are all examples of
compression members. Columns are usually thought of as straight compression members whose
lengths are considerably greater than their cross-sectional dimensions. An initially straight strut
or column, compressed by gradually increasing equal and opposite axial forces at the ends is
considered first. Columns and struts are termed “long” or “short” depending on their proneness
to buckling. If the strut is “short”, the applied forces will cause a compressive strain, which
results in the shortening of the strut in the direction of the applied forces. Under incremental
loading, this shortening continues until the column yields or "squashes". However, if the strut is
“long”, similar axial shortening is observed only at the initial stages of incremental loading.
Thereafter, as the applied forces are increased in magnitude, the strut becomes “unstable” and
develops a deformation in a direction normal to the loading axis and its axis is no longer straight.
The strut is said to have “buckled”.

55
 Short Columns vs Long Columns
Buckling behaviour is thus characterized by large deformations developed in a direction (or
plane) normal to that of the loading that produces it. When the applied loading is increased, the
buckling deformation also increases. Buckling occurs mainly in members subjected to
compressive forces. If the member has high bending stiffness, its buckling resistance is high.
Also, when the member length is increased, the buckling resistance is decreased. Thus the
buckling resistance is high when the member is short or “stocky” (i.e. the member has a high
bending stiffness and is short) conversely, the buckling resistance is low when the member is
long or “slender”.

Elastic buckling of an ideal column or strut with pinned end

The classical Euler analysis of the elastic behaviour of an idealized, pin-ended, uniform strut
makes the following assumptions.
• The material is homogeneous and linearly elastic (i.e. it obeys Hooke‟s Law).
• The strut is perfectly straight and there are no imperfections.
• The loading is applied at the centroid of the cross section at the ends

We will assume that the member is able to bend about one of the principal axes. (See Fig. 5.2).
Initially, the strut will remain straight for all values of P, but at a particular value
P = Pcr, it buckles. Let the buckling deformation at a section distant x from the end B be y.

The bending moment at this section = Pcr.y

The differential equation governing the deformation can be obtained by considering moment
equilibrium about point C as

Strength curve for all ideal strut We will assume that the stress-strain relationship of the material
of the column is as shown in Fig. 5.5. Such a strut under compression can therefore resist only a
maximum force given by fy.A, when plastic squashing failure would occur by the plastic
yielding of the entire cross section; this means that the stress at failure of a column can never
exceed fy

56
it is obvious that the column would fail by buckling at a stress given by (π 2 EI / λ2 )

Strength of compression members

in practice The highly idealized straight form assumed for the struts considered so far cannot be
achieved in practice. Members are never perfectly straight and they can never be loaded exactly
at the centroid of the cross section. Deviations from the ideal elastic plastic behaviour defined by
Fig. 5 are encountered due to strain hardening at high strains and the absence of clearly defined
yield point in some steel. Moreover, residual stresses locked-in during the process of rolling also
provide an added complexity. Thus the three components, which contribute to a reduction in the
actual strength
of columns (compared with the predictions from the “ideal” column curve) are
(i) Initial imperfection or initial bow.
(ii) Eccentricity of application of loads.
(iii) Residual stresses locked into the cross section.

57
The concepts of effective lengths So far, the discussion in this chapter has been centred around
pin-ended columns. The boundary conditions of a column may, however, be idealized in one the
following ways
• Both the ends pin jointed (i.e. the case considered before)
• Both ends fixed.
• One end fixed and the other end pinned.
• One end fixed and the other end free. By setting up the corresponding differential equations,
expressions for the critical

Buckled mode for different end connections

Using the column, pinned at both ends as the basis of comparison, the critical load in all the
above cases can be obtained by employing the concept of “effective length”, Le.

Effective length of compression members

Types of column sections

Rolled Steel Sections

Some of the sections employed as compression members are shown in Fig.
Single angles are satisfactory for bracings and for light trusses. Top chord members of roof
trusses are usually made up of double angles back-to-back. The pair of angles used, has to be
connected together, so they will act as one unit. Welds may be used at intervals – with a spacer
bar between the connecting legs. Alternately “stitch bolts”, washers and “ring fills” are placed

58
between the angles to keep them at the proper distance apart (e.g. to enable a gusset to be
connected). Such connections are called tack connections and the terms tack welding or tacks
bolting are used. When welded roof trusses are required, there is no need for gusset plates and T
sections can be employed as compression members. Single channels or C-sections are generally
not satisfactory for use in compression, because of the low value of radius of gyration in the
weak direction. They can be used if they could be supported in a suitable way in the weak
direction. Circular hollow sections are perhaps the most efficient as they have equal values of
radius of gyration about every axis. But connecting them is difficult but satisfactory methods
have been evolved in recent years for their use in tall buildings.

Design strength

Based on the studies of Ayrton & Perry (1886), the compressive strength of the column can be
obtained from the following equation

Where, fy = yield stress, fc = compressive strength, fe = Euler buckling stress, λ = Slenderness

ratio (l/r) and η = a parameter allowing for the effects of lack of straightness and eccentricity of

59
loading and can be expressed as aλ where α is a function of the shape of the cross section. Since
Robertson evaluated the mean values of α for many sections, the design method is termed
"Perry-Robertson method". Equation (5.8) will result in column strength values lower than fy
even in very low slenderness cases as indicated by the Robertson‟s curve in Fig. 5.19. By
modifying the slenderness, λ to (λ - λo), a plateau to the design curve can be introduced for low
slenderness values. This has the effect of shifting the curve to the right by a value equal to λo.
The value of λo may be taken as 0.2(π√E/fy). Thus, the elastic critical stress can be calculated as
fe = π 2 E/(λ - λo) 2 . Note that calculations for fe is not needed when λ ≤ λe as the column
would fail by squashing at fy.

Column strength curves

Steps in the design of axially loaded columns

The procedure for the design of an axially compressed column is as follows:

(i) Assume a suitable trial section and classify the section in accordance with the classification in
chapter. (ii) Arrive at the effective length of the column by suitably considering the end
conditions.
(iii) Calculate the slenderness ratios (λ values) in both minor and major axes direction and also
calculate λo using the formula given below:

(iv) Calculate fcd values along both major and minor axes from equation 12
(v) Compute the load that the compression member can resist (pd=Acfcd)
(vi) Calculate the factored applied load and check whether the column is safe against the given
loading. The most economical but safe section can be arrived at by trial and error, i.e. repeating
the above process.

60
 Unit-III
DESIGN OF BEAMS

A structural member subjected to transverse loads (Loads perpendicular to its longitudinal axis)
is called a beam. See Figure ABOVE

Beams are most critical members in any structure. Their design should therefore not only be
economical but also safe. The main considerations in the design of beams are:

1. They should be proportioned for strength in bending keeping in view the lateral and local
stability of the compression flange and the capacity of the selected shape to develop the
necessary strength in shear and local bearing.
2. They should be proportioned for stiffness, keeping in mind their deflections and
deformations under service conditions.
3. They should be proportioned for economy, paying attention to the size and grade of steel
to yield the most economical design.

Beam design consists merely of the provision of adequate bending and shear resistance. For
optimum bending resistance, as much of the beams material as possible should be displaced as
far as practicable from the neutral axis. The web area should be sufficient to resist shear.

Maximum moment and maximum shear usually occur at different sections. Though simple in
design, the lateral buckling of beam as a whole, or of its compression flange or its web pose
complications. Another problem is of proper depth – an increase in depth may be desirable for
moment resistance, it may at the same impair resistance to lateral or web buckling (Figure).

61
62
TYPES OF BEAMS:

Beams are generally classified according to their geometry and the manner in which they are
supported. They may be straight or curved.

Figure: Straight Beam

63
 Figure: Curved Beam

Girders usually the most important beams which are frequently at wide spacing.

Joists usually less important beams which are closely spaced, frequently with truss type webs.

Stringers- Longitudinal beams spanning between floor beams.

Purlins- Roof beams spanning between trusses

Girts- horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to wind on the side of an
industrial building.

Lintels- Members supporting a wall over window or door openings.

64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
 Unit-IV
DESIGN OF ECCENTRIC CONNECTION
Design of eccentric connection, framed, stiffened and seat connection.

1. How are the building connections classified based on their moment-rotation

characteristics?

2. Determine the safe load P that can be carried by the joint shown in Figure. The bolts used
are 20 mm diameter of grade 4.6. The thickness of the Flange of I-section is 9.1 mm and
that of bracket plate 10 mm. [page No. 717 S.K. Duggal 2nd edition] [ 5 Marks]

P F1
200 mm
F2 θ
40 mm A
80mm A rn 160 mm
θ
80mm
80mm 60 mm
80mm
40mm A (b)
120 mm

Solution: (a)

For Fe 410 grade of steel: fu = 410 MPa

For bolts of grade 4.6: fub = 400 MPa

Partial safety factor for the material of bolt: γmb =1.25

Anb = stress area of 20 mm diameter bolt = 0.78 x ∏x 20 2/4 = 245 mm2

Given: diameter of bolt, d = 20 mm; pitch, p = 80 mm; edge distance, e = 40 mm (2 x20 mm), d
= 20 + 2 = 22 mm.
𝑓
Strength of bolt in single shear, Vdsb = Anb 1.732 𝑢𝑏𝑥 1.25

400
= 245 x 1.732 𝑋 1.25 × 10−3 = 45.26 𝑘𝑁

𝑓𝑢
Strength of bolt in bearing, Vdpb = 2.5 kb dt
𝛾 𝑚𝑏

72
 𝑒 40 𝑝 80
Kb is least of = 3 𝑥 22 = 0.606; 3𝑑 − 0.25 = – 0.25 = 0.96
3𝑑 0 0 3 𝑥 22

𝑓 𝑢𝑏 400
= =0.975; and 1.0
𝑓𝑢 410

Hence Kb = 0.606
𝑓𝑢 410
Vdpb = 2.5 kb dt = 2.5 x 0.606 x 20x 9.1 x × 10−3 = 90.44 𝑘𝑁
𝛾 𝑚𝑏 1.25

Hence strength of bolt is Vsd = 45.26 kN

Let, P1 be the factored load.

𝑃1 1𝑃
Service load, P = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.50
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The bolt which is stressed maximum is A

Total number of bolts in the joint , n = 10

𝑃1 𝑃1
The force direct force, F1 = =
𝑛 10

𝑃𝑒0 𝑟𝑛
The force in the bolt due to torque, F2 = 𝑟2

120 2
rn = (80 + 80)2 + = 170.88 mm
2

𝑟 2 = 4 x [(1602 + 602) + (802 + 602)] + 2 x 602 = 164,000 mm2

F2 =(𝑃1 × 200 × 170.88)/(164,000 )= 0.20839 P1

60
Cosθ = = 0.3511
60 2 +160 2

The resultant force on the bolt should be less than or equal to the strength of bolt.

𝑃1 2 𝑃
45.26≤ + (0.20839𝑃1 )2 + 2 × 101 × 0.20839𝑃1 × 0.3511
10

Implies P1 = 173.49 kN

73
 𝑃1 173 .49
The service load, P = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 115.65 kN
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1.5

L.Date : 24/march/2015.

3. Design a bracket connection to transfer an end reaction of 225 kN due to factored loads
as in Figure below. The end reaction from the girder acts at an eccentricity of 300 mm
from the face of the column flange. Design bolted joint connecting the Tee-flange with
the column flange. Steel is of grade Fe 410 and bolts of grade 4.6. [ 5 Marks] [ Page No.
721, S.K. Duggal 2nd edition]

A
225 kN
300 mm

Tee bracket

A
Solution: For Fe 410 grade of steel: fu = 410 Mpa

For bolts of grade 4.6: fub = 400 MPa

Partial safety factor for the material bolt: γmb = 1.25

The bolts along section AA are subjected to

(i) Shear due to the load, P = 225kN passing through the c.g. of the joint
(ii) Tension due to bending moment, M = 225 x 300 = 67,500 kNmm
Let us provide 24 mm diameter bolts for making the connection.

For 24 mm diameter bolts

Stress area, Anb = 353 mm2
Minimum pitch, p = 2.5 x 24 = 60 mm ≈ 65 mm
Edge distance = 1.5 x (24+2) = 39 mm ≈ 40 mm

74
 Strength of the bolt in single shear,
𝑓 400
Vdsb = Vsd = Anb1.732 𝑢𝑏𝑥 𝛾 = 353 x 1.732 𝑥 1.25 𝑥 10−3
𝑚𝑏

= 65.22 kN

Strength of bolts in tension Tdb = Tnb/γmb

Tnb = 0.9 fub Anb = 0.9 x 400 x 353 x10-3 = 127.08 kN

𝛾 𝑚𝑏 1.25
not greater fyb 𝐴𝑠𝑏 = 250 x 1.10 𝑥 452 𝑥10−3 = 128.40 kN
𝛾𝑚 0

Hence, Tdb = Tnb/γmb = 127.08 / 1.25 = 101.66 kN

The bolts will be provided in two vertical rows, one on each side of the web of the Tee section,
connecting the flanges 0f the two sections.

6𝑀 6×67,500
Number of bolts required in one row , n = = =6.91≈ 7
𝑝𝑛 ′𝑉 𝑠𝑑 2×65×65.22

Hence provide 7 bolts in each row at a pitch of 65 mm and edge distance of 40 mm.

Total depth of the bracket plate = 6 x 65 + 2 x 40 = 470 mm

h = 470 – 40 = 430 mm

The neutral axis is assumed to lie at h/7 from the bottom of the bracket, i.e., at 430/7 = 61.42 mm

𝑦𝑖 = 2 x [(65 + 40 – 61.42) + (130 + 40 + 61.42) + (195 + 40 - 61.42) + (260 + 40 -61.42) +

325 + 40 -61.42) +(390 +40 -61.42)]

= 2472.96 mm

𝑦𝑖 2 = 2 x [43.582 + 108.582 + 173.582 + 238.582 + 303.582 +368.582]= 657,502.6 mm2

𝑀 67.5 × 103
M‟ = 2ℎ 𝑦 𝑖 = 2×430 2472 .96 = 58.49 x 103 kNm
1+ 1+
21 𝑦 𝑖 2 21 657502 .6

Tensile force in the critical bolt,

𝑀′ 𝑦𝑛 58.49 × 10 3
Tb = 2 = × 368.58 = 32.79 kN (yn = 368.58mm)
𝑦𝑖 657502 .6

Shear force in the critical bolt,

75
 𝑃 225
Vsb = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 2×7 = 16.07 𝑘𝑁
𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Check

𝑉𝑠𝑏 2 𝑇𝑏 2
+ ≤ 1.0
𝑉𝑑𝑠𝑏 𝑇 𝑑𝑏

16.07 2 32.79 2
+ =0.1647 ≤ 1.0
65.22 101 .66

Which is as it should be.

4. An ISLB 300 @ 369.8 N/m transmits an end reaction of 385 kN, under factored loads, to
the web of ISMB 450 @710.2 N/m. Design a bolted framed connection. Steel is of grade
Fe410 and bolts are of grade 4.6. [5 Marks] [ Page No. 723 S.k. Duggal 2ndb edition]
5. Design a stiffened seat connection for an ISMB 350@ 514 N/m transmitting an end
reaction of 320 kN (due to factored loads) to a column section ISHB 300 @ 576.8 N/m.
The steel is of grade Fe 410 and bolts of grade 4.6. [5 Mark s] [Page No. 727, S.k.
Duggal 2ndb edition]

76
 Unit-V

PLATE GIRDERS
Syllabus: Design of Plate Girders, elements, economical depth, design of main section,
connections between web and flange, design of stiffness bearing, intermediate stiffeners, design
of web splice and flange splice.

1. Design a welded plate girder 24 m in span and laterally restrained throughout. It has to
support a uniform load of 100 kN/m throughout the span exclusive of self-weight. Design the
girder without intermediate transverse stiffners. The steel for the flange and web plates is of
grade Fe 410. Yield stress of steel may be assumed to be 250 MPa irrespective of the
thickness of plates used. Design the cross section, the end load bearing stiffener and
connections. [ 5 Marks]

Solution:

For Fe 410 grade of steel: fu = 410 MPa, fy = fyp = fyw = 250 Mpa
μ= 0.3

E = 2 x 105 MPa

Partial safety factors, γmw = 1.50 ( for site welding)

= 1.25 (For shop welding)

250 250
ε = ε w = εf = = = 1.0
𝑓𝑦 250

Design Forces
Total superimposed load = 100 kN/m
Factored superimposed load = 1.5 x 100 = 150 kN/m
𝑊𝐿 (100 ×24)×24
Let, self-weight of plate girder = 400 = 400
=144 kN
144
Self-weight of plate-girder per meter length = = 6 kN/m
24
Factored self weight = 1.5 x 6 = 9 kN/m
Total uniform factored load = 150 + 9 = 159 kN/m
159 ×242
Maximum bending moment = = 11,448 kNm
8

77
 159 ×24
Maximum shear force = = 1908 kN
2

Design of web
0.33
𝑀𝑧 𝑘
Optimum depth of plate girder, d = 𝑓𝑦

When intermediate transverse stiffeners are not to be provided;

d/tw ≤ 200ε i.e., 200 (from serviceability criteria)

≤ 345 εf2 i.e., 345 (from flange buckling criteria)

and

Let us assume k = d/t w = 180

0.33
𝑀𝑧 𝑘
Optimum depth of plate girder, d = 𝑓𝑦

0.33
11448 ×10 6 ×180
= 250

= 1871.9 mm ≈ 1800 mm
0.33
𝑀𝑧 11448 ×10 6
Optimum web thickness, tw = = = 10.95 mm ≈ 12 mm
𝑓𝑦 𝑘2 250 ×180 2

(Thickness provided is more since intermediate transverse stiffeners are not to be provided)

Let us try web plate 1800 x 12 mm in size.

Design of Flanges

Let us assume that bending moment will be resisted by the flanges and shear by the web.

𝑀𝑧 𝛾𝑚 0 11448 ×10 6 ×1.10

Required area of Flange, Af = = =27984 mm2
𝑓𝑦 𝑑 250 ×1800

Assuming width of flange equal to 0.3 times depth of girder,

bf = 0.3 x 1800 = 540 mm ≈ 560 mm

2798 4
Thickness of flange, t f = = 49.97 ≈ 50 mm
560

Classification of flanges

78
For the flanges to be classifiable as plastic b/t f ≤ 8.4ε (ε is yield stress ratio)
𝑏 𝑓 −𝑡 𝑤 560 −12
The outstand of flange, b = = =274 mm
2 2

𝑏 274
= = 5.48
𝑡𝑓 50

< 8.4 (8.4ε = 8.4 x 1 = 8.4)

Hence, the flanges are plastic. (βb = 1.0)

Check for bending strength

The trial section of the plate girder is shown in Figure 1. The plastic section modulus of the section,
(𝐷−𝑡 𝑓 ) 1900 −50
Zpz = 2 bf tf =2 x 560 x 50 x =51.80 x 106 mm3
2 2

Moment Capacity,
𝑓𝑦 250
Md = βbZpz𝛾 = 1.0 x 51.80 x 106 x 1.10 × 10−6 = 11772.7 kNm
𝑚0

>11448kNm

which is safe.

Shear capacity of web

Let us use simple post-critical method.

560

𝑑 1800
= = 150
𝑡𝑤 12 7 mm fillet
925

< 200 (200ε = 200 x 1 =200) weld

1800

1900

and also <345

12
(345ε2 = 345 x 1 = 345)
274
which is all right.

Elastic critical shear stress, 50

79
Figure 1.
 𝑘𝑣 𝜋 2 𝐸
𝜏𝑐𝑟 ,𝑒 = 𝑑 2
12(1−𝜇 2 )
𝑡𝑤

Transverse Stiffeners will be provided at supports only. Hence, Kv =5.35

5.35×𝜋 2 ×2×10 5
𝜏𝑐𝑟 ,𝑒 = 12(1−0.32 ) = 42.98 N/mm2
150 2

The non-dimensional web slenderness ratio for shear buckling stress,

𝑓𝑦𝑤 250
λw = = = 1.83 ≈ 1.80
3 ×𝜏 𝑐𝑟 ,𝑒 3 ×42.98

>1.20

Shear stress corresponding to buckling (For λw >1.20),

𝑓𝑦𝑤 250
ηb = = = 44.55 N/mm2
3×𝜆 𝑤 2 3×1.80 2

Shear force corresponding to web buckling,

Vcr = dtwτb = 1800 x 12 x 44.55 x 10-3 = 962.28 kN < 1908kN

Which is unsafe.

Let us revise the web thickness from 12 mm to 16 mm.

New values of 𝜏𝑐𝑟 ,𝑒 , λw , ηb, and Vcr will be as follows.

𝑑 1800
= = 112.5
𝑡𝑤 16
5.35×𝜋 2 ×2×10 5
𝜏𝑐𝑟 ,𝑒 = = 76.41 N/mm2
12(1−0.32 ) 1 2

𝑓𝑦𝑤 250
λw = = = 1.374 = 1.37 > 1.2
3 ×𝜏 𝑐𝑟 ,𝑒 3 ×76.41

𝑓𝑦𝑤 250
ηb = 2 = = 76.90 N/mm2
3×𝜆 𝑤 3×1.37 2

Vcr = dtwτb = 1800 x 12 x 44.55 x 10-3 = 2214.7 kN > 1908kN

Which is safe.

80
Check for lateral-torsional buckling

Since the compression flange of the girder is laterally restrained throughout, the
possibility of lateral-torsional buckling is not there and this check is not required.

Flange to web connection

There will be two weld lengths along the span for each flange to web connection [Figure 1]

𝑉𝐴𝑓 𝑦
𝑞𝑤 =
2 × 𝐼𝑧

𝑏𝑓 𝐷 3 𝑏𝑓 − 𝑡𝑤 𝑑 3
𝐼𝑧 = −
12 12

560 ×1900 3 560−16 1800 3

= −
12 12

= 55702.6 x 106 mm4

50
1900 ×560×50×(900+ 2 )
qw=
2×55702 .6 𝑥 10 6

Let us provide weld of size, S = 6 mm

KS = 0.7 x 6 = 4.2 mm

Strength of shop weld per unit length,

4.2×250×10 −3
Fwd = = 0.485 kN/mm > 0.4436 kN/mm
3×1.25

Which is all right.

End bearing stiffener

Local capacity of the web,

81
 𝑓𝑦𝑤
Fw = (b1 + n2) tw
𝛾𝑚 0

B1 = 125 mm

N2 = 50 x 2.5 = 125 mm
250
Fw = (125 + 125) x 16 x × 10−3
1.10

= 909.09 kN
< 1908 kN

Hence, stiffener will be required.

Maximum reaction = 1908 kN

Let us try two flat sections, as stiffener, one on each side of web. Maximum width of flat that can be
560−16
accommodated = = 272 mm
2

Let us provide 16 mm thick flat section.

Maximum permissible outstand = 2 x t q ε = 20 x 16 x1 = 224mm

Let us try flat section 224 x 16 mm in size [Figure 2]

16

224

16

20tw 20tw

Check for buckling of the stiffener

Effective area of stiffener = 2 x 224 x 16 + (2 x 20 x 16) x 16 = 17408 mm2.

Moment of Inertia of the stiffener,

82
 16 ×224 3 224 16 2
Ix = 2 x + 16 × 224 × + = 13319.1 × 104 𝑚𝑚4
12 2 2

𝐼𝑥 13319.1 ×10 4
Radius of Gyration, r = = = 87.47 mm
𝐴 17408

0.7×1800
Slenderness ratio, λ = = 14.41
87.47

For λ = 14.41, fy = 250 N/mm2, and buckling curve c, the design compressive stress
from Table 8.7,

fcd = 225.67 N/mm2

Buckling resistance, Pd = Ae fcd = 17408 x 225.67 x 10-3 = 3928.46 kN

 1908 kN

Which is safe. Hence, stiffener is safe in compression

Check for bearing capacity of the stiffener

Since the stiffener will be coped to accommodate the fillet weld of flange plate to the web, the
available effective width of stiffener flat for bearing will be lesser than the actual width. Let the
stiffener plate be coped by 15 mm [Figure 3]

Width available for bearing = 224 – 15 = 209 mm

Bearing strength of the stiffener,

𝐴 𝑞 𝑓𝑦𝑝
Fpsd = ≥ Fc - Fw
0.8 𝛾𝑚 0

Area of stiffener in contact with flange,

Aq = 2× 209 × 16 = 6688 𝑚𝑚2

Fc – Fw = 1908 – 909.09 = 998.91 kN

83
 6688×250×10 −3
Fpsd = = 1900 kN > 998.91 kN
0.8×1.10

Which is safe.

Check for torsional resistance provided by end bearing stiffener

The ends of the plate girder must have sufficient torsional resistance from transportation
and erection view point.

The moment of inertia of the end bearing stiffener at support,

Is ≥ 0.34 αs D3Tcf
2𝑡 𝑓 𝑏 𝑓 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑤 3 2×50×560 3 1800 ×16 3
Iy = + = + = 1464.08 x 106mm4
12 12 12 12

A = 2 x 560 x 50 + 1800x16 = 84,800 mm2

𝐼𝑦 1464.08 ×106
ry = = = 131.40 mm
𝐴 84,800

𝐿𝐿𝑇 24×10 3
Slenderness ratio, λ = = = 182.65 > 100( See section 12.17in S.K. Duggal, 2nd
𝑟𝑦 131.40
edition)
30 30
For LLT > 100, αs = = = 8.99 × 10−4
𝜆2 182.65 2

Is, provided ≥ 0.34× 8.99 × 10−4 × (1800 + 2 × 50)3 × 50 = 104.82 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
16×(2×224)3
Is,provided = = 119.89 × 106 𝑚𝑚4 > 104.82 x 106mm4
12

Which is safe.

End-stiffener connection

There will two weld lengths along the depth of web on each side of stiffener plates.

bs = 224 – 15 = 209 mm

Tension capacity of one flat,

0.9 𝐴𝑛 𝑓𝑢 0.9×(209×16)×410
Tdn = = × 10−3 = 987.15 𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑚 1 1.25

84
 987.15
Shear per unit length q1= = 0.278 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
2×(1800−2×15)

Let us provide weld of size, S = 5 mm

KS = 0.7 x 5 = 3.5 mm
3.5×250 𝑘𝑁
Strength of shop weld per unit length, f wd1 = × 10−3 = 0.404 > 0.278 kN/mm.
1.732×1.25 𝑚𝑚

Hence provide 5 mm fillet weld to connect the end bearing stiffener with the web plate (Figure 4).

Design of Gantry Girder

Crane wheel Crab

wheels

Gantry Crane girder

Girder

Stepped
Column

Figure: Typical arrangement of gantry girder on a stepped column

1. What is Gantry Girder and what are the forces that are acting on it?
Answer: A Gantry girder having no lateral support in its length, has to withstand vertical loads
from the weight of crane, hook load and impact and horizontal loads from crane surge. [Meaning
of Surge: To move quickly and forcefully in particular direction].

2Q. Where the gantry girders are used?

Answer: Gantry girders or crane girders carry hand operated or electric over head cranes in
industrial buildings such as factories, workshops, steel works, etc., to lift heavy materials,
equipment etc., to carry them from one location to the other, within the building.

85
3Q. What is drag force?
Answer: This is caused due to the starting and stopping of the crane bridge moving over the
crane rails as the crane moves longitudinally, i.e., in the direction of gantry girders.

4Q. What is the permissible deflection where the electrically overhead cranes operated over 5000
kN.
Answer: The maximum vertical deflection for crane girder, under dead and imposed loads shall
not exceed L/1000, where L is the span of the crane runway girder.

5Q. Mention some of the requirements of a good joint.

Answer: 1. The line of thrust should pass through the C.G. of the rivet group and the rivets
should be symmetrically arranged about this line.

2. For a member, the rivets should be so arranged that the area of the member joined is not
reduced more than necessary.
3. The number and diameter of rivets should be sufficient to develop the maximum stresses
induced in all the members at the connection.
4. Members should be straight and bolts used to draw them together before the rivets are
driven.

2. In what sense the design of plate girders by elastic method and limit state method is
different ? [2 marks]
3. What is tension field action in plate girders? [ 2 Marks]
4. How does a plate girder derive post- buckling strength? [ 2 marks]
5. Give the expression for the optimum depth of plate girder. [1 Mark]

6. Design a gantry girder to be used in an industrial building carrying a manually operated

overhead travelling crane, for the following data:
Crane capacity=200 kN
Self weight of the crane girder excluding trolley = 200 kN
Self weight of the trolley, electric motor, hook, etc. = 40 kN
Approximate minimum approach of the crane hook to the gantry girder = 1.20 m

86
 Wheel base = 3.5 m
c/c distance between gantry rails =16 m
c/c distance between columns (span of gantry girder)= 8 m
Self weight of rail section = 300 N/m
Diameter of crane wheels = 150 mm

Steel is of grade Fe 410. Design also the field welded connection if required. The support
bracket connection need not be designed. [5 marks]

Design of roof Trusses, types of roof trusses, loads on trusses, purlin design, truss design, design
of joints and end bearings

1. June 2014: Design a channel section purlin for a trussed roof from the following data.
Span of roof = 12 m
Spacing of purlin along slope = 2 m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof = 800 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 150 N/m2

June 2013: Design I-section purlin with and without sag bars for a trussed roof from the
following data, (expected in June 2015)-1
Span of roof = 10 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 25m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof = 1100 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 150 N/m2.

May 2012: Compute the loads on a steel roof truss to suit the following data, (expected in June
2015)
Span of the truss = 12 meters
Type of truss = Fan type
Roof cover = Galvanised corrugated G.C. sheeting
Spacing of roof truss = 4.5 meters
Wind pressure = 1.2 kN/m2

May 2011(SET-1)- Design I-section purlin with and without sag bars for a trussed roof from the
following data, (question repeated from June 2013)
Span of roof = 10 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 2.5m

87
 Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof = 1100 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 150 N/m2.

May 2011(SET-2) Design a channel section purlin with and without sag bars for a trussed roof
from the following data, (question repeated from june 2014) (expected in June 2015)
Span of roof = 12 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 2 m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof = 1100 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 150 N/m2.

May 2011 (SET-3) )- Design I-section purlin with and without sag bars for a trussed roof from
the following data, (question repeated from june 2013, May 2011 SET-1)
Span of roof = 15 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 3 m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof = 1200 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 160 N/m2.

May 2011(SET-4) Design a channel section purlin with and without sag bars for a trussed roof
from the following data, (question repeated from June 2014)
Span of roof = 12 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 2 m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof = 1200 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 160 N/m2.

Expected question

June 2013: Design I-section purlin with and without sag bars for a trussed roof from the
following data, (expected in June 2015)-1

Span of roof = 10 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 2.5m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal
Wind load on roof surface normal to roof = 1100 N/m2
Vertical loads from roof sheets = 150 N/m2.

88
Solution:

Given data,

Span of roof = 10 m
Spacing of purlin along slope or truss = 2.5m
Spacing of truss = 4 m
Slope of roof truss = 1 vertical, 2 horizontal

Slope θ = ½
Tan θ = ½
1
θ = tan-1 2

θ = 26.565 degrees

Sinθ = 0.447

Cosθ = 0.894

Tan θ =0.5

Wind load on roof surface normal to roof = 1100 N/m2

Vertical load from roof sheets = 150 N/m2

Calculating the Dead Load (D.L.)

Load from roof sheeting = 150 x Spacing of purlin
= 150 x 2.5 = 375 N/m2
2
Assume self weight = 120 N/m
Total dead weight (WDL) = 495 N/m2

Calculation of Wind Load

Given, Wind Load on roof surface = 1100 N/m2
Total wind load = (Ww.L.) = 1100 x spacing of purlin = 1100 x 2.5 2750 N/m2

(i) Design of I-Section Purlin Without Sag Bars

It is assumed that the load combination of (Dead Load + Wind Load) creates greater effect on
purlin than that of load combination of (Dead Load + Live Load)

Consider the load combination (Dead load + Wind load) for I-section purlin.

Dead load + Wind load

WD.Wx = Load normal to the slope

89
Ww.L. + WD.L. Cosθ = 2750 + 495 cos(26.565)

= 3192.742N

WD.Wy = Load parallel to the slope

= WD.L. Sin(26.565) = 495 sin(26.565)

=221.37 N

𝑊𝐷 .𝑤𝑥 2 𝐿2 (3192.742)×42
Mxx = = = 5108.387 x 103 Nmm
10 10

2 2
𝑊𝐷.𝑤𝑦 𝐿 (221.37)×42
Myy = = = 354.192 x 103 Nmm
10 10

𝑍𝑥𝑥
Assume = 6 and ζbt = 0.66 fy = 0.66 x 250 = 165 N/mm2
𝑍𝑦𝑦

E = 2 x 105 N/mm2

Finding the Required Sectional Modulus

𝑍
𝑀𝑥𝑥 +𝑍 𝑥𝑥 ×𝑀𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦 5108 .387 ×10 3 +[6×354.192 ×10 3 ]
𝑍𝑥 𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = = = 43.84 x 103 mm3
𝜎𝑏𝑡 165

Select ISMB 100 @ 11.5 kg/m

Zxx = 51.5 x 103 mm3

Zyy = 10.9 x 103 mm3

Check for Permissible Stress

𝑀𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑏𝑡 = +
𝑍𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑦𝑦
5108 .387 ×10 3 354.192×10 3
= + = 131.687 N/mm2 < 165 N/mm2
51.5×10 3 10.9×10 3

Hence safe.
90
(ii) Design of I-Section with Sag Bar

Dead load + Wind load

WD.Wx = Load normal to the slope

= Ww.L. + WD.L. Cosθ = 2750 + 495 cos(26.565)

= 3192.742N

WD.Wy = Load parallel to slope

= WD.L. Sin(26.565) = 495 sin(26.565)

=221.37 N

Bending Moment
𝑊𝐷 .𝑤𝑥 2 𝐿2 (3192.742)×42
Mxx = = = 5108.387 x 103 Nmm
10 10

2 𝐿 2 4 2
𝑊𝐷 .𝑤𝑦 (221.37)× 2
Myy = 2
= = 88.548 x 103 N-mm
10 10

Finding the Required Sectional Modulus

𝑍
𝑀𝑥𝑥 +𝑍 𝑥𝑥 ×𝑀𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦 5108 .387 ×10 3 +[6×88.548 ×103 ]
𝑍𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = = = 34.180 x 103 mm3
𝜎𝑏𝑡 165

Select ISJB 150 @ 7.1 kg/m from steel Tables

Zxx = 42.9 x 103 mm3

Zyy = 3.7 x 103 mm3

Check for Permissible Stress

𝑀𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝑏𝑡 = +
𝑍𝑥𝑥 𝑍𝑦𝑦

5108.387 ×10 3 88.548×10 3

= + = 143.009 N/mm2 < 165 N/mm2
42.9×10 3 3.7×103

Hence safe.

91
Expected Question-2

Compute the loads on a steel roof truss to suit the following data, (expected in June
2015)
Span of the truss = 12 meters
Type of truss = Fan type
Roof cover = Galvanised corrugated G.C. sheeting
Spacing of roof truss = 4.5 meters
Wind pressure = 1.2 kN/m2

Solution:

Given that,

Span of the truss, l = 12 m,

Spacing of roof truss, S = 4.5 m

Wind pressure = 1.2 kN/m2

Pitch of roof truss, P = ¼ (assumed)

Let, Slope of roof truss be „θ‟

Therefore tanθ = 2p

Tanθ = 2 x (¼)

Tanθ = ½

θ = tan-1(1/2)

θ = 26.565

Rise of roof truss, R = ¼ x l = ¼ x 12 = 3 m.

1/2
12 2
Length along the sloping roof, L = + 32
2

L = 6.708 m

Length/panel = 6.708/4 = 1.677m

(i) Load at Each Panel

92
 (a) Dead Load
Assuming, weight of galvanized corrugated iron sheets,
WGI = 0.133 kN/m2
Weight of Purlins, Wp = 0.150 kN/m2
Weight of bracing, Wb = 0.015 kN/m2

Self weight of roof truss,

𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 𝟏𝟐
Ws = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓 = 0.09kN/m2
𝟑 𝟑

Total dead load, WD.L. = WGI +Wp + Wb + Ws

= 0.133 + 0.150 + 0.015 + 0.09 = 0.388 kN/m2

Length of panel in plan,

Lp = 1.677 cosθ

Lp = 1.677 cos(26.565)

= 1.499 ≈ 1.5m

Load acting on each intermediate panel,

W1 = 0.388 x 4.5 x 1.5 = 2619 kN

Load acting at end panel,

W2 = W1/2 = 2.619/2 = 1.310 KN

(b) Live Load

1. Give briefly the design steps to be followed in the design of a roof truss [ 5 Marks] [ Page
Number. 770, S.K. Duggal, 2nd edition]
2. Design a steel roof truss to suit the following data:
Span of the truss = 10 m
Type of truss = Fan-type
Roof cover = Galvanised corrugated (GC) sheeting
Materials : Rolled steel angles
Spacing of roof trusses = 4.5 m
Wind pressure Pd = 1.0 kN/m2
Draw the elevation of the roof truss and the details of joints [ 5 Marks] [ Page Number
320; N Krishna Raju, Structural Design and drawing, 3rd edition]

93
94
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
(LIMIT STATE DESIGN)
(FOR VI – SEMESTER)

QUESTION BANK
UNIT I - INTRODUCTION
UNIT II – TENSION MENBERS
UNIT III - COMPRESSION MENBERS
UNIT IV – BEAMS
UNIT V – ROOF TRUSSES & INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES

Compiled by,

B.JEYAPRABHA M.Tech.,(Ph.D).,MISTE
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FATIMA MICHAEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MADURAI - 20

1
 CE2352 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
(Limit State Design)
OBJECTIVE
This course covers the design of structural steel members subjected to compressive, tensile
and bending loads, as per current codal provisions including connections. Design of structural
systems such as roof trusses, gantry girders are included.

1. INTRODUCTION
Properties of steel – Structural steel sections – Limit State Design Concepts –
Loads on Structures – Metal joining methods using rivets, welding, bolting –
Design of bolted, riveted and welded joints – Eccentric connections -
Efficiency of joints – High Tension bolts
2. TENSION MEMBERS
Types of sections – Net area – Net effective sections for angles and Tee in
tension – Design of connections in tension members – Use of lug angles –
Design of tension splice – Concept of shear lag
3. COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Types of compression members – Theory of columns – Basis of current codal
provision for compression member design – Slenderness ratio – Design of
single section and compound section compression members – Design of
lacing and battening type columns – Design of column bases – Gusseted
base

4. BEAMS
Design of laterally supported and unsupported beams – Built up beams –
Beams subjected to biaxial bending – Design of plate girders riveted and
welded – Intermediate and bearing stiffeners – Web splices – Design of beam
columns

5. ROOF TRUSSES AND INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES

Roof trusses – Roof and side coverings – Design loads, design of purlin and
elements of truss; end bearing – Design of gantry girder
TEXT BOOKS
1. Dayaratnam, P., “Design of Steel Structures”, Second edition, S.
Chand & Company, 2003

REFERENCES
1. Ramachandra, S., “Design of Steel Structures – Vol. I & II”, Standard
Publication, New Delhi
2. “Teaching Resources for Structural Steel Design – Vol. I & II”,
INSDAG, Kolkatta.
3. Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, N.C., and Stallmeyer, J.E., “Design of Steel
Structures”, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill Publications, 1992

2
 UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION

Properties of steel – Structural steel sections – Limit State Design

Concepts – Loads on Structures – Metal joining methods using rivets,
welding, bolting – Design of bolted, riveted and welded joints –
Eccentric connections - Efficiency of joints – High Tension bolts

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are the various types of connections used for connecting the
structural members?
 Riveted connections
 Bolted connections
 Pin connections
 Welded connections

2. Define riveting.
Riveting is a method of joining two or more structural steel components by
inserting ductile metal pins, called rivet.

3. Define nominal diameter of rivet.

It is the diameter of the unheated rivet measured before driving. It is the
stated diameter of the rivet, available in the market.

4. Define gross diameter of rivet.

It is the diameter of the rivet in the hole, measured after driving. It is taken
equal to the diameter of the rivet hole.

5. What is meant by pitch of rivet?

The pitch of the rivets is the distance between centres of two adjacent
rivets in a row.
6. Define gauge line.
It is the line of rivets, which is parallel to the direction of stress.

3
7. What is meant by gauge distance and edge distance?
Gauge distance is the perpendicular distance between two adjacent gauge
lines. This is also called as back pitch.
Edge distance is the distance of the edge of the member or the cover
plates from the centre of extreme rivet hole.

8. Define staggered pitch.

It is also called as alternate pitch or reeled pitch. The staggered pitch is
defined as the distance measured along one rivet line from the centre of a
rivet to the centre of the adjoining rivet on the adjacent parallel rivet line.

9. Define lap.
It is the distance normal to the joint between edges of the overlapping
plates in a lap joint or between the joint and the end of cover plates in a butt
joint.

10. What is meant by tensile stress?

When a structural member is subjected to direct axial tensile load, the
stress is known as tensile stress ( σ at). The tensile stress is calculated on net
cross-sectional area of the member.
σ at = (Pt / An)
Where, Pt is the direct axial tensile load and A n is the net cross-sectional area
of the member.

11. What is meant by compressive stress?

When a structural member is subjected to direct axial compressive load,
the stress is known as compressive stress ( σ ac ). The compressive stress is
calculated on gross cross-sectional area of the member.
σ ac = (Pc / Ag)

Where, Pc is the direct axial compressive load and A g is the gross-sectional

area of the member.

4
12. Define bearing stress.
When a load is exerted or transferred by the application of load through
one surface for another surface in contact, the stress is known as bearing
stress ( σ p). the bearing stress is calculated on net projected area of contact.
σ p = (P / A)

Where, P = load placed on the bearing surface.

A = net projected area of contact.

13. What is working stress?

The working stress is also termed as allowable stress or permissible
stress. The working stress is evaluated by dividing yield stress by factor of
safety. For the purpose of computing safe load carrying of a structural
member, its strength is expressed in terms of working stress. The actual
stresses resulting in a structural member from design loads should not exceed
working stress.

14. Define factor of safety.

The factor of safety is defined as the factor by which the yield stress of
the material is divided to give the working stress (permission stress) in the
material.

15. What are the methods employed for the design of the steel
framework?
 Simple design
 Semi-rigid design
 Fully rigid design
 Plastic design.

16. What are the assumptions made in simple design?

 The beams are simply supported.

5
  All connections of beams, girders, or truss are virtually flexible and are
proportioned for the reaction shears applied at the appropriate
eccentricity
 The members in compression are subjected to forces applied at the
appropriate eccentricities.
 The members in tension are subjected to longitudinal forces applied
over the net area of the sections.

17. Define Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to
the longitudinal strain within the elastic region, it is denoted by ‘E’.

18. Define Poisson’s Ratio.

The Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of transverse strain to the
longitudinal strain under an axial load. It is denoted by ‘μ’ or 1/m. the value of
Poisson’s ratio for steel within the elastic region ranges from 0.25 to 0.33.

19. What are the types of riveted joints?

i. Lap joint
(a) Single riveted lap joint
(b) Double riveted lap joint
ii. Butt joint
(a) Single cover butt joint
(b) Double cover butt joint

20. Define Lap joint and Butt Joint.

Lap joint:
When one member is placed above the other and these two are
connected by means of rivets, then the joint is known is lap joint.

6
Butt Joint
When the plates are placed end-to-end and flushed with each other
and are joined by means of cover plates, the joint is known as Butt joint.

7
21. What are the types of failures occur in riveted joint?
 Shear failure of rivets
 Shear failure of plates
 Tearing failure of rivets
 Bearing failure of plates
 Splitting failure of plates at the edges
 Bearing failure of rivets.

22. What are the assumptions made for designing riveted joint?
 The load is assumed to be uniformly distributed among all the
rivets.
 The shear stress on a rivet is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over its gross area.
 The bearing stress is assumed to be uniform between the contact
surfaces of plate and rivet.
 The bending stress in a rivet is neglected.
 The rivet hole is assumed to be completely filled by the rivet
 The stress in plate is assumed to be neglected.
 The friction between plates is neglected.

8
 23. Write about minimum pitch and maximum pitch.
Minimum pitch: The distance between centres of adjacent rivets should
not be less than 2.5 times the gross diameter of the rivet.
Maximum pitch:
 The maximum pitch should not exceed 12t or 200 mm whichever is
less in case of compression member, and 16t or 300 mm whichever is
less in case of tension member.
 The distance between centres of any two consecutive rivets in a line
adjacent and parallel to an edge of an outside plate shall not exceed
(100mm + 4t) or 200 mm, whichever is less in compression or tension
members.
 If the line of rivets (including tacking rivets) does lie in the direction of
stress, the maximum pitch should not exceed 32 t or 300 mm
whichever is less, where t is the thickness of the thinner outside plate.

24. What is edge distance?

A minimum edge distance of approximately 1.5 times the gross diameter
of the rivet measured from the centre of the rivet hole is provided in the rivet
joint.

25. What is meant by limit state design? (IS800:2007-Pg: 28)

Limit state design method is technologically sound method which results in
significant economy in design of structures. The design of a structure to
satisfy all appropriate requirements derived from probability considerations is
referred to as a limit state design.

26. State the different limit states. (IS800:2007-Pg: 28)

The limit states are broadly grouped in to two major types, namely:
 Limit state of strength
 Limit state of serviceability.

27. What are the four types of serviceability limit states applicable to
steel structures? (IS800:2007-Pg: 28)

9
  Deflection
 Durability
 Vibration
 Fire resistance

28. Define durability. (IS800:2007-Pg: 2)

It is defined as ability of the structure to maintain its level of reliability and
performing the desired function in the working environment under exposure
conditions, without deterioration of cross sectional area and loss of strength
due to corrosion during its life span.

29. How the loads are classified? (IS800:2007-Pg: 4)

 Dead load
 Live load
 Earthquake load
 Wind load
 Dynamic loads.

30. What is a partial safety factor? (IS800:2007-Pg: 4)

The safety of the structure depends on each of the two principal design
factors namely, load and material strength, which are not the functions of
each other. Each of the two factors contributes partially to safety and they are
termed as partial safety factors.

31. Define design load.

The partial safety factor for loads is a load factor which is multiplied to
characteristic load, gives the design load.
Design load = γf x characteristic load

32. Define bolt.

A bolt is a metal pin with a head formed at one end and the shank
threaded at the other end in order to receive a nut.

1
33. What are the advantages of bolted connections? (May / June 2007)
 There is silence in preparing bolted connection. In riveting,
hammering is done. The hammering causes noise in the riveting.
 There is no risk of fire in bolted connection. The rivets are made red
hot in riveting and there is risk of fire.
 The bolted connections may be done quickly in comparison to the
riveting.
 Though the cost of bolts is more than the cost of rivets, the bolted
connections are economical to use because less persons are
required for installation, and the work proceeds quickly.
 Noiseless
 Easy to dismantle and reuse the materials.

34. What are the various types of bolts used for structural purposes?
(May / June 2007)
 Unfinished bolts
 Turned bolts
 Black bolts
 High strength bolts

35. What are the advantages of HSFG bolts?

 Do not allow slip between the connected members.
 Loads are transferred by friction only.
 Due to high strength less number of bolts are required.
 No noise pollution
 Deformation is minimized.
36. Define nominal diameter and gross diameter of bolt.
Nominal diameter of bolt: The nominal diameter of a bolt is the diameter
of unthreaded shank of bolt.

1
 Gross diameter of bolt: The gross diameter of a bolt is the nominal
diameter of the bolt.

37. Define slip factor.

The slip factor is defined as ratio of the load per effective interface,
required to produce slip in a pure shear joint to the total shank tension
induced in the bolts.

38. Define weld.

The welding is one of the methods of connecting the structural members.
In the welding, a metallic link is made between the structural members. The
weld is defined as a union between two pieces of metal at faces rendered
plastic or liquid by heat or by pressure or both.

39. Write about the advantages of welding.

 There is silence in the process of welding.
 There is safety of welding operator in the welding.
 The welding may be done quickly in comparison to the riveting.
 The welded joints have better appearance than riveted joints.
 The welded joints are more rigid than the riveted joints

40. List the various types of welded joints.

 Butt weld
 Fillet weld
 Slot weld and plug weld
 Spot weld
 Seam weld
 Pipe weld

41. Write about the disadvantages of welding.

 The members are likely to distort in the process of welding.

1
  A welded joint fails earlier than riveted joint, if the structure is under
fatigue stresses.
 There is a greater possibility of brittle fracture in welding than the
rivet.
 The inspection of welded joint is more difficult and more expensive
than the riveted joint.
 More skilled person is required in the welding than in the riveting.

42. What is the effective area of butt weld?

The effective area of a butt weld is taken as the product of the effective
throat thickness and the effective length of butt weld.

43. How the length of bolt is calculated?

The length of bolt is equal to the distance from the underside of the bolt
head to the extreme end of the shank, including any camber or radius.

44. What are the types of failures occur in riveted joint?

 Shear failure of bolt

 Shear failure of plates
 Tension failure of bolt or tension failure of plate
 Bearing failure of bolt or Bearing failure of plate

45. What is meant by stiffened & unstiffened seat connection?

The simple seat connection consists of an angle with its horizontal
leg at its top, to receive the reaction from the beam and transfer it to the
column or beam. The seat connection requires more space in the vertical
direction.
When the beam reaction is large (>100 KN) the angle alone cannot
support it. In such case the horizontal leg of an angle is stiffened
(strengthened) by means of one or two tight fitting angles. Such connection is
called as stiffened seat connection.

1
46. What are the types of welding process?

 Electric arc welding

 Gas welding
 Thermite welding
 Forged welding
 Resistance welding.

47. Write the equation for calculating the effective throat thickness of
weld.
It is the perpendicular distance from the root of fillet on the hypotenuse
i.e., distance BD. The effective throat thickness shall not be less than 3 mm
and generally not to exceed 0.7t or 1.0t, where t is the thickness of thinner
plate of elements being welded.

48. Draw a neat sketch of ISMB 400 and mention its properties.

1
 Weight = 61.62 kg/m
Area = 78.50 cm2
Depth of section = 400 mm
Width of flange = 140 mm
Thickness of flange = 16 mm
Thickness of web = 8.9 mm
Moment of inertia, Ixx = 20458.4 cm4
Iyy = 622.1 cm4
Radii of gyration, rxx = 16.20 cm
ryy = 2.82 cm
Moduli of section, Zxx =1020.0 cm3
Zyy = 88.9 cm3

49. Define the terms gauge, pitch, edge and end distance of bolt
joint.
(IS800:2007-Pg: 2,3 &4)

1
50. How to calculate the efficiency of a joint?

The efficiency of the joint is the ratio of actual strength of connection

to the gross strength of connected member, expressed in % as,

Efficiency of joint = least actual strength of the joint

X 100
Gross strength of solid plate member

PART - B

12 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Determine the strength of a double cover butt cover butt joint used to
connect two flats 200 F 12. The thickness of each cover plate is 8 mm. flats
have been joined by 9 rivets in chain riveting at a gauge of 60 mm. What is
the efficiency of the joint?

2. A load of 150 kN is applied to a bracket plate at an eccentricity of 300 mm.

sixteen rivets of 20 mm nominal diameter are arranged in two rows with 8
rivets per row. The two rows are 200 mm apart and the pitch is 80 mm. if the
bracket plate is 12.5 mm thick, investigate the safety of the connection. Given,
s = 100 N / mm2,
fb = 300 N / mm2 and ft = 150 N / mm2.

3. What are the types of load to be account for steel design?

4. A bridge truss carries an axial pull of 400 KN. It is to be a gusset plate

22mm thick by a double cover butt joint with 22 mm diameter power driven
rivets. Design an economical joint. Determine the efficiency of the joint.

1
5. Two plates 12 mm and 10 mm thick are joined by a triple riveted lap joint, in
which the pitch of the central row of rivets is 0.6 times the pitch of rivets in the
outer rows. Design the joint and find its efficiency. Take σ at = 150 N/mm2 & σpf
= 250 N/mm2. (May / June 2007)

6. A double riveted double cover butt joint is used to connect plates 12 mm

thick. Using Unwin’s formula, determine the diameter of rivet; rivet value,
gauge and efficiency of joint. Adopt the following stresses:
Working stress in shear in power driven rivets = 100 N / mm 2 (Mpa)
Working stress in bearing in power driven rivets = 300 N / mm 2 (Mpa)
Working stress in axial tension in plates = 0.6 fy

7. A bracket carrying a load of 100 kN is connected to column by means of

two horizontal fillet welds, of 130 mm effective length and 10 mm thick. The
load acts at 70 mm from the face of the column as shown. Find the throat
stress. (May / June 2007)

8. A tie member 75 mm X 8mm is to transmit a load of 90 kN. Design the fillet

weld and calculate the necessary overlap. (Nov / Dec 2007)

9. A single bolted double cover butt joint is used to connect two plates 8mm
thick. Assuming 20mm bolts at 50mm pitch calculate the efficiency of the joint.
The thickness of cover plate is 4mm.

1
10. The figure shows the joint in the bottom chord continuous member of the
truss. Design the connection using M16 black bolt of property class 4.6 and
grade Fe410 steel. Assume edge distance of 35 mm and minimum pitch.

11. Design the seat angle connection between the beam ISMB 250 and
column ISHB 250 for a reaction from beam equal to 85 KN. Use M16 black
bolt of property class 4.6 and grade Fe410 steel with f y =250 MPa.

12. A beam ISWB 550 having equal flange width to that of column, transfers a
factored end reaction of 275 KN to the flange of the column ISSC 250. Design
the stiffened seat angle connection using 20 mm bolts of grade 4.6, f y =250
MPa.

1
 UNIT - II
TENSION MEMBERS

Types of sections – Net area – Net effective sections for angles and
Tee in tension – Design of connections in tension members – Use of lug
angles – Design of tension splice – Concept of shear lag

PART – A

TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define tension member.
A tension member is defined as a structural member subjected to
tensile force in the direction parallel to its longitudinal axis. A tension member
is also called as a tie member or simply a tie.

2. What are the various types of tension members?

 Wires and cables
 Rods and bars
 Single structural shapes and plates
 Built-up members

3. What is meant by built-up members? (IS800:2007-Pg: 1)

Two or more than two members are used to form built-up members.
The built-up sections may be made more rigid and more stiff than the single
structural shapes. A built-up section may be made of two channels placed
back to back
with a gusset plate in between them.

4. Define slenderness ratio. (IS800:2007-Pg: 4)

1
 The slenderness ratio of a tension member is the ratio of its
unsupported length (l) to its least radius of gyration (r).

5. What is net sectional area? (Nov / Dec 2007)

The net sectional area of a tension member is the gross-sectional area
of the member less the maximum deduction for holes.
Anet = Agross – sectional areas of holes

6. How to calculate net area in (a) chain bolting (b) zigzag bolting.
(IS800:2007-Pg: 33)
a) Chain bolting

Net area, An = (b – n dh) t

b) Zigzag bolting

2
7. What is a Lug angle?
In order to increase the efficiency of the outstanding leg in single
angles and to decrease the length of the end connections, some times a short
length angle at the ends are connected to the gusset and the outstanding leg
of the main angle directly, as shown in Fig.. Such angles are referred to as lug
angles. It also reduces shear lag.

2
 Tension member with lug angle

8. Write any two specifications for designing of lug angle.

(IS800:2007-Pg: 83)

2
9. Write note on tension member splice. (May / June 2007)
A tension member is spliced when the available length is less than the
required length of the tension member. A tension member is also spliced
when the members of different thickness are required to be connected. In
such a case packing is required to fill up the gap.

2
10. What do you understand by Gross area? (Nov / Dec 2007)
Total area of cross section which can be taken as equal weight of the
member per unit length divided by density of the material is called Gross area.
The sectional area given by the manufacturer is taken as the gross area.

12. Explain shear lag effect. (IS800:2007-Pg: 4)

The tensile force is transferred from gusset to the tension member
(such as angles, channels or T- sections) through one leg by bolts or welds. In
this process initially the connected leg may be subjected to more stress than
the outstanding leg and finally the stress distribution becomes uniform over
the section away from the connection. Thus one part lags behind the other;
this is referred to as shear lag.

2
13. Give the sketches of steel sections?

PART - B

12 MARK QUESTIONS

1.Using a lug angle, design a suitable joint for 100 mm * 65mm *10 mm angle,
used as a tension member .use 20 mm diameter rivets and thickness of
gusset plate 8 mm.

2. The bottom tie of roof truss is 4m long .in addition to an axial tension of
1000 kN, it has to support at its centre a shaft of load of 3600N. The member
is composed of two angles 100 mm * 75 mm* 10 mm with the longer legs
turned down and placed back to back on either side of 10 mm gusset plate.
The angles are tack riveted at 92 cm centres with 20 mm diameter rivets.

2
3. Design a horizontal tension member carrying a load 600 KN, The length of
the member is 3 mm. The member is connected to 4.5 cm thick gusset plate
20 mm rivets.

4. Design the tension strength of a roof truss diagonal 100 X 75 X 10 mm

connected to the gusset plate by 20 mm diameter power driven rivets in one
row along the length of the member. The short leg of the angle is kept
outstanding. (NOV/DEC 2007)

5. A bridge truss diagonal carries an axial pull of 300 KN .two mild steel flats
250 ISF 10 and ISF 18 of the diagonal are to be jointed together. Design a
suitable splice

6. Design a double angle tension member carrying axial tensile force of 300
kN in addition to this, it is also subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 0.4
kN/m throughout its length, including self weight. The centre to centre
distance between the end connection is 2.7 m. (MAY/JUNE2007)

7. Design a tension splice to connect two plates of size 220 mm X 20 mm and

200 mm X 10 mm, for a design load of 220 kN. Also sketch the details of the
riveted joint. (MAY/JUNE2007)

8. The main tie of a roof truss consists of ISA 150 X 115 X 8 mm and is
connected to a gusset plate by 18 mm diameter rivets. Find out the maximum
load it can carry.

2
 UNIT - III
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Types of compression members – Theory of columns – Basis of
current codal provision for compression member design – Slenderness ratio –
Design of single section and compound section compression members –
Design of lacing and battening type columns – Design of column bases –
Gusseted base

PART – A
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is meant by strut? (IS800:2007-Pg: 5)

A strut is defined as a structural member subjected to compression in a
direction parallel to its longitudinal axis. The term strut is commonly used
for compression members in roof trusses.

2
2. Draw the diagram of buckling of column.

3. What are the assumptions made in Euler’s analysis ?

1. The material is homogeneous and linearly elastic (i.e. it obeys

Hooke’s Law).
2 The strut is perfectly straight and there are no imperfections.

2
 3. The loading is applied at the centroid of the cross section at the
ends.

4. What is meant by effective sectional area?

The effective sectional area of a compression member is the gross
cross sectional area of the member. The deduction is not made for members
connected by rivets, bolts and pins.

5. Define slenderness ratio of compression member.

The slenderness ratio of a compression member is the ratio of
effective length of compression member (l) to approriate radius of gyration (r).

6. What are the buckled modes for different end conditions?

7. Define buckling load. (IS800:2007-Pg: 1)

The buckling load is defined as the load at which a member or a
structure as a whole collapses in service (or buckles in a load test). The

2
buckling is defined as the sudden bending, warping, curling or crumpling of
the elements or members under compressive stresses.

8. What is meant by built-up compression members?

The built-up compression members are needed when the single rolled
steel sections are not sufficient to furnish the required cross-sectional area.
A built-up compression member may consist of two or more rolled
structural steel sections connected together effectively and acts as one
compression member.

9. Define position restraint.

In position restraint end of the column is not free to change its position
but rotation about the end of eth column can take place e.g., hinged end of
column.

10. What are the different effective lengths for different boundary
condition?

3
11. Define effective length.
The effective length of a compression member is the distance between
the points of contra flexures of a buckled column. It depends on the actual
length and the end conditions in regards to restraint against rotation and
transverse displacement.

3
12. What is meant by actual length?
The actual length is taken as the length from centre-centre of
intersections with the supporting members.

13. How the effective length of column is determined?

The effective length of columns in framed structures may be obtained

by multiplying the actual length of the column between the centres of laterally
supporting members (beams) given with the effective length factor K.

Effective length = KL

14. Define single lacing & double lacing. (IS800:2007-Pg: 48 & 49)

Double laced system, on opposite faces of the components being laced

together shall preferably be in mutual opposed in direction.

15. What are the forces acting on lacing system?

The forces acting on lacing system are transverse shear force and
axial force.

16. Draw the column base plate diagram. (Nov / Dec 2005)

3
17. Which column formula is recommended in IS 800:2007? (Pg: 34)

3
3
18. Where should the splice plate be located in a column?
(IS800:2007-Pg:46)

19. What is the purpose for providing anchors bolt in base plate?

Anchor bolts are provided to stabilize the column during erection and to
prevent uplift for cases involving large moments. Anchor bolts can be cast-in
place bolts or drilled-in bolts. The latter are placed after the concrete in set
and are not too often used. Their design is governed by the manufacturer's
specifications. Cast-in-place bolts are hooked bars, bolts, or threaded rods
with nuts placed before the concrete is set.

20. What are the types of bases provided fro connecting the column to
the base?
 Slab base
 Gusseted base
 Moment resisiting base

21. Under what circumstances gusset base is used?

When the load on the column is large or when the column is subjected
to moment along with axial load, gusseted base is provided. It consists of a
base plate, gusset plate, connecting angles provided on either side of the
column and web cleat angle.

3
3
22. Write about batten plates in compression member.

When compression members are required for large structures like

bridges, it will be necessary to use built-up sections. They are particularly
useful when loads are heavy and members are long (e.g. top chords of Bridge
Trusses). The cross section consists of two channel sections connected on
their open sides with some type of lacing or latticing (dotted lines) to hold the
parts together and ensure that they act together as one unit. The ends of
these members are connected with “batten plates” which tie the ends
together.

23. What are the three classifications for determination of size of plate?

Class I- will pertain to all base plates the moment on which is so small
in proportion to the direct load that there is compression over the entire area
between the bottom of the base and its foundation
Class II- will pertain a comparatively small range of base plates which
have tension over a small portion - one - third or loss of the area
Class III- will include those which are exposed to a comparatively large
moment and which therefore have tension over a large portion - more than
one -third of the area between the bottom of the base plate and its concrete
footing.

24. What are the functions of providing column bases?

The basic function of bases is to distribute the concentrated load from
the column over a larger area. The column load is distributed over the base
plate and then to supporting concrete and finally to the soil.

3
25. What is meant by slab base?
The slab base as shown in Figure consists of cleat angles and base
plate. The column end is faced for bearing over the whole area. The gussets
(gusset plates and gusset angles) are not provided with the column with the
slab bases. The sufficient fastenings are used to retain the parts securely in
plate and to resist all moments and forces, other than the direct compression.
The forces and moments arising during transit, unloading and erection are
also considered

26. What is meant by column splice?

A joint in the length of a column provided, when necessary, is known
as column splice. It is also described as column joint.

27. List the limiting slenderness ratio of compression member carrying

dead load & live load. (April / May 2008)(IS800:2007-Pg: 20)

3
 PART - B

12 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Design a rolled steel beam section column to carry an axial load 1100 KN.
The column is 4 m long and adequately in position but not in direction at both
ends.

2. A rolled steel beam section HB 350 @ 0.674 kN/m is used as a stanchion.

If the unsupported length of the stanchion is 4 m, determine safe load carrying
capacity of the section.

3. A double angle discontinuous strut ISA 125 mm * 95 * mm * 10 mm long

legs back to back is connected to both sides of a gusset plate 10 mm thick
with 2 rivets. The length of strut between centre to centre of intersections is 4
m. determine the safe load carrying capacity of the section.

4. A steel column 12 m long carries an axial load of 1000 kN. The column is
hinged at both ends. Design an economical built-up section with double
lacing. Design the lacing also.

3
5. Design a built-up column consisting of two channels connected by batten to
carry an axial load of 800 KN; the effective length of the column is 6 m.

6. Design a built up column 8m long to carry a load of 400kN. The column is

restrained in position but not in direction at both the ends. Provide single
angle lacing system with riveted connections. (Nov/Dec 2007)

7. Design a built up column 6m long to carry a load of 400kN. The column is

provided with Batten system. The ends of the columns are pinned. Design the
battens. (Nov/Dec 2007)

8. A discontinues strut consists of two ISA 90X75X10mm placed to the same

side of a gusset plate 10mm thick with its longer leg back to back, with one
rivet on each angle at the ends. The effective length of the strut is 2.5m.
Determine the allowable load. What is the safe load if the strut is continuous?
Take fy = 250N/mm2. The angles are connected with tack rivets along the
length. (May/June 2007)

9. A built up column consists ISHB 400@ 77.40 kg/m with one 300mmX12mm
flange plate on each side. The column carries an axial load of 2600kN. Design
a gusseted base, if the column is supported on concrete pedestal with a
bearing pressure of 5N/mm2. (May/June 2007)

UNIT – IV
BEAMS

4
 Design of laterally supported and unsupported beams – Built up beams –
Beams subjected to biaxial bending – Design of plate girders riveted and welded –
Intermediate and bearing stiffeners – Web splices – Design of beam columns

PART - A

TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

11.111Indian
1. What is meant by limit state design?
Designs should ensure that the structure does not become unfit for the use for
which it is required. The state at which the unfitness occurs is called a limit state.

2. What are special features of limit state design method?

• It is possible to take into account a number of limit states depending upon
the
Particular instance
• This method is more general in comparison to the working stress method. In
This method, different safety factors can be applied to different limit states,
which is more rational than applying one common factor (load factor) as in the
plastic design method.
• This concept of design is appropriate for the design of structures since any
new knowledge of the structural behavior, loading and materials can be readily
incorporated.

3. Explain the behavior of steel beams?

Laterally stable steel beams can fail only by (a) Flexure (b) Shear or (c)
Bearing,
Assuming the local buckling of slender components does not occur. These
three conditions are the criteria for limit state design of steel beams.
Steel beams would also become unserviceable due to excessive deflection and
this is classified as a limit state of serviceability.
The factored design moment, M at any section, in a beam due to external
actions
Shall satisfy
M < Md

4
 Where Md= design bending strength

4. Write Short notes on compact sections

When the lateral support to the compression flange is adequate, the lateral
buckling of the beam is prevented and the section flexural strength of the beam can be
developed. The strength of I-sections depends upon the width to thickness ratio of the
compression flange. When the width to thickness ratio is sufficiently small, the beam
can be fully plastified and reach the plastic moment, such section are classified as
compact sections.

5. What is meant by slenderness sections?

When the width to thickness ratio of the compression flange is sufficiently large,
local buckling of compression flange may occur even before extreme fibre yields.
Such sections are referred to as slender sections.

7. Draw the curvature for flexural member performance and the classification of
cross sections.

4
 8. List the various factors affecting the lateral-torsional buckling strength.
• Distance between lateral supports to the compression flange.
•Restraints at the ends and at intermediate support locations (boundary
Conditions).
• Type and position of the loads.
• Moment gradient along the length.
• Type of cross-section.

9. How do you improve the shear resistance in plate girder?

i. Increasing in buckling resistance due to reduced c/d ratio;
ii. The web develops tension field action and this resists considerably larger
Stress than the elastic critical strength of web in shear

10. What are the classifications in Stiffeners?

a) Intermediate transverse web stiffeners
b) Load carrying stiffeners
c) Bearing stiffeners
d) Torsion stiffeners
e) Diagonal stiffeners and
f) Tension stiffeners
11. Write about the Box girders.

4
 The design and detailing of box girders shall be such as to give full advantage of

its higher load carrying capacity. Diaphragm shall be used where external vertical

as well as transverse forces are to be transmitted from one member to another. The

diaphragms and their fastenings shall be proportioned to distribute other force

applied to them and in addition, to resist the design transverse force and the

resulting shear forces. The design transverse force shall be taken as shared equally

between the diaphragms.

12. Write Short notes on Purlin.

Purlins attached to the compression flange of a main member would normally be

acceptable as providing full torsional restraint; where purlins are attached to

tension flange, they should be capable of providing positional restraint to that

flange but are unlikely (due to the rather light purlin/rafter connections normally

employed) to be capable of preventing twist and bending moment based on the

lateral instability of the compression flange.

13. Write the Special features of limit state design method?

• Serviceability and the ultimate limit state design of steel structural systems and their
components.
• Due importance has been provided to all probable and possible design conditions
that could cause failure or make the structure unfit for its intended
• The basis for design is entirely dependent on actual behaviour of materials in
structures and the performance of real structures, established by tests and long-term
observations
• The main intention is to adopt probability theory and related statistical methods in
the design.
• It is possible to take into account a number of limit states depending upon the
particular instance

4
14. What is meant by laterally supported beam?

The laterally supported beams are also called laterally restrained beams. When lateral
deflection of the compression flange of a beam is prevented by providing effective
lateral support, (restraint) the beam is said to be laterally supported. The effective
lateral restraint is the restraint which produces sufficient resistance in a plane
perpendicular to the plane of bending to restrian the compression flange of a beam
from lateral buckling to either side at the point of application of the restraint.

15. Write a note on built up beams.

The built-up beams are also termed as compound beams or compound girders.
The built-up beams are used when the span, load and corresponding bending moment are
of such magnitudes that rolled steel beam section become inadequate to provide required
section modulus. The built-up beams are also used when rolled steel beams are
inadequate for limited depth.

16. What are the elements of plate girder?

4
 The vertical plate of the plate girder is termed as web plate. The angles connected
at the top and bottom of the web plate are known as flange angles. The horizontal plates
connected with the flange angles are known as flange. Plates or cover plates. The web
plate, flange angles and flange plates are shown in Fig. The bearing stiffeners,
intermediate stiffeners and horizontal stiffeners used with the plate girder are shown in
Fig.

17. Under what circumstances web plates are stiffened and unstiffened?
A web plate is kept unstiffened when the ratio of clear depth to thickness of web
is less than 85. It does not require stiffeners. A web plate is called stiffened, when the
ratio of clear depth to thickness of web is greater than 85 and stiffeners are provided to
contribute additional strength to web.

18. What is meant by plastic method of design?

4
 Steel being a ductile material it can absorb large deformations beyond elastic
fracture. Steel processes reserved strength beyond yield strength. The method using
this reserved strength is called plastic method of design.

19. Define shape factor.

The ratio of plastic moment to elastic moment Mp / My is the property of cross
sectional area and is not dependent on material properties. This ratio is called as shape
factor.

20. What is meant by plastic hinge?

Plastic hinge is the yield section of the beam, which acts as if it were hinged,
except with a constant restraining plastic moment.

21. Define yield length.

The yield length is the length of the beam over which the moment is greater
than or equal to the yield moment. It depends upon the type of loading and the cross
section of the structural member.

22. What are the methods of plastic analysis?

 Static method
 Kinematic method or mechanism method.

23. What is meant by static and Kinematic method?

Static method: The lower bound theorem states a load computed, on the basis
of assumed equilibrium moment diagram, in which moments are not greater than
plastic moment Mp, is less than or at the best equal to the true collapse load. i.e., W ≤
Wc (collapse load)
Kinematic method: The upper bound theorem states a load computed, on the
basis of assumed mechanism, will always be greater than or at the best equal to the
true collapse load. i.e., W ≥ Wc

4
24. What are the guide lines to locate the plastic hinges?
The plastic hinges occur,
 At the points of maximum moment
 At the connections involving change in geometry.
 Under the concentrated load
 At the points of zero shear in a span, loaded by udl.

25. Define virtual work.

It states that ‘work done by the load during small motion of collapse
mechanism must be equal to the work absorbed in the plastic hinges’.

26. What is meant by complete collapse, partial collapse and over complete
collapse?
Complete collapse: The number of plastic hinges, H required to form
complete collapse = R+ 1, where R is the degree of redundancy of the structure. H =
R+1
Partial collapse: The number of plastic hinges, H required to form partial
collapse is < R+ 1. (i.e., H < R + 1)
Over complete collapse: The number of plastic hinges, H required to form
over complete collapse is > R+ 1. (i.e., H > R + 1)

27. Draw a neat sketch of combined shear and bending behavior in beam for I
section.

4
28. What is meant by lateral buckling of beam?
A long beam with laterally unrestrained compression flange when incrementally
loaded, first deflects downwards and when load exceeds a particular value; it tilts
sideways due to instability of compression flange, and rotates about longitudinal axis.
This phenomenon is known as laterally buckling or torsional buckling of beam.

29. How the laterally supported beam fails?

The laterally supported beam can fail by,
 Flexure
 Shear
 Bearing.

30. What is web buckling and web crippling?

A heavy concentrated load produces a region of high compressive stresses in the
web either at support or under the load. This causes the web either to buckle or to
cripple.
Web buckling occurs when the intensity of compressive stress near the centre of the
section exceeds the critical buckling stress of web acting as a strut. This type of
failure is more in the case of built up sections having greater ratio of depth to
thickness of the web.

4
31. What is the purpose of providing stiffener in plate girder?
In the plate girder the depth of the web is kept large for economy and hence it
is made thin to reduce the self weight of the girder. A very thin web may buckle
laterally or may cripple under the heavy concentrated load. In such a case the web is
strengthened by providing stiffeners.

32. Under what circumstances load bearing stiffereners are used in plate girder?
The load carrying stiffeners are attached with the web plate of the plate girder
to avoid local bending failure of flanges, crushing of web and buckling of web plate.
They are provided under the heavy concentrated loads and the reactions at supports.

33. Under what circumstances bearing stiffereners are used in plate girder?
Bearing stiffeners should be provided for webs where forces are applied
through the flange by loads or reactions exceeding the local capacity of the web at its
connection to the flange.

34. What is the purpose of providing intermediate stiffeners?

The intermediate transverse stiffeners are provided to strength the buckling
strength of web. They remain effective after the buckling of web and provide
anchorage for tension field.

35. What is the main function of providing horizontal stiffener in plate girder?
The main function of horizontal stiffener is to increase the buckling resistance
of the thin web. They are located in the compression zone. It prevents the web from
bending laterally.

36. What are the reasons behind splicing in plate girder?

The joint in the plate girder called splicing becomes necessary for plate girders
of longer span due to the following reasons:

5
  The rolled steel plates are manufactured up to a limited length. When the
maximum manufactured length is insufficient for full length, splicing
becomes necessary.
 For convenience of handling during transportation and erection it is
essential that the plate is too long.
 Due to unsymmetrical loading the thickness of plate may change.

37. What are the types of splices?

 Flange splice
 Web splice.

38. How the flange area of a plate girder is designed?

Flange area, Af = M / (D fyf / Ymo)

M = factored moment
D = total depth of girder
fyf = Yield stress of steel
Ymo = Partial safety factor of material.

PART - B

12 MARK QUESTIONS

1. Design a simply supported beam to carry uniformly distributed load of 44 kN/m.the

effective Span of beam is 8 m. The effective length of compression flange of the beam
is also 8 m. The ends of beam are not to free to rotate at the bearings.

2. The effective length of compression flange of simply supported beam MB 500 @

0.869 kn/m. Determine the safe uniformly distributed load per metre length which can
be placed over the beam having an effective span of 8 m. The ends of beam are
restrained against rotation at the bearings.

5
3. ISMB 550 @1.037 kN/ m has been used as simply supported over a span of 4 m
.the ends of beam are restrained against torsion but not against lateral bending.
Determine the safe UDL per metre, which the beam can carry.

4.Design rolled steel I- sections for a simply supported beam with a clear span of
6m .it carries a UDL of 50 KN per metre exclusive of self-weight of the girder .the
beam is laterally unsupported.

5. Check the beam section WB 500 @1.45 kN/m against web crippling and web
buckling if reaction at the end of beam is 179.6 KN, The length of bearing plate at the
support is 120 mm. Design bearing plate. The bearing plate is set in masonry.

6. A beam simply supported over an effective span of 7m, carries an uniformly

distributed load of 50kN/m inclusive of its own weight. The depth of the beam is
restricted to 450mm. design the beam, assuming that the compression flange of the
beam is laterally supported by a floor construction. Take f y = 250N/mm2 and E =
2X105N/mm2. Assuming width of the support is 230mm. (May/June 2007).

7. Design a bearing stiffener for a welded plate girder with the following
specifications.
Web = 1000mm X 6mm thick.
Flanges = 2 Nos. of 350X20mm plate on each side.
Support reaction = 350kN.
Width of the support = 300mm.. (May/June 2007).

8 A simply supported steel joist with a 4.0m effective span carries a udl of 40kN/m
over its span inclusive of self weight. The beam is laterally unsupported. Design a
suitable section. Take fy = 250N/mm2. (Nov/Dec 2007)

9. Design the step by step procedure for design of vertical and horizontal stiffeners in
a plate girder. (Nov/Dec 2007)

5
 UNIT – V
ROOF TRUSSES AND INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES

Roof trusses – Roof and side coverings – Design loads, design of purlin and
elements of truss; end bearing – Design of gantry girder

PART - A

TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Draw neat sketches of various types of roof trusses.

5
22. Draw a neat sketch of roof truss with its component parts.

3. What are the types of load that may act on roof trusses?
 Dead load
 Load from coverings, purlins, self weight of trusses and bracing.
 Live load
 Wind load

4. How economical spacing of roof trusses obtained?

The economical spacing of trusses is between 1/3 to 1/5 of span.

5. List the various forces acting on a gantry girder.

 Weight of the trolley or crab

 Weight of the crane girder

5
  Impact loads – it is due to sudden application of brakes.
 Lateral load (surge load) – transverse to the rail
 Longitudinal load (drag load)

6. What are the loads to be considered while designing the purlins?

 Dead load
 Weight of roof sheets
 Self weight of purlin
 Live load
 Wind load acting on roof area.

7. List the various types of roof sheetings commonly used.

 Asbestos cement sheets
 Tiles
 Galvanized corrugated iron sheets
 Aluminium sheets
 Slate roofing.

8. Which section is best suited for a purlin?

 Angle section
 Channel section
 I-section

9. How is the selection of section made for roof truss element?

 The members of the truss are made of either rolled steel sections or built-up
sections depending upon the span length and intensity of loading.
 Rolled steel single or double angles, T-section, hollow circular, square or
rectangular sections are used in the roof trusses of industrial buildings.
 In long span roof trusses and short span bridges, heavier rolled steel sections,
such as channels and I – sections are used.

5
  Built-up I-sections, channels, angles and plates are used in the case of long
span bridge trusses.

10. How to fix the spacing of trusses?

The economical spacing of trusses is between 1/3 to 1/5 of span.
 For lighter load, carrying no snow or superimposed load except wind, the
larger spacing may be more economical.
 Spacing of 3- 4.5 m for spans up to 15m and 4.5 – 6 m for spans of 15 – 30 m
may be economical.
 The spacing of long span trusses may be 12 – 15 m.

11. What are economical considerations for industrial truss?

 Method of fabrication and erection to be followed, facility for shop fabrication
available, transportation restrictions, field assembly facilities.
 Preferred practices and past experience.
 Availability of materials and sections to be used in fabrication.
 Erection technique to be followed and erection stresses.
 Method of connection preferred by the contractor and client (bolting, welding
or riveting).
 Choice of as rolled or fabricated sections.
 Simple design with maximum repetition and minimum inventory of material.

12. Write about basics of plastic analysis?

In plastic analysis and design of a structure, the ultimate load of the structure
as a whole is regarded as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to the
fact that the ultimate load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range.
This method is rapid and provides a rational approach for the analysis of the
structure. It also provides striking economy as regards the weight of steel since the
sections required by this method are smaller in size than those required by the method
of elastic analysis.

13. What is meant by first yield moment?

5
 As W is increased gradually, the bending moment at every section increases
and the stresses also increase. At a section close to the support where the bending
moment is maximum, the stresses in the extreme fibers reach the yield stress. The
moment corresponding to this state is called the first yield moment My, of the cross
section.

14. Write about Principles of plastic analysis.

(i) Mechanism condition: The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism
is formed. The number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a
mechanism.
(ii) Equilibrium condition: ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣMxy = 0
(iii) Plastic moment condition: The bending moment at any section of the structure
should not be more than the fully plastic moment of the section.

15. Explain about Crane gantry girders.

The function of the crane girders is to support the rails on which the traveling
cranes move. These are subjected to vertical loads from crane, horizontal lateral loads
due to surge of the crane, that is, the effect of acceleration and braking of the loaded
crab and swinging of the suspended load in the transverse direction, and longitudinal
force due to acceleration and braking of the crane as a whole.

16. What are assumptions are made for arrangement of live load in the analysis
of frames?
a) Consideration is limited to combination of:
i) Design dead load on all spans with full design live load on two adjacent
spans and
ii) Design dead load on all spans with full design live load on alternate pans.

b) When design live load does not exceed three-fourths of the design dead load, the
load arrangement of design dead load and design live load on all the spans can be
used.

17. Explain about Drift Analysis

5
 Drift in building frames is a result of flexural and shear mode contributions,
due to the column axial deformations and to the diagonal and girder deformations,
respectively. In low-rise braced structures, the shear mode displacements are the most
significant and, will largely determine the lateral stiffness of the structure.
In medium to high-rise structures, the higher axial forces and deformations in
the columns, and the accumulation of their effects over a greater height, cause the
flexural component of displacement to become dominant.

18. Draw a neat sketch of overhead crane with all its components.

5
19. Calculate the permissible deflection for a truss of 10 m span.
(IS800:2007-Pg: 31 – table 6)
Deflection limit = span / 150
= 10 x 1000 / 150
= 66.67 mm

PART - B
12 -MARK QUESTIONS

1.A roof truss- shed is to be built Jodhpur city area for an industrial use. Determine
the basic wind pressure .The use of shed 18 m* 30 m

2. An industrial roof shed of size 20 m* 30 m is proposed to be constructed at

Mangalore near a hillock of 160 m and slope is 1 in 2.8. The roof shed is to be built at
a height of 120 m from the base of the hill. Determine the design wind pressure on the
slope. The height of roof shed shall be 12m

3.A communications tower of 80 m height is proposed to be built hill top height 520
m with a gradient of 1in 5. The horizontal approach distance is 2.8 m km from the
level ground .The tower is proposed at Abu mount .Determine the design wind
pressure.

4. Design a purlin for a roof truss having the following data:

Span of the truss = 6.0m
Spacing of truss = 3m c/c.

5
Inclinaion of roof = 30o
Spacing of Purlin = 2m c/c
Wind pressure = 1.5 kN/m2
Roof coverage = A.C Sheeting weighing 200 N/m2
Provide a channel section Purlin. (Dec 2007).

5. Design a gantry girder to be used in an industrial building carrying an EOT crane

for the following data:
Crane capacity = 200 kN.
Total self weight of all components = 240 kN.
Minimum approach at th carne hook of gantry girder = 1.2m
Wheel base = 3.5m
C/C distance between gantry rails = 16m
C/C distance between columns = 8m
Self weight of rail section = 300 N/m
Yield stress = 250 N/mm2
Design the main gantry section. Connection design not required. . (Dec 2007).

6. Design the angle purlin for the following specifications:

Span of truss = 9m c/c.
Pitch = 1/5 of span
Spacing of purlin = 1.4 c/c.
Load from roofing material = 200 N/m2.
Wind load = 1200 N/m2.

7. Determine the dead load, live load and wind load on a FINK type truss for the
following data and mark the loads on the nodes of the truss.
Span = 12m
Pitch = ¼ of span
Height at eves level = 10m from the ground
Spacing of truss = 5m c/c.

6
8. A shed is proposed to be constructed at Chennai. The slope of the roof truss is
corresponding to a pitch of ¼. The average height of the roof above the ground is 12
m. the life of the structure is expected to be about 50 years. The terrain has less
obstruction. The cladding length is in between 30m to 40 m. the permeability of the
truss is assumed to be medium. Calculate the various load on the truss. The roof
covering is GI sheeting.

10 m

6
 Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
PART II – STEEL STRUCTURES

Chapters

1. Basic Properties of Materials

2. Design of Bolted Connections
3. Design of Welded Connections
4. Design of Tension Members
5. Design of Compression Members
6. Design of Laterally Supported Beams
7. Roof Truss & Plate Girders

KIRAN S. R.

Lecturer

Department of Civil Engineering

Central Polytechnic College Trivandrum
 CHAPTER 1

BASIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

In this course, we focus on one of the most important engineering material – STRUCTURAL
STEEL.
Low Carbon Steel (carbon content: 0.1 – 0.25%) is useful as a structural material (as load
bearing frames & trusses), and hence known as Structural Steel.
• Besides carbon (C), it also contains Manganese (Mn), Sulphur (S) & Phosphorus (P).
• Molten metal is rendered free of impurities by oxidation and then casted into semi-
finished products (like slabs, blooms and billets). These semi-finished products are
o
heated at 1200 C to make it malleable and then rolled into structural steel sections (I, C,
T, L, tubes, bars, flats, plates etc).
• Types of Structural Steel:
o Standard Structural Steel (IS 2062)
C & Mn are the main strengthening elements
Max C – 0.23%
Max Mn – 1.5%
o Medium/High Strength Micro-alloyed Steel (IS 8500)
Micro-alloying elements such as Niobium, Vanadium, Titanium etc are
added to achieve high strength
Total micro-alloying elements restricted to 0.25%

PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

1) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (Cl. 2.2.4.1 of IS 800-2007, Page 12)
5 2
• Modulus of Elasticity E = 2 x 10 N/mm
5 2
• Modulus of Rigidity G = 0.77 x 10 N/mm
3
• Density ρ = 7850 kg/m
• Poisson’s ratio ϑ = 0.30 (elastic range)
= 0.50 (plastic range)
-6 o
• Coefficient of thermal expansion α = 12 x 10 / C
• Brinell Hardness Number = 150 – 190
• Vickers Hardness Number = 150 – 190
o
• Approximate Melting Point = 1530 C

2) MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
a) Ultimate Strength (or Tensile Strength) - fu
• It is the minimum guaranteed ultimate tensile strength at which the steel fails.
• It is obtained from Tension test on a standard specimen.
• In this test, Gauge length (Lg = 5.65 A ) & Initial crossectional area (Ao) are
the important parameters.
• Stress-strain diagram for a mild steel specimen subjected to gradually
increasing tensile load is obtained as shown:
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 • Engineering Stress-strain curve uses Initial cross-sectional area of specimen;
while True stress-strain curve uses actual cross-sectional area.
• Steel is designated in terms of Characteristic Ultimate Tensile Strength in
MPa (It is the stress below which not more than 5% of test results are
expected to fall), Grade of steel (Grade A – used in structures subjected to
normal load conditions; Grade B – used for structures subjected to brittle
fracture, cyclic loading etc.; Grade C – for those subjected to low
temperatures, severe impacts, brittle fracture etc.) and Weldability (denoted
by W if steel is weldable).

Eg: Fe 410 WA
This is a structural steel section of characteristic ultimate tensile strength =
410MPa, of Grade A and is Weldable.

b) Yield Stress (or Proof Stress) - fy

• It is the stress level at which the material undergoes large deformations.
• In mild steel, there is a well-defined yield point, as shown in above figure.
• In case of high strength steel, there may be no well-defined yield points. In
such case, stress corresponding to 0.2% proof strain is adopted as Yield
stress, hence known as Proof stress. (see figure shown)

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 c) Ductility
• Ductility is the capacity to undergo large inelastic deformations without
significant loss of stiffness.
• Ductility is measured by measuring the % elongation of the tension test
specimen.
% elongation = x 100
d) Hardness
• Hardness is the resistance to indentation & scratching.
• Tested by 3 methods
o Brinell Hardness - Steel ball indentor is used
o Vicker Hardness - Diamond square pyramid indentor of included angle
135o
o Rockwell Hardness - Diamond indentor with included angle 120o

e) Toughness
• Toughness is the ability to resist fracture under impact loading.
• Area under stress – strain curve is a measure of toughness.

• Important design parameter for structures subjected to impact loads (Eg:

Bridges) and those subjected to seismic loads.
f) Weldability
Steel structural elements may be connected by weld. But the steel used must be
weldable. Steel is weldable, if :
• Hardness is low
• There is adequate elongation & notch toughness
This is taken care of, if Carbon Equivalency of the steel used is under control.
Carbon equivalency is the equivalent carbon that produce the same effect as that of chemical
components present in steel used. This is given by:

Smaller the Carbon Equivalency, better is the Weldability of steel.

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STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS
Various hot-rolled structural steel sections are as follows:

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 Page 5 of 51
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Advantages of Steel structures over RCC structures
1. Strength – weight ratio of structural steel is very high compared to RCC. Hence structural
steel requires smaller cross sections to resist external loads.
2. Precast structural steel sections are easily available and erection becomes faster.
3. Since steel is a ductile material, failure of structures is neither abrupt nor catastrophic.
4. It has 100% scrap value. It is recyclable; can be reused even after dismantling.
5. It has longer life, if maintained properly.
6. Since sections are all factory made, quality control is ensured.
7. Strengthening of structures is relatively simpler. This can be performed by connecting
additional sections to the existing sections.
Disadvantages of Steel structures
1. Less fire resistance
2. more susceptible to corrosion.
3. High maintenance cost
4. High initial cost of investment/installation
5. Strength of steel sections reduce if subjected to large number of stress reversals (fatigue)

REFERENCE
1. Subramanian, N., “Design of Steel Structures”, Oxford University Press, 5th Impression,
2010.
2. IS 800-2007, “Indian Standard General Construction in Steel – Code of Practice”, 3rd
Revision, December 2007.

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 CHAPTER 2

DESIGN OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Any steel structure is an assemblage of different members or sections, which are connected to
one another at its ends, using connections – BOLTS, WELDS and/or RIVETS.
Connections have the following characteristics:
• Facilitate the flow of forces and/or moments from one member to another
• Also used to extend lengths of different members
o It may be considered as a weak point of a structure, because connection failure is
undesirable. This is due to the fact that the connection failure is not ductile, unlike
member failure. It is a catastrophic failure. Connection failure is avoided by
adopting a high factor of safety for joints than members.

TYPES OF BOLTS
Bolts are available of the following types:
a) Black bolts b) Turned bolts c)Ribbed bolts d)High strength bolts

a) Black bolts/ Unfinished Bolts/ C-grade bolts

• Ordinary, unfinished, rough or common bolts
• Least expensive bolts
• Generally used in structures subjected to static loads; not recommended if
subjected to impact, fatigue or dynamic loads.
• Made of mild steel rods with square or hexagonal heads & nuts
• Designated by its Diameter (i.e., Shank Diameter in mm) as M5 to M36.
• Cross-sectional area at threads = 0.78 x Cross-sectional area at shank
• Generally used grade(or property class) = 4.6 grade bolts
o Here, 4 represents th of fub

o 0.6 represents
where fyb represents yield strength of bolt & fub represents ultimate strength
of bolt

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 • Here, slip occurs between connected plates, when force is applied. As a result, the
plates bear against the bolts. Such type of connections are known as Bearing-type
connections.

b) Turned Bolts (Close Tolerance Bolts)

• These are similar to unfinished bolts, with the difference that the shanks of these
bolts are formed from a hexagonal rod.
• The surface of these bolts are prepared and machined carefully to fit in the hole.
Tolerances allowed are about 0.15 mm to 0.5 mm. Since the tolerance available is
small, these bolts are expensive. The small tolerance necessitates the use of
special methods to ensure that all the holes align correctly.
• These bolts (precision and semi-precision) are used when no slippage is permitted
between connected parts and where accurate alignment of components is
required.
• They are mainly used in special jobs (in some machines and where there are
dynamic loads).

c) Ribbed Bolts
• Have rounded head and raised ribs parallel to shank.
• Actual dia of ribbed bolts is slightly larger than the hole dia. Hence while driving
into the hole, the ribs cit the edges around the hole, thereby producing a relatively
tight fit.

d) High strength bolts

• High-strength bolts are made from bars of medium carbon steel.
• Their high strength is achieved through quenching and tempering process or by
alloying steel. Hence, they are less ductile than black bolts. The material of the
bolts do not have a well-defined yield point. Instead of using yield stress, a so-
called proof stress is used. In IS 800, the proof stress is taken as 0.7 times the
ultimate tensile stress of the bolt.
• Bolts of sizes M16 – M36 are available.
• Grades (or property class) available are 8.8S, 10.9 S etc.
o Number defined similar to black bolts
o Letter ‘S’ denotes high-strength structural bolts
• % elongation of High strength bolts < % elongation of black bolts
• Here, slip between connected plates is prevented by applying initial pretension (to
bolts) using torque wrenches, which induces friction. Such high-strength bolts are
called High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts. Such connections are known as
Non-slip connections or Friction-type connections.
• These are very expensive. The material cost of HSFG bolts are about 50% higher
than black bolts and require special workmanship for installation

ADVANTAGES OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Advantages of Black bolts over riveted or welded connections:
• Use of unskilled labour and simple tools
• Noiseless and quick fabrication
• No special equipment/process needed for installation
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 • Fast progress of work
• Accommodates minor discrepancies in dimensions
• The connection supports loads as soon as the bolts are tightened
• Unlike riveted joints, few persons are required for making the connections.
• No heating is required and no danger of tossing of bolt. Thus, the safety of the
workers is enhanced.
• Alterations, if any (e.g. replacement of the defective bolt) are done easily than in
welded or riveted connections.
• Dismantling of structures is easy

Advantages of HSFG bolts over black bolts:

• HSFG bolts do not allow any slip between the elements connected, thus providing rigid
connections.
• Due to the clamping action, load is transmitted by friction only and the bolts are not
subjected to shear and bearing.
• Due to the smaller number of bolts, the gusset plate sizes are reduced.
• Deformation is minimized.
• Noiseless fabrication, since the bolts are tightened with wrenches.
• The possibility of failure at the net section under the working loads is eliminated.
• Since the loads causing fatigue will be within proof load, the nuts are prevented from
loosening and the fatigue strength of the joint will be greater and better than welded and
riveted joints.
• Since the load is transferred by friction, there is no stress concentration in the holes.

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TYPES OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Bolted connections are of the following types, based on the mode of load transfer:
(a) Shear connections – Lap joint & Butt joint
(b) Eccentric shear connections
(c) Tension connections
(d) Combined Shear & Tension connections

PROBABLE MODES OF FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

The possible limit states or failure modes of bolted connections are:
a) Shear failure of bolt
b) Shear failure of plate
c) Bearing failure of bolt
d) Bearing failure of plate
e) Tensile failure of bolts
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 f) Bending of bolts
g) Tensile failure of plate

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES & RELEVANT CODAL PROVISIONS OF IS800

i. Nominal diameter of the Fastener (d) = Diameter of Bolt at the shank region
ii. Bolt hole Diameter (do) = d + clearance (Cl. 10.2.1 & Table 19)

iii. Pitch (p): centre-to-centre distance between two adjacent rows of bolts, measured in
the direction of application of force (Cl. 10.2.2 & 10.2.3)
• Min. p = 2.5 d
• Max. p = 32t or 300mm, whichever is less (generally)
= 16t or 200mm, whichever is less (tension members)
= 12t or 200mm, whichever is less (compression members)
Where t is the thickness of the thinner plate in mm
iv. Gauge distance (g): centre-to-center distance between bolts measured perpendicular to
the direction of application of force.
• Max. g = (4t + 100)mm or 200mm, whichever is less (generally)
v. End distance (e): distance measured in the direction of stress from the centre of a hole
to the end of the element. (Cl. 10.2.4)
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 vi. Edge distance (e): distance measured at right angles to the direction of stress from the
centre of a hole to the adjacent edge.
• Min. e = 1.7do (for hand-flame cuts)
= 1.5do (for machine-flame cuts)

• Max. e = 12εt, where ε =

DESIGN STRENGTH OF ORDINARY BLACK BOLTS:

We have already discussed that, bolted connections fail by 3 modes – shear, bearing & tension.
Hence, the design strength of bolts depend on these modes of failure.
DESIGN SHEAR CAPACITY OF BOLTS (Cl. 10.3.3)

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 DESIGN BEARING CAPACITY OF BOLTS (Cl. 10.3.4)

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 DESIGN TENSION CAPACITY OF BOLTS (Cl. 10.3.5)

NOTE: Design capacity of bolts is calculated from the above three criteria, depending upon the
kind of forces the bolt is subjected to. And finally, the BOLT VALUE is reported as the least of
these design capacities.

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 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN OF WELDED CONNECTIONS

Welding is the method of connecting two pieces of metal by heating to a plastic or fluid state
(with or without pressure), so that fusion occurs.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING

Advantages of Welding over bolting or riveting
• Welded connections eliminate the need for making holes in the members. Hence the
calculation of net section is eliminated.
• Welding offers airtight and watertight jointing of plates and hence is employed in the
construction of water/oil storage tanks, ships, etc.
• Welded joints are economical, since they enable direct transfer of stresses between the
members. Moreover, the splice plates and bolts are eliminated, which otherwise would
make the connection expensive. The required size of gusset plates is also smaller,
because of reduced connection length. Due to the elimination of operations such as
drilling and punching, welding results in less fabrication costs.
• Time is also saved in fabrication, and field erection. Welding also requires considerably
less labour for executing the work. It is estimated that the total overall savings by
employing welding over bolting may be up to 15%.
• Welded structures are more rigid (due to the direct connection of members by welding)
as compared to bolted joints. In bolted joints, the cover plates, connecting angle, etc. may
deflect with the member during load transfer thus making a structure flexible. Rigid
structures are always more economical than flexible structures, due to the transfer of
moments from one member to another.
• Welded connections are usually aesthetic in appearance and appear less cluttered in
contrast to bolted connections.

• Welding is practicable even for complicated shapes of joints. Eg: connections with tubular
sections can be made easily by welding, whereas it is difficult to make them using bolting.
• Alterations can be made with less expense in case of welding as compared to bolting. It
is also easy to correct mistakes in fabrication during erection, whereas a mismatch of
holes in a bolted connection is very difficult to correct.
• The efficiency of a welded joint is more than a bolted joint. In fact 100% efficiency can be
obtained using welding. Due to the elimination of holes, stress concentration effect is
considerably less in welded connections.
• The process of welding is relatively silent compared to riveting and bolting (drilling holes)
and requires less safety precautions.

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Disadvantages of Welding over bolting or riveting
• Welding requires highly skilled human resources.
• The inspection of welded joints is difficult and expensive, whereas inspection of bolted
joints is simple. Moreover, non-destructive testing is required in important structures.
• Costly equipment is necessary to make welded connections.
• Welded connections are prone to cracking under fatigue loading.
• Proper welding may not be done in field conditions, especially in vertical and overhead
positions.
• The possibility of brittle fracture is more in the case of welded joints than in bolted
connections.
• The welding performed in the field is expensive than performed in the shop.
• Welding at the site may not be feasible due to lack of power supply.

TYPES OF WELD
The welds may be grouped into four types as follows:
(a) Groove welds (b) Fillet welds (c) Slot welds (d) Plug welds

(A) Groove Welds

• Groove welds are used to connect structural members that are aligned in the same plane
and often used in butt joints.

• The grooves have a slope of 30°-60o. Edge preparation becomes necessary for plates
over 10-mm thick for manual arc welding, and over 16-mm thick for automatic welding.

• Since groove welds will transmit the full load of the members they join, they should have
the same strength as the members they join. Hence, only full penetration groove welds
are often used. Partial penetration groove welds should not be used especially in fatigue
situations.
• The choice between single or double penetration depends on access on both sides, the
thickness of the plate, the type of welding equipment, the position of the weld, and the
means by which the distortion is controlled.
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 • For a groove weld, the root opening or gap, is provided for the electrode to access the
base of the joint. The smaller the root opening, the greater will be the angle of the bevel.

(B) Fillet Welds

• They are approximately triangular in cross section.

• Unlike groove welds, they require less precision in 'fitting up' two sections, due to the
overlapping of pieces. Hence, they are adopted in field as well as shop welding.
• Since they do not require any edge preparation (edge conditions resulting from flame
cutting or shear cutting procedures are generally adequate), they are cheaper than
groove welds.
• In connections, members generally intersect at right angles, but intersection angles
between 60o and 120o can be used.

• They fail in shear.

• Fillet welds are most widely used due to their economy, ease of fabrication, and
adoptability at site. Hence, fillet welds are used extensively (about 80%) followed by
groove welds (15%).
• They have the following application.

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 (C) Slot And Plug Welds
• Slot and plug welds are not used exclusively in steel construction.
• When it becomes impossible to use fillet welds or when the length of the fillet weld is
limited, slot and plug welds are used to supplement the fillet welds.
• They are also assumed to fail in shear. Thus, their design strength is similar to that of
fillet welds.

DESIGN OF WELDS (Based on provisions of IS 800-2007 – Pg78-80)

The following assumptions are usually made in the design of welded joints.
• The welds connecting the various parts are homogenous, isotropic, and elastic.
• The parts connected by the welds are rigid and their deformation is, therefore, neglected.
• Only stresses due to external forces are considered. The effects of residual stresses,
stress concentrations, and the shape of the weld are neglected.

(a) Groove welds

• The groove welds in butt joints will be treated as parent metal with a thickness equal
to the throat thickness and the stresses shall not exceed those permitted in the parent
metal. (Cl. 10.5.7.1.2)
• Here, failure occurs by yielding of weld material. Hence, yield strength (fy) is
considered.
• Design strength of weld subjected to tension or compression

• Design strength of weld subjected to shear

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 • The effective throat thickness is computed from

• The effective length of butt weld shall be taken as the length of the continuous full size
weld, but not less than four times the size of the weld. (Cl. 10.5.4.2)

(b) Fillet welds

• Here, failure occurs by rupture of weld material. Hence, ultimate strength (fu) is
considered.
• Since fillet weld fails only in shear, the design strength is given by: (Cl. 10.5.7.1.1)

• The effective throat dimension of a fillet weld is the shortest distance from the root to the
face of the weld. (shown below welds have fusion faces perpendicular to each other)

(Cl. 10.5.3.1)
• If the fusion faces are inclined to each other at some angle, then the effective throat
thickness shall be taken as K times the fillet size (s), where K is a constant, depending
upon the angle between fusion faces, as given in Table below (Cl. 10.5.3.2)

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 • The size of fillet welds shall not be less than 3 mm. The minimum size of the first run or of
a single run fillet weld shall be as given in Table below (Cl. 10.5.2.3)

• In practice the actual length of weld is made of the effective length plus two times the
weld size, but not less than four times the size of the weld. (Cl. 10.5.4.1)
• Fillet Weld Applied to the Edge of a Plate or Section should satisfy the following (Cl.
10.5.8)

• End Returns: Fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts should be returned
continuously around the corners for a distance of not less than twice the size of the weld.
(Cl. 10.5.1.1)

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 CHAPTER 4

DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Tension members are those subjected to direct axial tensile loads.
SLENDERNESS RATIO
Although, tension members donot buckle locally or overall, IS800 stipulates maximum
slenderness ratio for tension members, inorder to ensure a minimum stiffness to prevent
undesirable lateral movement & excessive vibrations. The slenderness ratio of a tension
member is defined as the ratio of its unsupported length (L) to its least radius of gyration.

MODES OF FAILURE OF TENSION MEMBERS

(a) Gross section Yielding

• Athough a tension member without bolt holes can resist loads up to the ultimate load, it
becomes unserviceable by undergoing large deformation (yielding).
• Hence, yield strength of material fy is the deciding parameter here. Design strength is
given by: (Cl.6.2 of IS800)

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(b) Net section Rupture

• Holes in the members cause stress concentration at service loads, as shown.

• Since stress adjacent to the hole is much higher than that at the periphery, the material
adjacent to the hole would have ruptured as the stress at the peripheral fibre reach yield
stress. Hence, ultimate strength of the material fu is the deciding parameter here.
• Design strength of plates due to net section rupture is given by: (Cl. 6.3 of IS800)

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 • For single angle sections connected through one leg
o Design strength due to net section rupture is given by:

o Here, bs is the shear lag width, i.e., the shear distance from the edge of the
outstanding leg to the nearest line of fasteners, measured along the centre line of
the legs in the cross section.

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(c) Block Shear Failure

• In this failure mode, the failure of the member occurs along a path involving tension on
one plane and shear on a perpendicular plane along the fasteners as shown.

• Block shear Failure occurs under the following circumstances:

o When the bearing strength of plate as well as the shear strength of bolt are higher,
only fewer bolts are required in connection. Thus, smaller connection length may
result in Block shear failure.
o It may also occur when bolts re closely spaced.

• Failure possibilities for different connections is shown below

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 • The design block shear strength (Tdb) depends on the following probable failure
mechanisms in block shear failure in bolted connections. (Cl. 6.4 of IS800)

where Avg and Avn are the minimum gross and net area in shear along a line of transmitted
force, respectively; Atg and Atn are the minimum gross and net area in tension from the hole to
the toe of the angle or next last row of bolt in plates, perpendicular to the line of force
respectively.

• In welded connections, since no net-areas are involved in block shear failures, the above
formula for Tdb is modified by replacing Avn by Avg and Atn by Atg.

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 CHAPTER 5

DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Compression members are those subjected to compressive forces along its axis.

TYPES
• Axially Loaded Columns: subjected to true axial loads and no bending moments along
its length.
• Beam-columns: subjected to both axial loads and bending moments along its length.

TERMINOLOGIES
• Columns / Stanchions: They support floors in the building and carry very heavy loads.
• Struts: Short compression members, used in roof trusses & bracings in buildings. Top
chord member of roof truss is also a compression member known as Principal Rafter.
• Boom: Principal compression member in a crane

NOTE: Generally, columns are connected to adjacent members by bolts. It is assumed that the
bolts replace the material removed for bolt holes. Hence, bolt holes are generally ignored in the
design of compression members.

POSSIBLE FAILURE MODES

The possible failure modes of an axially loaded column are discussed as follows:
1) Local Buckling: Failure occurs by buckling of one or more individual plate elements. This
failure mode may be prevented by selecting suitable width-to-thickness ratios of component
plates.
2) Squashing: When the length is relatively small (stocky column) and its component plate
elements are prevented from local buckling, then the column will be able to attain its full strength
or ‘squash load’ (yield stress x area of cross section).
3) Overall Flexural Buckling: This mode of failure normally controls the design of most
compression members. In this mode, failure of the member occurs by excessive deflection in
the plane of the weaker principal axis. An increase in the length of the column, results in the
column resisting progressively lesser loads.
4) Torsional and flexural-torsional buckling: Torsional buckling failure occurs by twisting
about the shear centre in the longitudinal axis. Flexural torsional buckling must be checked for
open sections that are singly symmetric and for sections that have no symmetry. Note that
closed sections or open sections that are doubly symmetric or point symmetric are not subjected
to flexural-torsional buckling, since their shear centre and centroid coincide.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
• Short compression members – No buckling occurs. This member fails by squashing
(yielding). Failure stress will be equal to yield stress.
• Long compression members (or Slender Columns) – Fails by elastic buckling. Its
strength is predicted with the help of Euler’s Formula.
• Intermediate length compression members – Fails by both yielding and buckling.

BUCKLING CURVES & DESIGN STRENGTH

• Euler’s Buckling load or crippling load Pcr is given by:

Where I = Least Moment of Inertia for the given column section

Le = Effective length of column =KL
L = Actual length of column
Value of K for different support conditions is given below.

• Behaviour of Real Compression Members: The experimental results diverged

substantially from the solutions of Euler’s approach. This is because, the effects of initial
crookedness of the member, accidental eccentricity of load, end restraint, local or lateral
buckling, residual stress, etc were not considered for Euler’s approach and is hence
ignored for design.
• In order to represent the real strength of columns, Indian Standard Code (IS 800) has
adopted the multiple column curves (shown below), depending on different cross
sections of columns. This is based on the Perry-Robertson approach. Based on this,
the columns are categorized as a, b, c and d, depending on their buckling behaviour.

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 • The effective length of column KL, is calculated from the actual length L, of the member,
considering the rotational and relative translational boundary conditions at the ends. The
value of K, as recommended by IS 800 is given below (Table 11- Page45).

• The actual length shall be taken as the length from centre-to-centre of its intersections
with the supporting members in the plane of the buckling deformation. In the case of a
member with a free end, the free standing length from the center of the intersecting
member at the supported end, shall be taken as the actual length.
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 • Classification of steel sections based on buckling curves (Table 10 - Pg 44)

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 • Design compressive strength of column is computed from Section 7 (Pg 34 of IS 800)

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BUILT-UP COMPRESSION MEMBERS
They are generally made up of two or more individual sections such as angles, channels, or I-
sections and properly connected along their length by lacing or battening so that they act
together as a single unit. They are used generally for large loads and for efficient use of
material. They are also known as combined columns or open-web columns. Design for shear is
the most critical for them. Eg: Laced columns, Battened columns, etc.
(1) Laced Columns (Cl. 7.6 – Page 48)
The inclined members used to brace the built-up compression members are called lacings.

(a) The radius of gyration of the combined column about the axis perpendicular to the plane of
lacing should be greater than the radius of gyration about the axis parallel to the plane of lacing.
(b) Lacing system should be uniform throughout the length of the column.
(c) Single and double laced systems should not be provided on the opposite sides of the same
member. Similarly lacings and battens should not be provided on opposite sides of the same
member.
(d) Single laced system on opposite sides of the main component shall be in the same direction
viewed from either side so that one is the shadow of the other.
(e) The lacing shall be designed to resist a total transverse shear V, at any point in the
member, equal to 2.5% of the axial force in the member; and this shear shall be divided among
the lacing systems in parallel planes.
(f) The lacings in addition should be designed to resist any shear due to bending moment or
lateral load on the member.
(g) The slenderness ratio of lacing shall not exceed 145.
(h) The effective length shall be taken as the length between inner end bolts/rivets of the bar
for single lacings and 0.7 times the length for double lacings effectively connected at

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intersections. For welded bars, the effective length is taken as 0.7 times the distance between
the inner ends of the welds connecting the single bars to the members.
(i) The minimum width of the lacing bar shall not be less than approximately three times the
th
diameter of the connecting bolt/rivet; the thickness shall not be less than 1/40 of the effective
length for single lacing and 1/60th for double lacing.
(j) The spacing of lacing bars shall be such that the maximum slenderness ratio of the
components of the main member between two consecutive lacing connections is not greater
than 50 or 0.7 times the most unfavourable slenderness ratio of the combined column.
(k) When welded lacing bars overlap the main members, the amount of lap should be not less
than four times the thickness of the bar and the welding is to be provided along each side of the
bar for the full length of lap.
(l) Plates shall be provided at the ends of laced compression members and shall be designed as
battens.
(m) Flats, angles (normally adopted in practice), channels, or tubes may be used as lacings.
o o
(n) Lacing bars, whether in double or single shear shall be inclined at an angle of 40 to 70 to
the axis of the built-up member.
(o) The effective slenderness ratio (KL/r)e, of the laced column shall be taken as 1.05 times
(KL/r)o ,where (KL/r)o is the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column, to account for
shear deformation effects.

2) Battened Columns (Cl. 7.7 – Page 50)

Horizontal members used to brace the built-up compression members are called battens.

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 a) It should to be noted that the battened columns have the less resistance to shear
compared to laced columns, and may experience an appreciable reduction in strength.
Hence, laced columns are preferred over battened columns.
b) The number of battens shall be such that the member is divided into not less than three
bays.
c) Battens shall be designed to resist simultaneously the following:
Longitudinal shear V, = Vt C/NS
and
Moment M= Vt C/2N
where Vt is the transverse shear force, C is the distance between centre-to-centre
of battens, longitudinally, N is the number of parallel planes of battens, and S is
the minimum transverse distance between the centroids of the bolt/rivet
group/welding connecting the batten to the main member.
d) When plates are used for battens, the effective depth between the end bolts/ rivets or
welds shall not be less than twice the width of one member in the plane of battens; nor
less than three quarters of the perpendicular distance between centroids of the main
members for intermediate battens; and not less than the perpendicular distance between
the centroids of main members for end battens.
e) The thickness of batten plates shall not be less than 1/50th of the distance between the
innermost connecting transverse bolts, rivets or welds.
f) When connected to main members by welds, the length of the weld connecting each end
of the batten shall not be less than half the depth of the plate; at least one third of its
length should be placed at each end of the edge; in addition the weld shall be returned
along the other two edges for a length not less than the minimum lap (i.e., not less than
four times the thickness of the plate). The length of the weld and depth of batten should
be measured along the longitudinal axis of the main member.
g) The effective slenderness ratio of battened column shall be taken as 1.10 times (KL/r)o,
here (KL/r)o is the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column, to account for shear
deformation effects.

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 CHAPTER 6

DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

• The idealized stress – strain behavior of steel is given by:

• In working stress method, the stress in the material is restricted well within the Yield
stress (fy), such that the stress-strain relationship is linear and hence simpler for analysis.
This region of graph is ideally termed as Elastic Region and hence the analysis is called
Elastic Analysis.
o Here, since the strength of the material beyond the yield point is not utilized, the
structures designed using this method is generally heavier, and hence less
economical.
• Hence, the method of Plastic Analysis is introduced here.
o This utilizes the strength of the material beyond yield point. The material behavior
upto strain-hardening strain (ɛsh) is considered here (see above figure).
o Instead of yield stress, this method uses ultimate load as the design criterion.
Hence this method is also known as Ultimate Load method or Load Factor Design
method.
o This is relatively a simpler method for the analysis of Statically Indeterminate
Method.

PLASTIC THEORY
Consider an I-beam subjected to a steadily increasing bending moment.
• In the service load range, the section is elastic as shown in Fig(a).
• The elastic condition exists until the stress at the extreme fibre reaches the yield stress
[Fig(b)]. When the yield stress reaches the extreme fibre, the nominal moment strength of
the beam is referred to as the yield moment My and is given by

My = Ze x f y

where, Ze is the elastic section modulus = ! , I is the moment of inertia of the section
"#$
and ymax is the maximum distance between extreme fibre and the neutral axis.

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 • A further increase in the bending moment causes the yield to spread inwards from the
lower and upper surfaces of the beam as shown in Fig(c). This is because of the yielding
of the outer fibres without increase in stresses, as shown by the horizontal line of the
idealized stress-strain diagram (see above fig).
• Upon increasing the bending moment further, the whole section yields as shown in
Fig.(d). When this condition is reached, every fibre has a strain equal to or greater than ɛy
= fy / Es. The nominal moment strength of the beam at this stage is referred to as the
plastic moment Mp and is given by

Mp = Zp x f y

where, Zp is the plastic section modulus = % & '

• Any further increase in the bending moment results only in rotation, since no greater
resisting moment than the fully plastic moment can be developed until strain hardening
occurs.
• In the simple plastic theory, it is conservatively assumed that when the maximum
moment in the beam reaches Plastic Moment Mp, the curvature increases
indefinitely without increase in moment, i.e., neglecting the effects of strain
hardening.

• The portion of the member where Mp occurs is termed “plastic hinge”

o Plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone, which can cause an infinite rotation to
take place at a constant plastic moment Mp of the section.
o Plastic hinges form in a member at the maximum bending moment locations.
o However, at the intersections of two members, where the bending moment is the
same, a hinge forms in the weaker member.
o Generally, hinges are located at restrained ends, intersections of members, and
point loads.
o Generally the number of plastic hinges are n = r + 1, where r is the degree of
static indeterminacy.

• The deflection curve of the beam at different stages of loading and the consequent
formation of plastic hinge is shown below.

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 • To determine the Plastic section modulus Zp, consider the following:
o Consider a beam cross-section of area A, as shown in figure given below. At
equilibrium, compressive force C = Tensile force T
=> fyA1 = fyA2 => A1 = A2

o Thus, the plastic modulus of the section may be defined as the combined static
moment of the cross-sectional area above and below the equal-area axis. It is also
referred to as the resisting modulus of the completely plasticized section.

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SHAPE FACTOR
Shape Factor (ʋ) is the ratio of plastic moment to yield moment.
() *)
ʋ= =
( *+
• It is a property of the cross-sectional shape and is independent of the material properties.

LOCAL BUCKLING OF PLATES

• Buckling may be defined as a structural behaviour in which a mode of deformation
develops in a direction or plane perpendicular to that of the loading which produces it;
such a deformation changes rapidly with increase in the magnitude of the applied
loading. It occurs mainly in members or elements that are subjected to compressive
forces. As a result, changes in geometry can arise at three levels,
1) Deformation within the cross section of a member (known as Local Buckling or
Local Instability) <= WE RESTRICT OUR CURRENT DISCUSSION TO THIS
CATEGORY ONLY
2) Deflections/displacements within the length of the member relative to straight lines
drawn between the corresponding points of the end supports due to the bending
(known as Buckling of Column or Member Instability) <= ALREADY DISCUSSED
IN CHAPTER ON COMPRESSION MEMBERS
3) Overall change of geometry of the structure, causing the joints to displace relative to
each other, such as the sway deformation in multi-storey frames (known as Frame
Instability)

• In the study on Local Buckling, any structural steel section may be considered to be
composed of plate elements. These plate elements can be divided into two categories –
Unstiffened elements & Stiffened elements.

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 • As far as the local buckling of plates is concerned, the critical buckling stress in a plate
element is given by:

where μ is Poisson’s ratio of the material, b/t is the width-to-thickness ratio of the plate, k
is the buckling coefficient, and E is Young’s modulus of rigidity of the material.

Since fcr is inversely proportional to (b/t) ratio, Local buckling of plate elements can be
prevented by choosing those having smaller value of width-to-thickness ratio.

• One of the major assumptions in Plastic Theory is that the beam is supported
continuously laterally to prevent the failure of compression flange by local buckling. This
is because, local buckling of compression flange (an unstiffened plate element) of the I-
section reduces the rotation capacity of the beam and prevents the formation of plastic
hinge, instead causes early failure. Hence, Local Buckling causes premature failure of
beam and hence should be avoided, otherwise the beam section shall not be
utilized upto its plastic moment capacity.

• Classification of Cross-section:
In IS 800-2007, cross sections are placed into four behavioural classes depending upon
the material yield strength, the width-to-thickness ratios of the individual components
(e.g., webs and flanges), loading arrangement, and the capacity to form plastic hinges.
The four classes of sections are defined as follows:

1) Plastic or Class 1 Cross sections

o They can develop Plastic Moment (i.e., Maximum Moment = Mp) as well as
sufficient rotation capacity (i.e., Ɵ2 > 6Ɵ1 ; where Ɵ1 is the rotation at the
onset of plasticity and Ɵ2 is the minimum rotation required to qualify as a
plastic section) [See the moment-curvature graph below]
o Thus, they can develop Plastic hinges
o Hence, fully effective under pure compression
o only these sections are used in plastic analysis and design
2) Compact or Class 2 Cross sections
o They can develop Plastic Moment (i.e., Maximum Moment = Mp) but cannot
attain sufficient rotation capacity (i.e., Ɵ2 > Ɵ1 but Ɵ2 < 6Ɵ1)
o Thus, they cannot develop Plastic Hinges, because of local buckling.
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 3) Semi-compact or Class 3 Cross sections
o They can develop Elastic Moment (i.e., Maximum Moment = My) only.
o Thus, at that section, only the extreme fibres reach yield stress. This is
because local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment
resistance.
4) Slender or Class 4 Cross sections
o Local buckling will occur even before the attainment of yield stress in one or
more parts of the cross section.
o They cannot even develop Elastic Moment (i.e., Maximum Moment < My).

• The design moment capacity Md of each of the four classes of sections is:

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DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
• The design bending strength of beam, which is adequately supported against lateral-
torsional buckling (local buckling of the compression flange) is known as laterally
supported beam. It is governed by the yield stress .
• Design strength of beam is given under Cl. 8.2 of IS 800
o A beam may be assumed to be adequately supported at the supports, provided
the compression flange has full lateral restraint and nominal torsional restraint at
supports supplied by web cleats, partial depth end plates, fin plates or continuity
with the adjacent span. Full lateral restraint to compression flange may be
assumed to exist if the frictional or other positive restraint of a floor connection to
the compression flange of the member is capable of resisting a lateral force not
less than 2.5 percent of the maximum force in the compression flange of the
member. This may be considered to be uniformly distributed along the flange,
provided gravity loads constitute the dominant loading on the member and the
floor construction is capable of resisting this lateral force.
o The design bending strength of a section which is not susceptible to web

buckling under shear before yielding (where d/tw < 67ε , where ε = ) shall

be determined according to Cl. 8.2.1.2.

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 • Design for shear strength of beam is calculated based on Cl.8.4 in IS 800, as:

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 • Deflections for some common load cases for simply supported beams together with the
maximum moments, can be determined using the following formulae.

The deflection thus found out should not exceed the deflection limits, as restricted by the
code (Table 5 – Page 31).

MODES OF FAILURES OF WEB OF BEAM (Additional Topic only for reference)

A heavy load or reaction concentrated on a short length produces a region of high compressive
stresses in the web either under the load or at the support. This shall failure of web in any of the
following modes:
• Web Buckling / Vertical Buckling: occurs when the intensity of vertical compressive
stress near the centre of the section becomes greater than the critical buckling stress of
the web. It is very common in built-up beams having greater depth-to-thickness ratios.
• Web Crippling / Web Crushing : involves yielding of the web material directly adjacent
to the flange. In rolled steel beams, the initial failure is by web crippling.

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 Page 43 of 51
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 (From Steel Tables)

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 CHAPTER 7

ROOF TRUSS & PLATE GIRDERS

A structure that is composed of a number of line members pin-connected at the ends to form a
triangulated framework is called a Truss.

Trusses have the following characteristic features.

• The members are so arranged that all the loads and reactions occur only at the joints
(intersection points of the members).
• The centroidal axis of each member is straight, coincides with the line connecting the
centres of joints at each end of the member, and lies in a plane that also contains the
lines of action of all the loads and reactions.
• The primary principle underlying the use of the truss as a load-carrying structure is that:
o Arranging elements into a triangular configuration results in a stable shape.
o Any deformations that occur in this stable structure are relatively minor and are
associated with small changes in member length caused by the forces in the
members by the external loads.
o Similarly, the angle formed between any two members remains relatively
unchanged under load.
o The external loads (which are applied at the joints) produce only tensile or
compressive forces in the individual members of the truss.
• For common trusses with vertically downward loads acting, compressive forces are
usually developed in the top chord members and tensile forces in the bottom chord
members. Though the forces in the web members (members between top & bottom
chord members) of a truss may be either tension or compression, there is often an
alternating pattern of tensile and compressive forces present.
• To check the stable configuration of members and static determinacy,
o If (m + r) – 2j = 0, then the truss is an internally determinate structure.
o If (r – 3) = 0, then the truss is an externally determinate structure.
o If (m + r) – 2j > 0, then the truss is an internally indeterminate structure.
o If (r – 3) > 0, then the truss is an externally indeterminate structure.
o If (m + r) – 2j < 0, then the truss is an internally unstable structure.
o If (r – 3) < 0, then the truss is an externally unstable structure.
where m, the number of members, j , the number of joints, and r, the reaction
components
Page 46 of 51
Prepared by Kiran S. R., Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Central Polytechnic College Trivandrum
PARTS OF ROOF TRUSS

1) Top Chord
The uppermost line of members that extend from one support to the other through the apex is
called top chord. The top chord is also known as the upper chord of the roof truss. Such
members are called Principal Rafters.
2) Bottom Chord
The lowermost line of members of truss extending from one support to the other is called bottom
chord. The bottom chord is also known as lower chord of the root truss.
3) Rise
The rise of a roof truss is the vertical distance measured from the apex to the line joining
supports.
4) Pitch
The ratio of the rise to the span is called the pitch of a roof truss. It is also expressed sometimes
as the angle between the lower and the upper chords. Roofs are pitched to facilitate drainage of
water. The pitches 1/3 and 1/5 and corresponding to an angle of inclination of 30O is commonly
employed.
5) Slope
The slope of a roof is defined as the tangent of the angle that the plane of the roof makes with
horizontal. The slope of the roof therefore is not equal to the pitch and greater care should be
taken to see that the two terms are not used synonymously. The slope of the roof is equal to
twice the numerical value of pitch in all the cases whether truss is symmetrical or
unsymmetrical.

Page 47 of 51
Prepared by Kiran S. R., Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Central Polytechnic College Trivandrum
6) Panel
The portion of the truss lying between two consecutive joints in a principal rafter of a roof truss is
called a panel. It is also defined as the distance between the two adjacent purlins.
7) Bay
The portion of a roof truss contained between any two consecutive trusses is called as Bay.
8) Purlins
The purlins are horizontal beams spanning between the two adjacent trusses. These are the
structural members subjected to transverse loads and rest on the top chords of root trusses.
The purlins aremeant to carry the loads of the roofing material and to transfer it on the panel
points.
9) Sub-purlins
The sub-purlins are the secondary system of purlins resting on the rafter. These are spaced to
support the tiles or slate coverings.
10) Rafters
The rafters are beams and rest on the purlins. The rafters support the sheathing. They may
support sub-purlins directly. These are called common rafters to distinguish from principal rafter.
11) Ridge Line
The ridge line is a line joining the vertices of the trusses.
12) Eaves
The bottom edges of an inclined roof surface or a pitched roof is termed as eaves.

LOADS ON ROOF TRUSS

1. Dead Load: Based on IS 875 (Part 1) : 1987
2. Live Load: Based on IS 875 (Part 2) : 1987
3. Wind Load: Based on IS 875 (Part 3) : 1987
2
• Wind pressure (in N/m2) at height z is given by: pz = 0.6 ( Vz )
where Vz is the design wind speed (in m/s) at height z, calculated as:
Vz = Vb x k1 x k2 x k3 x k4
Vb is the basic wind speed (in m/s)
k1 is the probability factor or risk factor
k2 is the terrain, height and structure size factor
k3 is the topography factor
k4 is the importance factor for cyclonic regions
4. Snow Load: Based on IS 875 (Part 4) : 1987
5. Special loads and load combinations: Based in IS 875 (Part 5) : 1987
6. Earthquake Loads: Based on IS 1893 : 2002

Page 48 of 51
Prepared by Kiran S. R., Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Central Polytechnic College Trivandrum
TYPES OF TRUSSES AND TRUSS CONFIGURATIONS

Page 49 of 51
Prepared by Kiran S. R., Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Central Polytechnic College Trivandrum
PLATE GIRDERS
The plate girders are essentially built-up beams to carry heavier loads over large spans. They
are deep structural members subjected to transverse loads. The plate girders consist of plates
and angles riveted together. Plates and angles form an I-Section. They are used in building
constructions and also in bridges. When the span and load combination is such that the rolled
steel beams become insufficient to furnish the requirement and built-up beam becomes
uneconomical, then plate-girders are used.
A plate girder essentially consists of
• Web plate - a vertical plate which connects flange plates by means of angles top
and bottom flange angles. It keeps flange plates in position and is capable to resist
shear force in beams.
• Flange plate - two horizontal plates in the built-up beam, used to resist bending
moment acting on the beam. One flange develops tension, while the other
develops compression. The web and flange plates are thin, and hence likely to
buckle under compression.
• Stiffeners - In order to avoid buckling of web due to shear and bending, and
buckling of web at points of concentrated loads, the web has to be stiffened by
means of stiffeners. Stiffeners are classified into four:
o Bearing stiffeners – provided at points of concentrated loads, to protect the
web from direct compressive stress.
o End posts or End bearing stiffeners – since at the end of beams, certain
portion of web acts as compression member, these are provided to prevent
crushing of web.
o Intermediate transverse stiffeners – provided to prevent buckling of web
and enhance its stiffness.
o Longitudinal stiffeners or Horizontal stiffeners – provided to prevent
buckling of web. If a single stiffener is required, it is provided at the level of
0.2d from the compression flange, where d is the depth of web plate.

Cross-sectional view Longitudinal side view

Page 50 of 51
Prepared by Kiran S. R., Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Central Polytechnic College Trivandrum
 Design of an Industrial Truss
U3
Ridge
Roofing Sagrod
U2 U4

24 U1 U5

L0 L1 L3 L4 L5 L6
L2

6@20 = 120

Elevation of the Truss

Sagrod Purlin at top, Bottom Cord Bracing at bottom

Top Cord Bracing

Design Truss

2@30
= 60

Column

Building Plan

Total Span of the Truss = 6@20 = 120 , Total Height of the Truss = 24 , Spacing = 30
Pitch Angle = tan 1(24/60) = 21.80
Dead Loads: Roofing = 2 psf, Purlins = 1.5 psf, Sagrods + Bracings = 1 psf
Basic Wind Speed V = 120 mph
Material Properties: f c = 3 ksi, fy = 40 ksi
1. Design of Purlins and Sagrods
Purlin length = Spacing of truss = 30
Dead Load:
GI Sheet roofing = 2.0 psf, Self weight of Purlins = 1.5 psf Total Load = 3.5 psf
Purlin Spacing Sp = Length of Top Cord U1U2 = {202 + (24/3)2} = 21.54
UDL on purlins, wDL = 3.5 Sp = 75.39 lb/ft
wDLx = wDL sin = 28 lb/ft, wDLy = wDL cos = 70 lb/ft
Wind Load:
Basic wind speed, V = 120 mph
Basic wind pressure, q = 0.00256 V2 = 0.00256 × 1202 = 36.86 psf
Wind pressure for windward surface, p = 0.7q, for 0 20
p = (0.07 2.1)q, for 20 30
p = (0.03 0.9)q, for 30 60
p = 0.9q, for 60 90 ……….…(1.1(a)~(d))
Wind pressure for leeward surface, p = 0.7q, for any value of ……...………….(1.2)
Here, pitch angle = tan 1(24/60) = 21.80 ; i.e., 20 30
Wind pressure for windward surface, pWW = (0.07×21.80 2.1)×36.86 = 21.16 psf
Wind pressure for leeward surface, pLW = 0.7×36.86 = 25.80 psf
UDL on windward surface, wWW = 21.16 Sp = 455.72 lb/ft
UDL on leeward surface, wLW = 25.80 Sp = 555.85 lb/ft

y y y
wWW = 455.72 lb/ft wLW = 555.85 lb/ft

21.80
wDLx = 28 lb/ft
x x x
wDL

wDLy = 70 lb/ft

Dead Load Windward Wind Load Leeward Wind Load

Load Combination and Biaxial Bending:
It is clear from the preceding analyses that leeward side is more critical for wind loading.
Therefore, the combination of dead load and leeward wind load provides the governing design
condition for purlins.
Combined UDL in y-direction, wy = 485.85 lb/ft
y
wy = 485.85 lb/ft Combined UDL in x-direction, wx = 28 lb/ft
Span of the purlin is St = 30
It is simply supported in y-direction
wx = 28 lb/ft
Mxx = wyS2/8 = 54.66 k = 655.90 k , at midspan
x
Due to sagrod, it is 2-span continuous in x-direction
Myy = wxS2/32 = 0.79 k = 9.45 k , also at midspan
Design of Purlins:
The absolute maximum tensile/compressive due to biaxial bending is
zz = Mxx/Sxx + Myy/Syy = 655.90/Sxx + 9.45/Syy …………………….(1.3)
where Sxx and Syy are the section moduli about the x- and y-axes.
Allowable bending stress fb = 0.66 fy = 26.4 ksi
Table 1.1: Calculation for Optimum Purlin Section
Section Sxx (in3) Syy (in3) zz (ksi) fb (ksi) Comments
C3 4.1 1.10 0.202 643.06 Use much larger section
C12 30 27.0 2.06 28.88 26.4 Use slightly larger section
C15 33.9 42.0 3.11 18.66 OK

The section C15 33.9 is chosen as the optimum purlin section.

Self weight of purlin = 33.9 lb/ft, i.e., 33.9/21.54 = 1.57 psf assumed 1.5 psf, OK.
Design of Sagrods:
The maximum axial force in the sagrods = (5/8) wDLx S = (5/8) 28 30 = 525 lb = 0.525 k
The minimum size of the sagrods = 3/8
Allowing 1/16 reduction for bolt threads, the rod area = (3/8 1/16)2/4 = 0.077 in2
Maximum stress = 0.525/0.077 = 6.84 ksi Allowable fs = 20 ksi
The sagrod is chosen to have 3/8 -diameter, the weight of sagrods and bracings should be
within the assumed limit of 1.0 psf.
 2. Calculation of Point Dead Load, Wind Load and Truss Analysis
In this section, the uniformly distributed loads from the roof as well as from the wind are
concentrated on the truss joints for subsequent analyses.
Calculation of Point Dead Load:
Total roof load including roofing, purlins, sagrods and bracings = 2.0 + 1.5 + 1.0 = 4.5 psf
Purlin Spacing Sp = 21.54 , Truss Spacing St = 30
Concentrated roof loads on truss joints = 4.5 Sp St/1000 = 2.91 kips
Assumed self-weight of truss = 100 lb/ft = 0.10 k/ft of horizontal span, to be equally divided
among the top and bottom cords.
Concentrated self-weight on truss joints = 0.10 20/2 = 1.00 kips
Dead load on top joints, Ptop = 2.91 + 1.00 = 3.91 kips, and on bottom joints, Pbot = 1.00 kips
Total dead load on end joints, Pend = 2.91/2 + 1.00 = 2.45 kips

3.91k

3.91k 3.91k
U3
3.91 k
U2 L0
U1

L1
U2

L2
U3

L3
U4

L4
U5

L5 L6
3.91k
U4
2.45k U1 2.45k
U5

L0 L6
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
1.00k 1.00k 1.00k 1.00k 1.00k

Concentrated dead loads at truss joints

19.83 19.83
10.82
26.44 26.44
3.46 7.86 7.86 3.46
33.05 1.00 6.61 6.61 1.00 33.05

30.69 30.69 24.55 24.55 30.69 30.69

14.73 14.73

Member forces and support reactions (kips) due to dead loads

Wind Load:
As calculated in the design of purlins and sagrods,
Wind pressure for windward surface = 21.16 psf, and for leeward surface = 25.80 psf
Concentrated load (suction) on windward surface, PWW = 21.16 Sp St/1000 = 13.67 kips
Concentrated load (suction) on leeward surface, PLW = 25.80 Sp St/1000 = 16.68 kips
These are halved at end joints; i.e., PWW(end) = 6.84 kips, and PLW(end) = 8.34 kips

6.84k 8.34k
16.68k
Wind 13.67k

13.67k 16.68k

6.84k 8.34k

Concentrated wind ( ) loads at truss joints

63.27 62.66
Wind
32.68 80.17
77.61
7.36 23.57 28.74 8.98
91.96 19.82 24.17 0 97.68
0
3.34
79.51 79.51 61.10 65.15 87.59 87.59

40.50 44.02

Member forces and support reactions (kips) due to wind ( ) loads

62.66 63.27 Wind

32.68 77.61
80.17
8.98 28.74 23.57 7.36
97.68 24.17 19.82 0 91.96
0
3.34
90.93 90.93 68.49 64.44 82.85 82.85

44.02 40.50

Member forces and support reactions (kips) due to wind ( ) loads

 3. Load Combination and Design of Truss Members
The member forces and support reactions calculated earlier for point dead loads and wind loads
are combined in this section to obtain the design member forces and support reactions.
Combination of Dead Load and Wind Load:
The calculation for the design forces is best carried out in a tabular form as shown below.

Table 3.1: Design Member Force Chart

Member Forces (kips) Design Force (kips)
Member Length
Member Dead Wind Load Wind Load
Type (ft) Tension Compression
Load ( ) ( )
L0L1 20.00 30.69 79.51 90.93 30.69 60.24
L1L2 20.00 30.69 79.51 90.93 30.69 60.24
Bottom
L2L3 20.00 24.55 61.10 68.49 24.55 43.94
Cord
L3L4 20.00 24.55 65.15 64.44 24.55 40.60
Members
L4L5 20.00 30.69 87.59 82.85 30.69 56.90
L5L6 20.00 30.69 87.59 82.85 30.69 56.90
L0U1 21.54 33.05 91.96 97.68 64.63 33.05
U1U2 21.54 26.44 77.61 80.17 53.73 26.44
Top
U2U3 21.54 19.83 63.27 62.66 43.44 19.83
Cord
U3U4 21.54 19.83 62.66 63.27 43.44 19.83
Members
U4U5 21.54 26.44 80.17 77.61 53.73 26.44
U5L6 21.54 33.05 97.68 91.96 64.63 33.05
U1L1 8.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 *
U2L2 16.00 3.46 7.36 8.98 3.46 5.52
Vertical
U3L3 24.00 10.82 32.68 32.68 10.82 21.86
Members
U4L4 16.00 3.46 8.98 7.36 3.46 5.52
U5L5 8.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 *
U1L2 21.54 6.61 19.82 24.17 17.56 6.61
Diagonal U2L3 25.61 7.86 23.57 28.74 20.88 7.86
Members U4L3 25.61 7.86 28.74 23.57 20.88 7.86
U5L4 21.54 6.61 24.17 19.82 17.56 6.61
Design Concept of Truss Members:
The design of truss members is carried out using the following equations.
Members under tension:
t = Ft/A
all(t) = 0.5 fy ………………………(3.1(a)~3.1(b))
The acceptable design condition is t all(t)

Members under compression:

c = Fc/A
Slenderness Ratio, = Le/rmin, and c = (2E/f y)
If c, all(c) = fy [1 0.5 ( / c)2]/[5/3 + 3/8 ( / c) 1/8( / c)3]
2
If c, all(c) = 0.52 ( E/ 2) ………………………(3.2(a)~3.2(d))
The acceptable design condition is c all(c)

Here Ft = Tensile force, Fc = Compressive force, E = Modulus of elasticity

A = Cross-sectional area, Le = Effective length of member, rmin = Minimum radius of gyration
t = Tensile stress, c = Compressive stress, all = Allowable stress

For the material properties used for design; i.e., E = 29000 ksi, f y = 40 ksi
all(t) = 0.5 fy = 20 ksi, c = (2E/f y) = 119.63, = / c= /119.63
If 1, all(c) = 40 [1 0.5 2]/[5/3 + 3 /8 3
/8]
2 2
If 1, all(c) = 149000/ = 10.4/ ………………………(3.3(a)~3.3(d))

Rather than designing for all the members individually, only one section will be chosen for all
the bottom cord members, one section for all the top cord members and one section for all the
other (vertical and diagonal; i.e., ‘web’) members.

Since the design truss has a long span, design sections will be chosen from double angle sections
rather than single angle sections, which are chosen for smaller trusses.
Design of Bottom Cord Members:
For the bottom cord members (L0L1~ L5L6), the maximum tensile force = 30.69 kips and the
maximum compressive force = 60.24 kips. Since all the bottom cord members are of equal
length (i.e., if effective length factor k is taken = 1, then Le = 20 ft = 240 inch), the maximum
forces are taken as the design forces.

Although the design compressive force is much larger and is likely to be governing condition in
this case, the sections are designed for both tension and compression for completeness of design.

Table 3.2: Bottom Cord Member Design Chart

A t all(t) c rmin all(c)
Section 2
Comments
(in ) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (in) (ksi)
2½ 2½ 1/2 4.50 6.82 13.39 0.74 324.32 2.71 1.41 Use much larger section
4 4 3/4 10.88 2.82 5.54 1.19 201.68 1.69 3.66 Use larger section
20
5 5 7/8 15.96 1.92 3.77 1.49 161.07 1.35 5.74 Use smaller section
5 5 5/8 11.72 2.62 5.14 1.52 157.89 1.32 5.97 OK

Design of Top Cord Members:

For the top cord members (L0U1~ U5L6), the maximum tensile force = 64.63 kips and the
maximum compressive force = 33.05 kips. Since all the top cord members are of equal length
(i.e., if k = 1, Le = 21.54 ft = 258.48 inch), the maximum forces are taken as the design forces.

The sections are designed for both tension and compression.

Table 3.3: Top Cord Member Design Chart

A t all( t) c rmin all(c)
Section 2
Comments
(in ) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (in) (ksi)
2½ 2½ 1/2 4.50 14.36 7.34 0.74 349.30 2.92 1.22 Use much larger section
4 4 5/8 9.22 7.01 20 3.58 1.20 215.40 1.80 3.21 Use larger section
4 4 3/4 10.88 5.94 3.04 1.19 217.21 1.82 3.15 OK
Design of Vertical and Diagonal Members:
For the vertical and diagonal members (U1L1~ U5L5, U1L2~ U5L4), the maximum tensile force =
20.88 kips and the maximum compressive force = 21.86 kips. The maximum tension acts on
U2L3 and U4L3 while the maximum compression acts on U3L3, which is 24 ft long. Although
U2L3 and U4L3 are slightly longer (i.e., 25.61 ft long), the maximum compressive forces on them
are much smaller (i.e., 7.86 kips). Therefore the effective length of the design members is taken
as Le = 24 ft = 288 inch. The sections are designed for both tension and compression although it
is likely to be governed by compression.

Table 3.4: Web Member Design Chart

A t all( t) c rmin all(c)
Section 2
Comments
(in ) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (in) (ksi)
2½ 2½ 1/2 4.50 4.64 4.86 0.74 389.19 3.25 0.98 Use much larger section
4 4 1/2 7.50 2.78 20 2.91 1.22 236.07 1.97 2.67 Use larger section
4 4 5/8 9.22 2.26 2.37 1.20 240.00 2.01 2.58 OK

5/8

5
4

3/4
5 5 4 4

Bottom Chord Members Top Chord Members

5/8

4 4

Web Members
 4. Design of Bracings and Connections
The truss members designed in the previous section are supported against out-of-plane loads by
several bracings, joined to each other by welded plate connections and connected to column or
wall supports. This section discusses the design of these so-called ‘non-structural members’.
Design of Bracings:
The bracings connect joints of two successive trusses in order to provide structural support
against out-of-plane loadings. The bracing system used for the truss illustrated here is shown
below, consisting of three types of bracings; i.e.,
(i) Bottom cord bracings connect the corresponding bottom joints (e.g., L0 with L0)
(ii) Top cord bracings connect the bottom joints (e.g., L0) with top joints (e.g., U2) diagonally
(iii) Vertical bracings connect the bottom joints (e.g., L3) with top joints (e.g., U3) vertically

Bottom Chord Tie

Bottom Chord Bracing Top Chord Bracing Vertical Bracing

Since the structural analysis of the bracing system is complicated, the design follows simplified
guidelines, according to which the slenderness ratio (Le/rmin) 400 for bracings under tension
and 300 for bracings under compression. In the absence of accurate calculations, the more
conservative second criterion (i.e., rmin Le/300) is chosen for design here.
The design (using single equal angles) is best carried out in a tabular form as shown below.

Table 4.1: Design Chart for Bracings

Length, L (ft) Effective Length, Le (in) rmin (in) Chosen Section
BC Bracing 30 (0.7 30/2 12 =) 126 0.42 L2½ 2½ 3/16
TC Bracing { (302 + 43.082) =} 52.50 (0.7 52.50/2 12 =) 220.5 0.73 L4 4 1/4
V Bracing { (302 + 242) =} 38.42 (0.7 38.42/2 12 =) 161.4 0.54 L3 3 3/16
Design of Connections:
The joints provided here are actually gusset plates joining two or more members with welded
connections. The design is based on the following material and structural properties

Allowable shear stress fv = 0.3 fy = 0.3 40 = 12 ksi

The gusset plate should be designed to resist the maximum possible design load condition. In this
case, however, the thickness of the plate is approximately estimated based on the maximum axial
force 64.63 kips. If allowable tensile stress = 0.5 fy = 0.5 40 = 20 ksi, and plate thickness =
0.25 , then the maximum required width of the plate = 64.63/(20 0.25) 13 . This should not be
too large, based on the weld-lengths calculated subsequently.
Thickness of gusset plate is chosen tentatively as = 0.25 and thickness of weld t = 0.25

The length of weld, Lw = P/(fv 0.707t) = P/(12 0.707 0.25) = P/2.12

Table 4.2: Weld Design Chart

Member Member y:L y Design Force Weld Weld Length
Member
Type Size (in) (kips) Length (in) Ratio (in)
L0L1, L5L6* 60.24 28.40 20.00, 8.50
Bottom Cord
L1L2, L4L5* 5 5 5/8 1.48: 3.52 60.24 28.40 20.00, 8.50
Member
L2L3, L3L4* 43.94 20.71 15.00, 6.50
L0U1, U5L6 64.63 30.47 21.00, 10.00
Top Cord
U1U2, U4U5 4 4 3/4 1.27: 2.73 53.73 25.33 17.50, 8.50
Member
U2U3, U3U4 43.44 20.48 14.00, 6.50
U1L1, U5L5 1.00 0.47 0.5, 0.25
Vertical
U2L2, U4L4 5.52 2.60 2.00, 1.00
Member
U3L3 4 4 5/8 1.23: 2.77 21.86 10.30 7.25, 3.25
Diagonal U1L2, U5L4 6.61 3.12 2.25, 1.00
Member U2L3, U4L3 7.86 3.71 2.75, 1.25
[* Design forces assumed equal]
 1/4 21

Gusset plate (0.25 thick)

L0U1 (4 4 3/4 )

1/4 8.5

L0L1 (5 5 5/8 )

1/4 10

1/4 20

Joint L0

1/4 14

U3U4 (4 4 3/4 )
U2U3 (4 4 3/4 )

1/4 6.5 1/4 7.25

1/4 3.25
U3L3 (4 4 5/8 )

Joint U3
 5. Design of Anchorage and Support
The truss is supported by reinforced concrete columns and footings, their reactions having been
calculated earlier for point dead load and wind loads. The connections between the truss and
support are designed in this section for the combined design loads.
Combination of Support Reactions from Dead Load and Wind Load:
The calculation for the design support reactions is carried out in the following tabular form.

Table 5.1: Design Support Reaction Chart

Support Reactions (kips) Design Forces (kips)
Support
Dead Load Wind Load ( ) Wind Load ( ) Case1 Case2 Case3
40.50 44.02 25.77 (T) 29.29 (T)
L0 14.73 14.73 (C)
3.34 3.34 3.34 (S) 3.34 (S)
L6 14.73 44.02 40.50 14.73 (C) 29.29 (T) 25.77 (T)

Therefore the design conditions are summarized as follows

1. Compressive force = 14.73 kips
2. Tensile Force = 29.29 kips, Shear Force = 3.34 kips
Design of Base plate and Anchorage:
Since the truss is supported on base plates on concrete pedestals supported by masonry columns,
the design in this study deals mainly with the connections between the truss and the columns.

The column forces are nominal, therefore a 10 20 masonry column is chosen.

The maximum tensile stress on the column = 29.29/(10 20) = 0.146 ksi, which is within the
allowable limit (Tensile strength 300 psi).

Assuming the base plate area = Ap and bearing pressure = 0.35 fc = 1.05 ksi
1.05Ap = 14.73 Ap = 14.73/1.05 Ap = 14.03 in2
Provide 7 14 base plate (since the bottom cord members are 5 + 5 wide)
Since the free portion of the base plate is nominal, a thickness of 0.5 is more than adequate.
The base plate is supported on a 10 20 concrete pedestal and connected to the column by four
reinforcements to resist the entire tensile and shear force.
Allowable tensile stress = 0.5 fy = 20 ksi and allowable shear stress = 0.3 fy = 12 ksi
Required area (based on tensile force) = 29.29/(4 20) = 0.366 in2
Required area (based on shear force) = 3.34/(4 12) = 0.07 in2
Provide 4 #6 (i.e., 3/4 diameter) anchor bolts (Area = 0.44 in2 each).

Allowable tensile force per anchor = 0.44 20 = 8.8 kips

Allowable bond force per unit length = 35 fc = 35 3000 lb/in = 1.92 k/in
Development length = 8.8/1.92 = 4.59
Provide anchorage of 6 for each bolt.

The base plate will be connected to the gusset plate by the section similar to the bottom cord
(i.e., a 5 5 5/8 double angle section), also with 3/4 diameter bolts to transfer the maximum
support reaction (= 29.29 kips) by shear.
Required area = 29.29/12 = 2.44 in2, i.e., provide 3-3/4 diameter bolts in double shear.
Hinge Support L0

Gusset plate (0.25 thick)

L0U1 (4 4 3/4 )

L0L1 (5 5 5/8 )

3/4 Bolts
7 14 Base Plate (0.5 thick)
8 6 Anchorage
Concrete Pedestal
Masonry Column

Roller Support L6

Gusset plate (0.25 thick)

L6U5 (4 4 3/4 )

L5L6 (5 5 5/8 )

6 Roller
Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Example Problem
An Industrial building of plan 15m×30m is to be constructed as shown in Fig.E1.

Using plastic analysis, analyse and design the single span portal frame with gabled roof.

The frame has a span of 15 m, the column height is 6m and the rafter rise is 3 m and

the frames are spaced at 5 m centre-to-centre. Purlins are provided over the frames at

2.7 m c/c and support AC sheets. The dead load of the roof system including sheets,

purlins and fixtures is 0.4 kN/m2 and the live load is 0.52 kN/m2. The portal frames

support a gantry girder at 3.25 m height, over which an electric overhead travelling

(EOT) crane is to be operated. The crane capacity is to be 300 kN and the crane girder

weighs 300 kN while the crab (trolley) weight is 60 kN.

Frames at 5
D
mc/c
3m

θ
C E
60 kN
300 kN
30 m
B F
0.6 m

0.6 m

6m

B’ F’
3.25 m

300 kN
A B F
G
15 m
15 m
Frame Elevation Plan

Fig. E1 Details of an Industrial Building

1.0 Load Calculations

1.1 Dead Load of roof given as 0.4 kN/m2

Dead load/m run on rafter = 0.4 * 5 ≈ 2.0 kN/m

1.2
Live Load given as 0.52 kN/m2

Live load/m run on rafter = 0.52 * 5 ≈ 2.6 kN/m

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

1.3 Crane Load

The extreme position of crane hook is assumed as 1 m from the centre line of

rail. The span of crane is approximately taken as 13.8 m. And the wheel base along

the gantry girder has been taken as 3.8 m

1.3.1 Vertical load on gantry

The weight of the crane is shared by two portal frames At the extreme position of

crab, the reaction on wheel due to the lifted weight and the crab can be obtained by

taking moments about the centreline of wheels (point B).

(300 + 60)/2 300/2

1m 6.9 m
B F
13.8 m
RB = 242 kN RF = 88 kN

To get maximum wheel load on a frame from gantry girder BB', taking the gantry

girder as simply supported.

242 kN 242 kN

B' 3.8 m B
RB = 136.4
1
5m
RB=375 kN

Centre to centre distance between frames is 5 m c/c.

Assuming impact factor of 25%

Maximum wheel Load @ B = 1.25 (242 (1 + (5-3.8)/5)

= 375 kN.

Minimum wheel Load @ B = (88 /242)*375

=136.4 kN

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

1.3.2 Transverse Load (Surge):

Lateral load per wheel = 5% (300 + 60)/2 = 9 kN

(i.e. Lateral load is assumed as 5% of the lifted load and the weight of the crab acting

on each rail).

9
Lateral load on each column = *375 = 13.9 kN
242
(By proportion)

1.4 Wind Load

Design wind speed, Vz = k1 k2 k3 Vb

From Table 1; IS: 875 (part 3) – 1987

k1 = 1.0 (risk coefficient assuming 50 years of design life)

From Table 2; IS: 875 (part 3) – 1987

k2 = 0.8 (assuming terrain category 4)

k3 = 1.0 (topography factor)

Assuming the building is situated in Chennai, the basic wind speed is 50 m

/sec

Design wind speed, Vz = k1 k2 k3 Vb

Vz = 1 * 0.8 *1 * 50

Vz = 40 m/sec

Design wind pressure, Pd = 0.6*Vz2

= 0.6 * (40)2

= 0.96 kN/m2

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

1.4.1. Wind Load on individual surfaces

The wind load, WL acting normal to the individual surfaces is given by

WL = (Cpe – Cpi ) A*Pd

(a) Internal pressure coefficient

Assuming buildings with low degree of permeability

Cpi = ± 0.2

(b) External pressure coefficient

External pressure coefficient for walls and roofs are tabulated in Table 1 (a) and Table

1(b)

1.4.2 Calculation of total wind load

(a) For walls

h/w = 6/15 = 0.4

L/w = 30/15 = 2.0

h

w
Exposed area of wall per frame @ 5 m
w
2
c/c is A = 5 * 6 = 30 m
plan elevation

Wind load on wall / frame, A pd = 30 * 0.96 = 28.8 kN

Table 1 (a): Total wind load for wall

Wind Cpe Cpi Cpe – Cpi Total wind(kN)

Angle (Cpe-Cpi )Apd
θ Wind- Lee- Wind Lee Wind Lee
ward ward ward ward ward ward

00 0.7 -0.25 0.2 0.5 -0.45 14.4 -12.9

-0.2 0.9 -0.05 25.9 -1.4
900 -0.5 -0.5 0.2 -0.7 -0.7 -20.2 -20.2
-0.2 -0.3 -0.3 -8.6 -8.6

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

(b) For roofs

Exposed area of each slope of roof, per frame (5m length) is

A= 5 * (3.0 )2 + (7.5 )
2
= 40.4 m 2
For roof, Apd = 38.7 kN

Table 1 (b): Total wind load for roof

Wind Pressure Coefficient Cpe – Cpi Total Wind

angle Load(kN)
(Cpe – Cpi) Apd
Cpe Cpe Cpi Wind Lee Wind Lee
ward ward ward ward
Wind Lee Int. Int.
0
0 -0.328 -0.4 0.2 -0.528 -0.6 -20.4 -23.2
-0.328 -0.4 -0.2 -0.128 -0.2 -4.8 -7.8
900 -0.7 -0.7 0.2 -0.9 -0.9 -34.8 -34.8
-0.7 -0.7 -0.2 -0.5 -0.5 -19.4 -19.4

2.1 Dead Load

Replacing the distributed dead load of 2kN/m on rafter by equivalent

concentrated loads at two intermediate points corresponding to purlin locations on each

rafter,

2.0* 15
WD = = 5kN
6

2.2 Superimposed Load

Superimposed Load = 2.57 kN/m

2.57 * 15
Concentrated load , WL = = 6.4 kN
6
2kN/m
W
W W
D W
W
W/2
W/2

15 m
C E

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

2.3 Crane Load

Maximum Vertical Load on columns = 375 kN (acting at an eccentricity of 600

mm from column centreline)

Moment on column = 375 *0.6 = 225 kNm.

Minimum Vertical Load on Column = 136.4 kN (acting at an eccentricity of 600 mm)

Maximum moment = 136.4 * 0.6 = 82 kNm

3.0 Partial Safety Factors

3.1 Load Factors

For dead load, γf = 1.5

For leading live load, γf = 1.5

For accompanying live load, γf = 1.05

3.2 Material Safety factor

γm = 1.10

4.0 Analysis

In this example, the following load combinations is considered, as it is found to

be critical. Similar steps can be followed for plastic analysis under other load

combinations.

(i) 1.5D.L + 1.5 C .L + 1.05 W.L

4.1. 1.5 D.L + 1.5 C.L+ 1.05 W.L

4.1.1Dead Load and Wind Load along the ridge (wind angle = 0 o)

(a) Vertical Load

w @ intermediate points on windward side

w = 1.5 * 5.0 – 1.05 *(4.8/3) cos21.8

= 6 kN.
w 6
@ eaves = = 3.0 kN
2 2
w @ intermediate points on leeward side

w = 1.5 * 5.0 – 1.05 * 7.8/3 cos21.8

= 5.0 kN

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

w 5.0
@ eaves = = 2.5 kN
2 2
Total vertical load @ the ridge = 3.0 + 2.5 = 5.5 kN

b) Horizontal Load

H @ intermediate points on windward side

H = 1.05 * 4.8/3 sin 21.8

= 0.62 kN

H/2 @ eaves points = 0.62/2

= 0.31 kN

H @ intermediate purlin points on leeward side

= 1.05 * 7.8 /3 sin 21.8
= 1 kN

H/2 @ eaves = 0.5 kN

Total horizontal load @ the ridge = 0.5 - 0.31 = 0.19 kN

Table 3: Loads acting on rafter points

Vertical Load (kN) Horizontal Load (kN)

Intermediate Windward Leeward Windward Leeward
Points 5.2 4.2 0.62 1.0
Eaves 2.6 2.1 0.31 0.5
Ridge 4.7 0.19

4.1.2 Crane Loading

Moment @ B = 1.5 * 225 = 337.5 kNm

Moment @ F = 1.5 * 82 = 123 kNm

Horizontal load @ B & @ F = 1.5 * 13.9 = 20.8 kN

Note: To find the total moment @ B and F we have to consider the moment due to the

dead load from the weight of the rail and the gantry girder. Let us assume the weight of

rail as 0.3 kN/m and weight of gantry girder as 2.0 kN/m

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

⎛ 2 + 0.3 ⎞
Dead load on the column = ⎜ ⎟ * 5 = 5.75 kN acting at e=0.6m
⎝ 2 ⎠
Factored moment @ B & F = 1.5 * 5.75 * 0.6 = 5.2 kNm

Total moment @B = 337.5 + 5.2 = 342 kNm

@ F = 123 + 5.2 = 128 kNm

5.5 kN

6 kN 0.19 kN
5 kN
0.62 kN
6 kN 1.0 kN
0.62 kN 5 kN 3m
1.0 kN
3 kN 2.5 kN
0.31 kN 0.5 kN

343 128

6m
20.8 kN 20.8 kN

3.25 m

27.2 kN 1.5 kN

15 m

Factored Load (1. 5D.L+1.5 C.L +1.05 W.L)

4.2 1.5 D.L + 1.5 C.L + 1.05 L.L

4.2.1 Dead Load and Live Load

@ intermediate points on windward side = 1.5 * 5.0 + 1.05 * 6.4

= 14.2 kN
@ ridge = 14.2 kN

@ eaves = 14.2 / 2 ≈ 7.1 kN.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

4.2.2 Crane Load

Moment @ B = 342 kNm

Horizontal load @ B = 20.8 kN

Moment @ F = 128 kNm

Horizontal load @ F = 20.8 kN

5.5 kN

6 kN 0.19 kN
5 kN
0.62 kN
6 kN 1.0 kN
0.62 kN 5 kN 3m
1.0 kN
3 kN 2.5 kN
0.31 kN 0.5 kN

343 128

6m
20.8 kN 20.8 kN

3.25 m

27.2 kN 1.5 kN
15 m

Factored Load (1. 5D.L+1.5 C.L +1.05 W.L)

4.3 Mechanisms

We will consider the following mechanisms, namely

(i) Beam mechanism

(ii) Sway mechanism

(iii) Gable mechanism and

(iv) Combined mechanism

(v) Beam Mechanism

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

(1) Member CD

Case 1: 1.5 D.L + 1.5 C.L + 1.05 W.L

5.5 kN
6 kN 0.19 kN

0.62 kN D
6 kN θ/2
0.62 kN
3 kN Mp=7.2kNm
0.31 kN θ

C
Internal Work done, Wi = Mpθ + Mp (θ/2) + Mp (θ + θ/2)

= Mp(3θ)

External Work done, We = 6 * 2.5θ - 0.62 * 1 * θ + 6 * 2.5 * θ/2 – 0.62 * 1 * θ/2

= 21.6θ

Equating internal work done to external work done

Wi = We

Mp (3θ) = 21.6θ

Mp = 7.2 kNm

Case 2: 1.5 D.L + 1.5 C.L + 1.05 L.L

Internal Work done,

Wi = Mp 3θ (as in case 1)

14.2 kN

14.2 kN

14.2 kN
θ/2
7.1 kN
θ Mp = 17.8kNm

External work done, We = 14.2 * 2.5 θ + 14.2 *2.5θ / 2

= 53.3θ

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Equating Wi = We,

Mp (3θ) = 53.3 θ

Mp = 17.8 kNm

Note: Member DE beam mechanism will not govern.

(2) Member AC
C C

Internal Work done,

342 kNm
θ
⎛ 11 ⎞ ⎛ 11 ⎞
W i = M pθ + M p ⎜ θ + θ⎟ + M p ⎜ θ⎟ 20.8 kN
⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎠

= 3.69 M pθ Mp = 104.1kNm A
11θ /13

27.2 kN
External Work done,
11 11 1 ⎛ 11 ⎞
We = 20.8 * 3.25 * θ + 342 * θ + * 27.2 * 3.25 ⎜ θ ⎟
13 13 2 ⎝ 13 ⎠
= 383.9θ

Equating Wi = We, we get

3.69 Mpθ = 383.9 θ

Mp = 104.1 kNm.
E
(3) Member EG
342 kNm
Internal Work done, θ
F
⎛ 11 ⎞ ⎛ 11 ⎞ F
W i = M pθ + M p ⎜ θ + θ⎟ + M p ⎜ θ⎟
⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎠ 20.8 kN

= 3.69 M pθ
Mp = 116.1kNm
11θ /13
G
G
External Work done, 21.2 kN

11 1 ⎛ 11 ⎞
We = 20.8 * 3.25 * θ + 342 * θ + (21.2) * 3.25 ⎜ θ ⎟
13 2 ⎝ 13 ⎠
= 428.3θ
Equating Wi = We, we get

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

3.69 Mpθ = 428.3θ

Mp = 116.1 kNm

For members AC & EG, the 1st load combination will govern the failure mechanism.

4.3.1 Panel Mechanism

Case 1: 1.5 D.L + 1.5 C.L + 1.05 W.L

Internal Work done, Wi = Mp (θ) + Mp (θ) + Mp (θ) + Mp (θ)

= 4Mpθ

External Work done, We

We = 1/2 (27.2) * 6θ + 20.8 * 3.25θ + 342θ - 0.31 * 6θ - 0.62 * 6θ - 0.62

(6θ)+ 0.19 * 6θ + 1.0 *6θ + 1.0 * 6θ + 0.5 * 6θ+1/2 (1.5) * 6θ +
20.8 * 3.25θ - 128 * θ

= 442.14θ

Equating Wi = Wc, we get

4Mpθ = 442.14θ

Mp = 110.5 kNm

The second load combination will not govern.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

4.3.3 Gable Mechanism

Case 1: 1.5 D.L + 1.05 W.L + 1.5 C.L

Internal Work done = Mpθ + Mp2θ + Mp (2θ) + Mpθ = 6Mpθ

External Work done, We =

-0.62 * 1 * θ - 0.62 * 2 *θ + 0.19 * 3 * θ + 1.0 * 4 * θ + 1.0 * 5 * θ + 0.5 * 6 * θ + 6 * 2.5 * θ + 6 * 5 * θ + 5.5 *
7.5 * θ + 5 * 5 * θ + 5 * 2.5 * θ + ½ * 1.5 * 6θ + 20.8 * 3.25 * θ - 128*θ

We = 78.56θ

θ
5.5 θ
6 0.19
5
6 0.62 1.0
5
0.62 1.0
θ
3 2.5
0.31 0.5

342 kNm
128 kNm
20.8 kN 20.8 kN

θ
27.2 kN Mp=13.1kNm 1.5 kN

Equating Wi = We, we get

6Mp = 78.56θ

Mp = 13.1 kNm.

Case 2: 1.5 D.L + 1.05L.L + 1.5 C.L

14.2 θ
14.2 14.2 θ
14.2 14.2
θ
7.1
7.1

Mp=37.3kNm
342 kNm 128 kNm

20.8 kN 20.8 kN
θ

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

Internal Work done, Wi = Mpθ + Mp (2θ) + Mp (2θ) + Mpθ =6Mpθ

External Work done, We

= 14.2 * 2.5*θ + 14.2 * 5 * θ + 14.2 * 7.5θ + 14.2 * 5 * θ + 14.2 * 2.5θ -

128 * θ + 20.8 * 3.25θ
= 223.6θ

Equating Wi = We, we get

6Mpθ = 223.6θ
Mp = 37.3 kNm

4.3.4 Combined Mechanism

Case1: 1.5 D.L + 1.05 W.L + 1.5 C.L

(i)

Internal Work done, Wi = Mp (θ ) + Mp (θ + θ/2) + Mp (θ/2 + θ/2) + Mp (θ/2)

= Mp (θ + θ +θ/2 + θ/2 + θ/2 +θ/2 + θ/2)

= 4 Mpθ

Mp = 100.7

External Work done, We=

1/2 * 27.2 * 6θ + 20.8 * 3.25* θ + 342θ - 0.31 * 12 * θ/2 - 0.62 * 11 * θ/2
- 0.62 * 10 *θ/2 + 0.19 * 9 * θ/2 + 1.0 * 8 * θ /2 + 1.0 * 7 * θ /2 + 0.5 * 6* θ/2 + 1/2 (1.5) *
6θ/2 + 20.8 * 3.25 * θ/2 - 128 * θ/2 – 6 * 2.5 * θ/2 – 6 * 5.0 * θ/2 – 5.5 * 7.5 * θ/2 – 5 * 5 *
θ/2 – 5 * 2.5 * θ/2
= 402.86θ

Equating Wi = We

4Mpθ = 402.86θ

Mp = 100.7 kNm

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

(ii) Internal work done, Wi = Mp θ /2 + Mp (θ /2 +θ/2) + Mp (θ /2 + θ )

+Mpθ
Wi = 4Mpθ

θ /2 θ /2

12 m

5.5
6 0.19
0.62 5
6 1.0
0.62 4.2
3 1.0
2.1
0.31 0.5

342 kNm
128 kNm
20.8 kN 20.8 kN

θ /2
θ
27.2 kN Mp = 75.2 1.5 kN

External Work done,

θ θ 1 ⎛θ⎞ θ θ
We = 20.8 * 3.25 * + 342 * + * 27.2 * 6 ⎜ ⎟ − 0.31* 6 * − 0.62 *7 *
2 2 2 ⎝2⎠ 2 2
θ θ θ θ θ θ
− 0.62 * 8 * + 0.19 * 9 * + 6 * 2.5 * + 6 * 5.0 * + 5.5 *7.5 * + 1.0 * 10 *
2 2 2 2 2 2
θ θ θ θ
+ 1.0 * 11* + 0.5 * 12 * + 5 * 5.0 * + 5 * 2.5 * + 20.8 * 3.25 θ − 128 * θ
2 2 2 2
1
+ * 1.5 * 6θ
2
= 300.85θ

Equating Wi = We, we get

4Mpθ = 300.85θ

Mp = 75.2 kNm

Similarly analysis can be performed for hinges occurring at purlin locations also

but they have been found to be not critical in this example case

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

From all the above analysis, the largest value of Mp required was for member EG

under

1.5 DL + 1.5 CL + 1.05 WL

Therefore the Design Plastic Moment = 116.1 kNm.

5.0 DESIGN

For the design it is assumed that the frame is adequately laterally braced so

that it fails by forming mechanism. Both the column and rafter are analysed assuming

equal plastic moment capacity. Other ratios may be adopted to arrive at an optimum

design solution.

5.1 Selection of section

Plastic Moment capacity required= 116 kNm

Required section modulus, Zp = Mp/ fyd

=
(116*10 )
6

250
1.10
= 510.4 *10 3 mm 3
ISMB 300 @ 0.46 kN/ m provides

Zp = 683 * 10-3 mm3

b = 140 mm

Ti = 13.1 mm

A = 5.87 * 10 3 mm2

tw =7.7 mm

rxx =124 mm

ryy =28.6 mm

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

5.2 Secondary Design Considerations

5.2.1 Check for Local buckling of flanges and webs

Flanges
bf 136
=
T1 fy

bf = 140/2 = 70 mm

T1 = 13.1 mm

t = 7.7 mm

bf 70
= = 5.34 < 8.6
T1 13.1

Web

d1 ⎡ 1120 1600 ⎛⎜ P ⎞⎟⎤

≤⎢ − ⎥
t ⎢⎣ f y f y ⎜⎝ Py ⎟⎠⎥⎦

300 ⎡ 1120 1600 ⎤

≤⎢ − (0.27 )⎥
7.7 ⎢ 250 y 250 y ⎥⎦
⎣
38.9 ≤ 68, Hence O. K

5.2.2 Effect of axial force

Maximum axial force in column, P = 40.5 kN

Axial load causing yielding, Py = fyd * A

250
= x5.87*10 3
1.10
= 1334 kN

P 40.5
= = 0.03 < 0.15
Py 1334

Therefore the effect of axial force can be neglected.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Design of Steel Structures Prof. S.R.Satish Kumar and Prof. A.R.Santha Kumar

5.2.3 Check for the effect of shear force

Shear force at the end of the girder = P- w/2

= 40.5 -6.8 kN

= 33.7 kN

Maximum shear capacity Vym, of a beam under shear and moment is given by

Vym = 0.55 Aw* fyd / 1.10

= 0.55 * 300* 7.7* 250/1.10

=289 kN>> 33.7 kN

Hence O.K.

Indian Institute of Technology Madras