BIODIVERSITY

ZOL-692
BS ZOOLOGY-VIII
SESSION: 2018-22

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Course Title Biodiversity
Course Code ZOL-692
Credit Hours 3
Theory 2
Practical 1
Follow up B.Sc. Zoology
Category M.Sc. Zoology, 02-Years Program
Aims and Objectives Study regarding the richness and evenness in animal kingdom.
Learning Outcomes The students will be able to achieve the aims and objectives of this course.
Syllabus in Brief Definition; Types; Levels; Status of Biodiversity; Importance of
Biodiversity. Natural Resources and Biodiversity
• Ecological aspects of Biodiversity
• Impacts on Biodiversity
• Loss of Biodiversity
• Protection / Conservation of Biodiversity.
Practicals
1. Critical account (phylogenetic controversies) of some important
museums' specimens with the help of literature.
2. Procedures for studying species richness, Simpson Index, Shannon and
Weiner Function.
3. Population of some local subterranean animals.
Books Recommended
1. Biodiversity, Principles and Conservation by Kumar & Asija, 2000.
2. The Diversity of Life by C. Mary Jenking and Ann Boyce, 1987.

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CHAPTER 1
DEFINITION
Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;
this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. The number and variety of
plants, animals and other organisms that exist in an ecosystem is known as biodiversity. It is a
measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. The richness of biodiversity
depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region. Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion
years of evolution.
Biodiversity is the part of nature which include the difference in genes among the individuals of a
species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space,
locally in a region, in the country and the world and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and
aquatic within a defined area. Biodiversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere.
Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature's variety in the biosphere. This variety can be
observed at three levels; the genetic variability within a species, the variety of species within a
community, and the organization of species in an area into distinctive plant and animal communities
constitutes ecosystem diversity. The difference in genes among the individuals of a species, the
variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally in a
region, in the country and the world and various types of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic
within a defined area.
HISTORY
The term Biodiversity was first coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1986. The biosphere comprises of a
complex collection of innumerable organisms, known as the biodiversity, which constitute the vital
life support for survival of human race. Biological diversity, abbreviated as biodiversity, represent
the sum total of various life forms such as unicellular fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and multi cellular
organisms such as plants, fishes, and mammals at various biological levels including gens, habitats,
and ecosystem.
The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. Since life began on Earth, five major mass
extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity.
The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via
the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first
appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified
as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss
of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the
worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene
extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others
because it resulted in the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. The period since the emergence
of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic
diversity. Named the Holocene extinction, an referred to as the sixth mass extinction, the reduction is
caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction.

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CHAPTER 2 
TYPES/ LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
There are 3 types of biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity
1. GENETIC DIVERSITY
Genetic diversity is defined as “genetic variability present within species.”
Genetic diversity is the product of recombination of genetic material in the process of inheritance. It
changes with time and space. Sexual reproduction is important in maintaining genetic diversity as it
gives unique offspring by combining genes of parents. Mutation of genes, genetic drift and gene flow
are also responsible for genetic diversity. Each individual species possesses genes which are the
source of its own unique features: Example.
In human beings, for example, the huge variety of people's faces reflects each person's genetic
individuality. The term genetic diversity also covers distinct populations of a single species, such as
the thousands of breeds of different dogs or the numerous varieties of roses.
Genetic diversity has the following importance:
IMPORTANCE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY
1. Genetic diversity gives rise to different physical attributes to the individual and capacity to
adapt to stress, diseases and unfavorable environmental conditions.
2. Environmental changes that are natural or due to human intervention, lead to the natural
selection and survival of the fittest. Hence, due to genetic diversity, the varieties that are
susceptible, die and the ones who can adapt to changes will survive.
3. Genetic diversity is important for a healthy population by maintaining different varieties of
genes that might be resistant to pests, diseases or other conditions.
4. New varieties of plants can be grown by cross-breeding different genetic variants and
produce plants with desirable traits like disease resistance, increased tolerance to stress.
5. Genetic diversity reduces the recurrence of undesirable inherited traits.
6. Genetic diversity ensures that at least there are some survivors of a species left
The loss of genetic diversity is difficult to see or measure. This loss reduces the species ability to
perform its inherent role in the whole ecosystem. Extinction is not only the loss of whole species, but
is also preceded by a loss of genetic diversity within the species. Furthermore, the loss of genetic
diversity within a species can result in the loss of useful and desirable traits (e.g., resistance to
parasites). Reduced diversity may eliminate options to use untapped resources for food production,
industry and medicine.
GENETIC DIVERSITY EXAMPLES
 Different breeds of dogs. Dogs are selectively bred to get the desired traits.
 Different varieties of rose flower, wheat, etc.
 There are more than 50,000 varieties of rice and more than a thousand varieties of mangoes found in India.
 Different varieties of medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria present in different Himalayan ranges differ in
the amount of chemical reserpine produced by them.
2. SPECIES DIVERSITY
Species diversity is defined as “the number of different species present in an ecosystem and
relative abundance of each of those species.”

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Diversity is greatest when all the species present are equally abundant in the area. There are two
constituents of species diversity:
 Species richness: Number of different species present in an ecosystem. Tropical areas have
greater species richness as the environment is conducive for a large number of species
 Species evenness: Relative abundance of individuals of each of those species. If the number
of individuals within a species is fairly constant across communities, it is said to have a high
evenness and if the number of individuals varies from species to species, it is said to have low
evenness. High evenness leads to greater specific diversity It is possible in an ecosystem to
have high species richness, but low species evenness.
For example:
1. In a forest, there may have a large number of different species (high species richness) but
have only a few members of each species (low species evenness)
2. In a forest, there may be only a few plant species (low species richness) but a large number of
each species (high species evenness)
The species diversity varies in a different geographical location with tropics having highest and
declines as we move towards poles. The most species-rich environments are tropical rainforests,
coral reefs and ocean bottom zone. Species richness increases with increasing explored area.
IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY
In a healthy ecosystem, diverse and balanced number of species exist to maintain the balance of an
ecosystem. In an ecosystem, all the species depend on each other directly or indirectly. So, to make a
more efficient, productive and sustainable ecosystem, it is important to maintain high species
diversity.
 More diverse ecosystem tends to be more productive. E.g., the ecosystem with a great variety
of producer species will produce large biomass to support a greater variety of consumer
species
 Greater species richness and productivity makes an ecosystem more sustainable and stable
 More diverse the ecosystem, greater is the ability to withstand environmental stresses like
drought or invasive infestations
 Species richness makes an ecosystem able to respond to any catastrophe
 In Species-rich communities, each species can use a different portion of resources available
as per their requirement. E.g., plants with smaller roots can absorb water and minerals from
shallow soil and plants with deeper roots can tap deeper soil
 Rich diversity is important for the survival of mankind
 Healthy biodiversity has innumerable benefits like nutrients storage and recycling, soil
formation and protection from erosion, absorption of harmful gases, climate stability
 Humans get lots of product from nature like fruits, cereals, meat, wood, fiber, raisin, dyes,
medicine, antibiotics, etc.
 Amazon forest is estimated to produce 20 percent of total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere
through photosynthesis
 Pollinators, symbiotic relationships, decomposers, each species perform a unique role, which
is irreplaceable
 Diversity in large numbers help in large scale interaction among organisms such as in the
food web
 In the nitrogen cycle, bacteria, plants have a crucial relationship, earthworms contribute to
soil fertility
 Apart from these, there are other benefits such as recreation and tourism, education and
research

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 3. ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
It describes the assemblage and Interaction of spices living together and the physical
environment of a given area. It relates varieties of habitats, biotic communities' ecological
processes in biosphere. It also talks about the diversity within the ecosystem.
For example,
The landscapes like grass lands, deserts, mountains etc. show ecosystem diversity The ecosystem
diversity is due to diversity of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes like nutrient cycling,
food webs, energy flow, role of dominant species and various related biotic interactions.
Such type of diversity can generate more productive and stable ecosystems or communities capable
of tolerating various types of stresses e.g., drought, flood etc.
The ecosystem diversity is due to diversity of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes like
nutrient cycling, food webs, energy flow, role of dominant species and various related biotic
interactions. Such type of diversity can generate more productive and stable ecosystems or
communities capable of tolerating various types of stresses.
According to Whittaker (1965), the ecosystem or community diversities are of three types:
(i) α-DIVERSITY: Alpha diversity refers to the average species diversity in a habitat or specific
area. Alpha diversity is a local measure.
(ii) β-DIVERSITY: Beta diversity refers to the ratio between local or alpha diversity and
regional diversity. This is the diversity of species between two habitats or regions.
(iii) γ -DIVERSITY: Gamma diversity is the total diversity of a landscape and is a combination
of both alpha and beta diversity.

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CHAPTER 3
STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY
BIODIVERSITY IN PAKISTAN
CRITICAL ECOSYSTEMS
Under the Global 200, ecosystems have been ranked to carry out conservation through comparative
analysis. It covers all habitats on the land masses and in the ocean. The Earth has been divided into
238 ecoregions, by the United Nation, the National Geographic Society with WWF. Out of them 5
are in Pakistan. The Global ecoregions of Pakistan are:
1. Rann of Kutch flooded grasslands
2. Tibetan Plateau
3. Western Himalayan Temperate Forests
4. Indus Delta Ecosystem
5. Arabian Sea.
FLORA
About 5,500 - 6,000 species of vascular plants have been recorded in Pakistan including both native
and introduced species. The flora included elements of the 6 phytogeographic regions. 4 monotypic
genera of flowering plants and around 400 (7.8%) species are endemic to Pakistan. Almost 80% of
the endemics are found in the northern and western mountains (Ali and Qaiser,1986). The Kashmir
Himalayas are identified as a global centre of plant diversity and endemism. Families with more than
20 recorded endemics are Papilionaceae(57 species), Compositae (49), Umbelliferae (34), Poaceae
(32) and Brassicaceae (20).
MAMMALS
Around 174 mammal species have been reported in Pakistan. Out of these, there are at least 3
endemic species and a number of endemic and near endemic sub-species.
BIRDS
668 bird species have been recorded in Pakistan. Out of them, 375 were recorded as breeding.
Breeding birds are a mixture of Palearctic and Indomalaya forms (1/3rd) and the occurrence of many
species at one or the other geographical limits of their range shows the diverse origins of the
avifauna. The Sulaiman Range, the Hindukush, and the Himalayas in the NWFP and Azad Kashmir
comprise part of the Western Himalayan Endemic Bird Area; this is the global centre of bird
endemism. The Indus Valley wetlands are the second area of endemism.
REPTILES/ AMPHIBIANS
Around 177 species, being a blend of Palearctic and Indomalaya forms. Out of the total 14 species of
turtles, 90 of lizards and 65 of snakes have been reported. While 13 species are believed to be
endemic. Being a semi-arid country, only 22 species of amphibians have been recorded, of which 9
are endemic.
FISH/ INVERTEBRATES
Pakistan has 198 native and introduced freshwater fish species. The fish fauna is predominately
south Asian and with some west Asian and high Asian elements. Fish species diversity is highest in
the Indus River plains and in adjacent hill ranges (Kirthar Range), and in the Himalayan foothills in
Hazara, Malakand, Swat and Peshawar. Diversity is lowest in the mountain zone of the northern
mountains and arid parts of north-west Baluchistan. There are 29 endemic species. There has been
little research on Invertebrates of Pakistan. About 5,000 species of invertebrates have been recorded

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including insects (1,000 species of true bugs, 400 species of butterflies and moths, 110 species of
flies and 49 species of termites). Other include 109 species of marine worms, over 800 species of
molluscs and 355 species of nematodes.
GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY
The three bio-geographic realms of the Asian and Pacific Region are of immense significance to the
world, and include all of the major ecosystems to be found, including mountains, forests, grasslands,
desert, wetlands, and seas.
A. HABITAT DIVERSITY: PATTERNS AND TRENDS
The area of natural habitat in the Asian and Pacific Region is rapidly shrinking. The major
ecosystems in the Indo-Malayan realm are estimated to have lost almost 70 per cent of their original
vegetation, with habitat losses being most acute in the Indian subcontinent and the Peoples Republic
of China. Thailand, the island of Java in Indonesia, and the central islands of the Philippines have
also experienced an extensive reduction in natural habitat. Habitat losses have been comparatively
less severe in the South Pacific, with the exception of some of the small island ecosystems and coral
systems, which have been lost or degraded.
1. TERRESTRIAL HABITAT
(a) FORESTS
The forests of Asia and the Pacific are the habitat of countless numbers of plants, mammals, birds
and insects and are home to between 50 to 90 per cent of the world’s terrestrial species. However,
they have been under serious human assault during this century, from activities such as agricultural
development, construction and urban development, with an average annual loss of over 4 million ha
per year during the latter part of the century. However, from an ecological point of view, the state of
forests is not simply a matter of their extent; more important are their health, genetic diversity, and
age profile. In addition, much of the remaining natural forest has been reduced to a patchwork of
small-forested areas. This process of fragmentation leaves very little natural or frontier forest of a
size and extent which can support species such as the large mammals; the tiger being a prime
example.
(b) GRASSLANDS
Grasslands constitute about 24 per cent of land cover in Asia and about 19 per cent in the South
Pacific. The continental climate of this vast area, with its hot, dry summers and very cold winters, is
inimical to the growth of trees, and the area has not supported forest since a more favourable climate
prevailed in one of the earlier interglacial periods.
A high proportion of the natural Asiatic steppe has now been lost, particularly in Central Asia, where
extensive tracts of land were turned over to irrigation during the Soviet Era. The grasslands habitats
in Northeast Asia have also been disturbed by extensive agricultural, industrial and transport
development, and in South Asia, a widespread cycle of vegetation clearance, fire, overgrazing,
erosion and abandonment has taken place for many centuries, leaving countries like India with
apparently no surviving primary grasslands at all. Although much of the grassland habitats of
Australia in the South Pacific have also been subject to traditional patterns of burning and clearance
for many hundreds of years by the Aboriginal people, this has generally been carried out in a
rotational system, with the burns being carefully timed in relation to season and weather. However,
during the last one hundred years or so, as more of Australia has become settled, the traditional
burning patterns have been disrupted.
2. MARINE HABITAT
The marine environment in Asia and the Pacific is extremely rich in biodiversity; its mangroves,
coral reefs and sea grass beds are some of the most productive and diverse ecosystems in the world.
In general, the coastal waters of the region support far more life than the open ocean or the deep sea
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because they contain the most abundant food sources. Approximately 20 per cent of marine plant
production occurs in the 10 per cent area of the sea that occupies continental shelves, an area which
extends on average to about 70 km from the shore. Here, microscopic phytoplankton and bottom
dwelling plants thrive on the nutrients delivered from the land by rivers.
Coral reefs are regarded as the marine equivalent of the tropical rainforests, as they provide a wide
variety of habitats to a large number of species. Unfortunately, these ecosystems are being degraded
throughout Asia and the Pacific by the consequences of a wide range of human activities, including
pollution from sewage, agricultural runoff and industrial waste; disturbance and pollution from
aquaculture; sedimentation as a result of inland soil erosion; dynamite fishing and commercial
collection of coral; and mineral prospecting and ocean mining.
3. FRESHWATER HABITAT
Freshwater habitats are home to a wide variety of fauna and flora, including fish, amphibians,
invertebrates, plants and microorganisms. However, compared to terrestrial and marine habitats,
freshwater systems offer fewer chances for biodiversity to adjust to environmental change, since they
are relatively discontinuous and offer less opportunity for species to disperse when conditions
become unfavourable. Consequently, freshwater biodiversity is extremely sensitive to environmental
disturbance.
Freshwater habitats in Asia and the Pacific have been significantly reduced and degraded over the
last century by a combination of factors, relating to water use, pollution and physical disturbance.
These include abstraction for both irrigation, which has occurred on a vast scale in many countries of
South and Central Asia, and water supply, which has risen in combination with rising population and
growing industrial demand.
4. WETLANDS
Wetlands are ubiquitous to Asia and the Pacific, and provide an important and unique habitat for the
region’s biodiversity. They extend from the low-lying Pacific islands to the mountain lakes with
fringing marshes which are abundant in the Himalayas. They exist in the mangrove forests of India
and Bangladesh, and also in the extensive floodplain systems of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.
Over the centuries, vast wetland habitats in the region have been lost due to a variety of human
induced and natural causes. The most serious cause of wetland loss has been conversion (and usually
drainage) for alternative uses, such as agricultural or urban development. Other degrading influences
include inundation from impoundment schemes, changes in water quality through pollution,
unsustainable extraction of wetland products, the introduction of new (exotic) species, and, in recent
years, fire.
B. SPECIES DIVERSITY:
Patterns and Trends Of the seventeen-megadiversity nations in the world, which collectively claim
more than two-thirds of the Earth’s biological resources, seven – Australia, People’s Republic of
China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Papua New Guinea – are in Asia and the Pacific.
New Guinea – are in Asia and the Pacific. These countries are also home to a significant number of
threatened endemic species, in relation to which a number of biodiversity “hot spots” have been
identified in the region. These include the Indian Ocean Islands, Indo-Burma, the Philippines,
Eastern Himalayas, southwestern Australia, Polynesia and Micronesia Island Complex, New
Caledonia, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, and New Zealand.
1. TERRESTRIAL DIVERSITY
i) BIRDS
They are recognized as good indicators of biodiversity because their distribution is well known and
they are sensitive to environmental change. Amongst the countries of the region, Indonesia has both
the largest number of bird species. equating to about 17 per cent of the world’s total, and also one of
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the highest rates of endemism in the region. Close to 1 100 of the region’s bird species are
threatened, of which 40 per cent are in the Southeast Asian subregion and 104 are in Indonesia alone.
The most threatened major groups include rails and cranes (both specialized wading birds), parrots,
terrestrial game birds (pheasants, partridges, grouse and gitans), and pelagic seabirds (albatrosses,
petrels and shearwaters). About one quarter of the species in each of these groups is currently
threatened. Only 9 per cent of songbirds are threatened, but they still contribute the single largest
group of threatened species because they are far and away the most species-rich. The relatively high
numbers of threatened species in the island environments are in part a reflection of the fact that
island birds tend naturally to have smaller ranges and numbers, making them more susceptible to
habitat disturbance. In the Philippines a number of bird species are believed to have disappeared due
to habitat loss as a result of deforestation from the islands.
ii) MAMMALS
Asia and the Pacific has the largest number of mammal species in the world. Amongst the countries
of the region, Indonesia has the largest number of mammal species, and also one of the highest rates
of endemism in the region. Almost 1 000 of the region’s mammal species are currently threatened, of
which 40 per cent are in Southeast Asia. Other threatened species include the tiger, the largest of all
cats that once ranged from Turkey to Bali and the Russian Far East. Wild tigers now barely total 3
000 to 5 000 individuals, many in small, isolated populations that are under severe threat. The tiger is
also regarded as extinct in the Republic of Korea, where the Siberian leopard, the fox wolf and sika
are also no longer observed. Other endangered species in the Republic of Korea include the musk
deer, otter and Eurasian flying squirrel. Another critically endangered species in the region is the
Bulmer’s fruit bat, found only in Papua New Guinea.
iii) AMPHIBIANS
Asia and the Pacific is home to a large number of amphibian species. Amongst the countries of the
region, People’s Republic of China (closely followed by Indonesia) has the largest number of
amphibian species and also the highest number of endemic species in the region. The Philippines,
although comparatively low in amphibian species has high rate of endemism.
Of the 50 species of amphibian which are currently threatened in Asia and the Pacific, over 50 per
cent are in South Pacific and almost all of these (25) are in Australia alone. There are also a high
number of threatened amphibian species in Japan, which accounts for some 20 per cent of the overall
total for the region.
iv) REPTILES
Asia and the Pacific is home to a large number of reptile species. Amongst the countries of the
region, Australia has the largest number of reptile species and also has by far the highest rate of
endemism in the region (over 80 per cent). Over 300 of the region’s mammal species are currently
threatened, of which over 65 per cent are in the Southeast Asian and South Pacific subregions
Australia, Myanmar and Indonesia having the highest individual totals. Among reptiles, the status of
turtles, crocodilians, and tuataras (an ancient lineage of two lizard-like species living on scattered
islands off New Zealand) has been comprehensively surveyed, but most snakes and lizards remain
unassessed. Studies aside, however, a glaring case of reptile extinction is the sea turtle whose
population has declined by more than 50 per cent worldwide, largely as a result of the
overexploitation of their eggs. In addition, certain species of crocodilians suffer from overhunting
and also from pollution of their environment (such as the Indian gharial and the Chinese alligator),
but this is one of the few taxonomic groups of animals whose overall fate has actually improved over
the past two decades.

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 v) INVERTEBRATES
Substantial uncertainty exists over the relative abundance of invertebrate species in the tropical
forests of Asia and the Pacific, although they probably represent the richest group of biodiversity in
the region. Until recently, the relative diversity of arthropods in the tropics, as compared to the
temperate zone, was expected to be similar to that of better-known groups, such as vascular plants or
birds. However, the relatively recent discovery of a tremendous richness of invertebrate species in
the canopy of tropical forest of Sulawesi, Indonesia, suggests that the richness of arthropods in the
tropics is much greater. Almost 600 of the region’s known invertebrate species are currently
threatened, of which the vast proportion (almost 70 per cent) are in the South Pacific. Australia alone
contains almost 50 per cent of the subregion’s threatened species.
2. MARINE DIVERSITY
Marine ecosystems harbour a myriad of life forms. The deep-sea floor may contain about a million
undiscovered species, and out of the 1.7 million species catalogued to date, around 0.25 million
belong to the marine environment. The highest overall diversity takes place in the tropical Indo-
Western Pacific, a region that includes waters off the coasts of Asia, northern Australia, and the
Pacific Islands. Within this region, some of the highest levels of marine species richness are found
off the coasts of the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. Endemism in marine
communities appears to be proportionately more dominant in areas surrounding isolated islands and
thermal vents. Broad distributions of marine species seemingly indicate that they are less vulnerable
to extinction than their terrestrial kin. However, not all marine species may be as wide-ranging as is
currently believed. For example, a recent effort to map the distribution of coral reef fish revealed
that, of the 950 species whose ranges were mapped (about 23 per cent of the total), one-third were
limited to areas of less than 2 220 km 2. Coral reefs and associated species diversity, however, is
greatest in Southeast Asia, which has a cluster of coral hotspots within the Indo-West Pacific region.
Coral reefs and associated species diversity, however, is greatest in Southeast Asia, which has a
cluster of coral hotspots within the Indo-West Pacific region.
Amongst marine fish, the coral reef variety makes up one-quarter of all known species. Levels of
coral reef species diversity vary within the marine ecosystems depending on location. The most
species-rich reefs are found in a swath extending through Southeast Asia to the Great Barrier Reef,
off north-eastern Australia.
Like their terrestrial counterpart, marine species have also been subject to pressures. About 68 per
cent of all threatened marine species suffer from Like their terrestrial counterpart, marine species
have also been subject to pressures. About 68 per cent of all threatened marine species suffer from
over-exploitation. By 1994, 90 marine mammal species were listed as threatened or endangered.
3. FRESHWATER
Diversity The overall number of species in freshwater is low compared with marine and terrestrial
groups. However, species richness in relation to habitat extent is extremely high, since the area
occupied by freshwater is so much lower than land or sea. As a consequence, the importance of
protecting freshwater habitats is correspondingly high.
More than half of all freshwater vertebrate species are fish, and more than 8 500 species (40 per cent)
of the 25 000 known fish species exist in freshwater. Among the countries of Asia and the Pacific,
IUCN has listed the highest number of freshwater species in Australia (which is also ranked third in
the world), followed by Papua New Guinea and Turkey. A recent survey in Malaysia found fewer
than half of the 266 fish species previously known to exist in the country. Similarly, in Singapore, 18
out of 53 species of freshwater fish collected in 1934 could not be located some 30 years later,
despite an exhaustive search. In the freshwater and marine ecosystems, over-fishing has also resulted
in shifts in fish size, abundance and species composition.
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CHAPTER 4
IMPORTANCEOF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is the most complex and important
feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain. It is important in natural as well as
artificial ecosystems. Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with
nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits
through tourism. Therefore, it is very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a
sustainable livelihood.
Biodiversity is a resource with immense value—both direct and indirect.
1. DIRECT VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The direct values of biodiversity include medicines, foods, and other products that benefit humans.
I. MEDICINAL VALUE
Most of the prescription drugs used in the United States were originally derived from organisms. The
rosy periwinkle from Madagascar is an excellent example of a tropical plant that has provided useful
medicines Potent chemicals from this plant are used to treat two forms of cancer: leukaemia and
Hodgkin’s disease. Due to these drugs, the survival rate for childhood leukaemia has gone from 10%
to 90%, and Hodgkin’s disease is now usually curable. The popular antibiotic penicillin is derived
from a fungus, and certain species of bacteria produce the antibiotics tetracycline and streptomycin.
These drugs have proven to be indispensable in the treatment of diseases, including certain sexually
transmitted diseases. Leprosy is among the diseases for which there is, as yet, no cure. The bacterium
that causes leprosy will not grow in the laboratory, but scientists discovered that it grows naturally in
the nine-banded armadillo. The blood of horseshoe crabs contains a substance called limulus
amoebocyte lysate, which is used to ensure that medical devices, such as pacemakers, surgical
implants, and prostheses, are free of bacteria. Blood is taken from 250,000 horseshoe crabs a year,
and then they are returned to the sea unharmed.
II. AGRICULTURAL VALUE
Agricultural biodiversity provides humans with food and raw materials for goods - such as cotton for
clothing, wood for shelter and fuel, plants and roots for medicines, and materials for biofuels - and
with incomes and livelihoods, including those derived from subsistence farming. Agricultural
biodiversity also performs ecosystem services such as soil and water conservation, maintenance of
soil fertility and biota, and pollination, all of which are essential to human survival. Additionally, the
genetic diversity in agriculture helps to make species be more resilient to climate change and more
adapted to changes in the environment. This may include high temperatures, frosts, droughts, and
waterlogged areas. Furthermore, they also become resistant to various diseases, insects, and
parasites.
III.ECOLOGICAL VALUES
Biodiversity maintains the integrity of the environment through:
 MAINTAINING CO2/O2 BALANCE:
It is through biodiversity that sequential balance of CO2 and O2 is maintained. The greenhouse
effect is as a result of CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere, ozone layer depletion also occurs
overtime making the earth warmer and more prone to natural calamities. • Regulation of biochemical
cycles: O2, hydrological cycles etc. Biological resources are important media in biochemical cycles,
without which the cycles are not complete.

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  ABSORPTION AND BREAKDOWN OF POLLUTANTS AND WASTE:
Absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, e.g. in food
webs and food chains where the flow of energy goes through production consumption decomposition
without which breakdown and absorption of materials will not be complete. In an ecosystem there is
no waste as decomposition will take place to purify our environment by transforming the waste to
other forms of biodiversity.
 DETERMINATION AND REGULATION OF THE NATURAL WORLD CLIMATE:
The determination and regulation of the natural world climate whether local, regional or micro
through influencing temperature, precipitation and air turbulence. Acting as indicators of
environmental changes e.g., the greenhouse effect as a result of global warming causes changes in
weather seasonality and also affects crops among others.
Protective services e.g., protection of human beings from harmful weather conditions by acting as
wind breaks, flood barriers among other
IV. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
The use of natural enemies to control species regarded as problems is increasingly widespread and is
often seen as an environmentally friendly alternative to the use of pesticides Industrial materials A
wide range of industrial materials, or templates for the production of such materials, have been
derived directly from biological resources. These include building materials, fibres, dyes, resins,
gums, adhesives, rubber, oils and waxes, agricultural chemicals (including pesticides) and perfumes.
Biological materials have provided the models (biomimicry) for many industrial materials and
structures. Thus, inspiration for the dome of the Crystal Palace in London came from the Amazonian
water lily Victoria amazonica, for air-conditioning systems from the mounds constructed by termites,
for the echo-sounder from bats, and for infrared sensors from the thermosensitive pit organ of the
rattlesnake.
2. INDIRECT VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY:
Ecosystems perform many indirect services that cannot always be measured economically. These
services are said to be indirect values because they are wide-ranging and not easily perceptible
I. MAINTAINING BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
The biodiversity within ecosystems contributes to the functioning of the water, carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and other biogeochemical cycles. We are dependent on these cycles for fresh water, the
removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the uptake of excess soil nitrogen, and the provision
of phosphate. When human activities upset one aspect of a biogeochemical cycle, other parts within
the cycle are also affected.
II. WASTE DISPOSAL
Decomposers break down dead organic matter and other types of wastes to inorganic nutrients,
which are used by the producers within ecosystems. This function aids humans immensely, because
we dump millions of tons of waste material into natural ecosystems each year. If not for
decomposition, waste would soon cover the entire surface of our planet. Biological communities are
also capable of breaking down and immobilizing pollutants, such as the heavy metals and pesticides
that humans release into the environment.
III.PREVENTION OF SOIL EROSION
Intact terrestrial ecosystems naturally retain soil and prevent soil erosion. The importance of this
ecosystem attribute is especially noticeable following deforestation. In Pakistan, the world’s largest
dam, the Tarbela Dam, is losing 12 billion cubic meters of storage capacity sooner than expected
because of the silt that is building up behind the dam due to deforestation of areas upriver.

14
 IV. REGULATION OF CLIMATE
At the local level, trees provide shade, block drying winds, and reduce the need for fans and air
conditioners during the summer. Globally, forests regulate the climate, because they take up carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Deforestation often removes soil nutrients needed by future tree
generations, which in turn limits reforestation.
V. ECOTOURISM
Ecotourism is by definition founded on biodiversity, and has developed into a massive industry.
Indeed, tourism as a whole is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. At a regional and
local scale, ecotourism can be of economic significance. For example:
(i) in Britain, at least US$7.5 billion is spent each year by urban visitors to the countryside
(ii) bird-watching contributes more than US$1500 million per annum to the economy of South
Africa.

15
CHAPTER 5
NATURAL RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources include air, water, forests, animals, fishes, marine life, biomass, fossil fuels, like
coal, petroleum and natural gases, wild life, renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind
energy, biomass energy, geothermal energy etc. Prosperity of a nation is dependent on the natural
resources available in the nation.
1. FOREST RESOURCES
Scientists estimate that India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we have only
about 12%. Thus, we need not only to protect existing forest but also to increase our forest cover.
USES OF FOREST RESOURCES
 They stop the rain-bearing winds and cause the rainfall.
 They increase the moisture content in the atmosphere and thereby provide additional
precipitation(i.e., rainfall) in the locality
 They minimize the extreme variation in climatic condition and make the climate more
equable.
 They control floods during heavy rain by absorbing excess rain water. They prevent soil
erosion by checking the force of flowing of water.
 The thick roots of the trees absorb large quantity of water thus, forest help in the flow of
rivers and streams.
 They provide shelter to wild animals and birds.
 They improve the sanitary condition of a place.
 They are a source of revenue to the government.
 They facilitate human existence by providing O2 to human beings and absorbing CO2 by
human beings.
 They provide employment large number of people in different capacities as wood cutters,
carriers etc.
 They also provide us herbal medicines.
REASONS FOR THE LARGE-SCALE DEPLETION OF FOREST
 Forest fires  Mining activities in forest areas
 Commercial exploitation of forest  Forest diseases are also partly responsible
for depletion forest
 Expansion of agriculture, more forest has  Large area of forest lands has been cleared
been cleared for agriculture for urbanization and human settlement

ADVERSE EFFECT OF DEPLETION OF TREES

 It has led to loss of soil productivity  It has caused imbalance in ecosystem
 It is responsible for loss of biodiversity  It has contributed to lesser precipitation
 It has contributed to rise in temperature  It is responsible for increased rate of soil
erosion
 It has led to extinction of several species of  It is responsible for increase in the
plants and animals frequency and volume of floods

CONSERVATION OF FOREST
 Reforestation  Afforestation
16
  Agro-forestry  Forest management
 Control over forest fires  Development of seed banks
 Protection of existing forest  Development of botanical gardens
 Development green belt around cities  Regulated and planned cutting of trees
 Check on mining activities in forest areas  Conservation of threatened species of trees
 Check on forest clearance for agriculture  Proper role of government in forest
and human habitation and settlement conservation
 Development of national parks and
sanctuaries

DEFORESTATION
Deforestation means reckless or large-scale felling or cutting of trees by man for commercial and
other purposes.
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
 Desertification  Soil degradation and soil erosion
 Loss of vegetation cover  Environmental pollution
 Changes in climatic condition  Damage to ecosystem
 Reduction in soil moisture  Destruction of natural habitat and loss of
wildlife

CONTROL OF DEFORESTATION
 Prevention of human settlement in forest  Check on reckless cutting of trees
areas
 Controlled mining in forest areas  Control on over grazing in forest areas
 Check on construction of large dams in  Check on expansion of agriculture into
forest areas forest lands
 Prohibition of setting up of agriculture into 
forest lands

2. WATER RESOURCES
While 67% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, only less than 2.7% of global water is freshwater.
Most of the freshwater (2.05%) are locked in ice caps and glaciers. Only less than 0.7% is available
for human use.
With the growth of human population there is an increasing need for larger amounts of water to fulfil
a variety of basic needs. Today in many areas this requirement cannot be met. Overutilization of
water occurs at various levels. Most people use more water than really needed. Most of us waste
water during a bath by using shower or during washing of clothes. Many agriculturists use more
water than necessary to grow crops. There are many ways in which farmers can use less water
without reducing the yields such as the use of drip irrigation systems. Agriculture also pollutes
surface water and underground water stores by the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides. Methods such as the use of biomass as fertilizers and non-toxic pesticides such as neem
products reduces the agricultural pollution of surface and ground water. Industry tends to maximize
17
short-term economic gains by not bothering about its liquid waste and releasing it into the streams,
rivers, sea.
FLOODS
Floods have been a serious environmental hazard from centuries. Deforestation causes flood that
kills people, damage crops and destroys homes. Rivers changes its course during floods and tons of
valuable soil is lost to the sea. As the forest are degraded, rain water no longer percolates slowly into
the sub-soil but runs off down the mountainside bearing large amount of top soil.
DROUGHTS
In most arid regions of the world the rains are unpredictable. This leads to a period when there is a
serious scarcity of water to drink, use in farm, or provide for urban or industrial use. • One of the
factors that worsens the effect of droughts is deforestation. Drought is one of the major problems in
our country, due to unpredictable climatic condition or due to the failure of one and more monsoon.
WATER MANAGEMENT
 Develop few catchments dams  Preventing loss in municipal pipes
 Effective rain water harvesting in urban  Building several small reservoirs instead of
environments few mega projects
 Afforestation permits recharging of  Treatment and recycling municipal waste
underground water water for agricultural use
 Water conservation measures in agriculture  Preventing leakages from dams and canals
such as using drip irrigation
 Pricing the water at its real value makes 
people use it more responsibly and
efficiently and reduce the water wasting.

3. MINERAL RESOURCES
A mineral is a naturally occurring substances of definite chemical composition and identifiable
physical properties. Minerals are formed over a period of millions of years in the earth's crust. Iron,
aluminium, zinc, manganese and copper are the important raw materials for the industrial use.
Important non-metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building
materials, such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of the minerals. Minerals
with special properties that humans' values such as diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The lustre of gold,
silver, and platinum are used for the ornaments. Minerals in the form of the oil, gas, and coal were
formed when ancient plants and animals were converted into underground fossil fuels.
The extraction of the minerals and their ores from the earth interior so that they can be used. This
process is known as mining. Mines are of two types surface or deep or shaft mines. Mining is
hazardous occupation, and the safety of the mine workers is an important. Surface mining is less
hazardous than underground mining. Metal mining is less hazardous than coal mining. Mining
possesses several long-term occupational hazards to the miners. Dust produced during mining
operations is injurious to health and causes a lung disease known as black lung. Fumes generated by
incomplete dynamite explosions are extremely poisonous. Radiation is hazardous in uranium mines.
4. FOOD RESOURCES
Today our food comes almost entirely from agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing. Although
India is self-sufficient in food production, it is only because of modern patterns of agriculture that are
unsustainable and which pollutes of environment with the excess use of fertilizers and pesticides. If
these crops are hit by the pest, the entire crop can be devastated, leaving the farmer no income during
18
the year. Wheat, Rice, Maize, Potato, Barley, Oats, Pulses, Vegetables, Fruits, Sugarcane, Milk
Meat, Fish are the major food resources.
In many developing countries where populations are expanding rapidly, the production of food is
unable to keep pace with the growing demand. Food production in 64 of the 105 developing
countries is lagging behind the population growth levels. These countries are unable to produce more
food, or do not have the financial means to import it. India is the one of the countries that have been
able to produce enough food by cultivating its large proportion of land through irrigation. The Green
revolution of 60’s reduced starvation in the country. Country Group No. of people malnourished
World 848 million Developed Country 16 million Developing Country 832 million India 230
million.
FISHERIES
Fish is an important protein food in many parts of the world. This includes fresh water and marine
water fish. The supply of the food from fisheries has been increased nowadays. Problem of food
security Food security Climate change Low productivity Rising population Demand for water
Ecological Degradation Increasing cost of cultivation
5. ENERGY RESOURCES
 Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e., sun, wind, rain,
tides and can be generated again and again as and when required. They are available in plenty
and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. Solar Energy, Wind
Energy, Geothermal Energy, Biomass Energy from Plants, Tidal Energy are the examples of
Renewable resources.
 A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re- grown at a
scale comparable to its consumption. Non-renewable sources are not environmentally
friendly and can have serious effect on our health. They are called non-renewable because
they cannot be regenerated within a short span of time. Non-renewable sources exist in the
form of fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal.
6. LAND RESOURCES
Land Resources includes Hills, Valleys, Plains, River basins and Wetland. Land is a finite natural
resource. Man needs land for building homes, cultivating food, developing industries for providing
goods, and for creating towns and cities. Thus a rational use of land needs careful planning. One can
develop most of these different types of land uses almost anywhere, but it is very important to protect
wilderness area in the form of national parks and sanctuaries. If land is utilized properly, it can be
considered as renewable resources. Land is also converted into a non-renewable resource when
highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are dumped on it.
Farmland is under threat due to more and more intensive utilization. Every year, between 5 to 7
million hectares of land worldwide is added to the existing degraded farmland. The use of more and
more chemical fertilizers poisons to the soil so that eventually the land becomes unproductive. As
urban centres grow and industrial expansion occurs, the agricultural land and forest shrinks. This is a
serious loss and long-term ill effect on the human civilization. Soil erosion is also considered as one
kind of land degradation.
ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
1. FOREST RESOURCES
The measures to conserve forests, save trees, and planting new trees include- Not felling the trees in
forests, farms, roads or houses if they are green. Not uprooting the existing trees while constructing a
house but planting fast growing plant species in open area of the house. Planting herbs, shrubs, or
suitable trees in and around the house. Maintain lawn and garden in open place in your house, if
possible. Participating in community plantation programmes.

19
Encourage mass scale tree plantation programmes. Cooperate with NGOs engaged in saving trees. •
Plant trees generously in barren fields. Tag tree plantation with year ceremonies such as birth day,
marriage anniversary etc. Encourage ‘adopt a tree programme, ‘each one tree one’ • Observe March
21 as forest day. Discourage using paper for correspondence.
2. WATER RESOURCES
 Not keeping water taps running  Check water leak and repair
 Adopt minimum water use patterns  Observe February 2nd as world wetland day
 Adopting rain water harvesting devices in  Collect waste water in your home and use it
your house to conserve water for future use for watering kitchen garden
 Filling water in washing machine to the  Save wetlands, lakes, ponds, wells, etc.
level required for the cloths to be washed Observe March 22nd as world water day
 Join youth water team or any such NGO  Installing water saving toilets that use
engaged in water conservation optimum water per flush
 Watering lawn and kitchen garden plants in
the evening to minimize evaporation losses
and not watering them in the mid-day

3. MINERALS RESOURCES
 Use recyclable utensils  Repair and reuse bicycles
 Buy efficient vehicles  Buy durable products that lasts long
 Minimise the use of minerals which are  Minimise use of jewellery to conserve
likely to be depleted or exhausted scarce minerals
 Recycle and reuse minerals and glasses

4. FOOD RESOURCES
 Sustainable use of food and not wasting it  Shift from non-vegetarian to vegetarian
 Discourage packed, canned and preserved  Buy only organically grown food
food
 Eating only as much as required for  Observe October 16 as world food day and
sustenance of life November 21 as world fishery day
 Consuming local and seasonable vegetables
and so as to save energy on their
transportation, storage and preservation

5. ENERGY RESOURCES
 Replacing tube lights with CFLs and LED s  Using solar cookers for cooking food
 Turning off lights, fans, or other electric  Wearing adequate woollen clothes during
appliances when not in use winter instead of using heat convector
 Try to dry cloths in sunlight instead of drier  Keeping vehicles tuned for low
of washing machine consumption of fuel
 Buying energy efficient appliances, always  Minimise use of automobiles by using

20
 checking energy consumption figure bicycles, public transport, carpooling etc
 Trying to reside near the place of work, if  Checking fuel consumption data while
possible buying a new vehicle
 Construct buildings in such a way that  Growing deciduous trees at proper place
maximum amount of sunlight can be outside the house, they will cut off intense
obtained heat

6. AGRICULTURE AND SOIL PROTECTION

 Avoid over irrigation without proper  Reducing use of chemicals such as
irrigation to prevent water logging fertilizers and pesticides to check soil
pollution
 Observing June 17 as a day to combat  Observing December 23 as world farmers
desertification and deserts day
 Observe November 21-27 as national land  Using biological control measures for pest
resource conservation week in India. control
 Discouraging monoculture practise in  Adopting drip irrigation to avoid washing
agriculture out soil nutrients
 Adopting mix cropping  Using bio fertilizer

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CHAPTER 6

ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Humans are altering the composition of biological communities through a variety of activities that
increase rates of species invasions and species extinctions, at all scales, from local to global. These
changes in components of the Earth's biodiversity cause concern for ethical and aesthetic reasons, but
they also have a strong potential to alter ecosystem properties and the goods and services they
provide to humanity. Ecological experiments, observations, and theoretical developments show that
ecosystem properties depend greatly on biodiversity in terms of the functional characteristics of
organisms present in the ecosystem and the distribution and abundance of those organisms over
space and time. Species effects act in concert with the effects of climate, resource availability, and
disturbance regimes in influencing ecosystem properties.
INVASIVE SPECIES
An invasive species is an organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment
where it is not native. Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and
animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering
habitats. This can result in huge economic impacts and fundamental disruptions of coastal and Great
Lakes ecosystems
For example:
 Asian Carp.
 Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)
 Cane Toad (Rhinella marina)
 European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
 Kudzu (Pueraria montana)
 Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis)
 Small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus)
SPECIES EXTINCTION
Extinction is the dying out of a species. Extinction plays an important role in the evolution of life
because it opens up opportunities for new species to emerge. Extinction occurs when species are
diminished because of environmental forces such as habitat fragmentation, climate change, natural
disaster, overexploitation by humans, and pollution, or because of evolutionary changes in their
members (genetic inbreeding, poor reproduction, decline in population numbers).
For example:
 Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
 Tiger (Panthera tigris)
 Whooping crane (Grus americana)
 Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
 Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
 Sea otter (Enhydra lutris)
 Snow leopard (Panthera uncia)
 Gorilla (Gorilla beringei and Gorilla gorilla)
ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
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Ecological factors are environmental variables that impact organisms and contribute to their
characteristic modes of behaviour. These factors cause dynamic changes in a population or species in
a particular geographical region.
Types of ecological factors: There are mainly two types of ecological factors that are following:
 Abiotic factors
 Biotic factors
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Abiotic factors are non-living factors that make up the environment of an organism. A biotope is a
habitat with uniform environmental conditions that are characterised by a particular set of abiotic
ecological factors. Abiotic factors can be classified into the following three categories:
 Edaphic factor
 Topographic factor
 Climatic factors
1. EDAPHIC FACTOR
It is an abiotic factor related to the physical or chemical composition of the soil found in a particular
region. Soil is the uppermost weathered layer of Earth’s crust. It is formed due to interactions among
parent rock, climate, living organisms, time, and topography. The following properties of soil
influence the growth of different types of vegetation.
a. THE pH OF THE SOIL
Soil may be acidic, alkaline, or neutral. The pH value determines the availability of plant nutrients in
the soil. The best soil for the cultivation of crops is loamy soil having a pH range between5.5to6.8.
b. SOIL WATER
Soil water is more important than any other ecological factor as it is one of the inorganic substances
required for photosynthesis. Capillary water held between spaces of soil particles is the most
important form of water available to the plants.
c. SOIL TEMPERATURE
Soil temperature plays an essential role in determining the geographical distribution of plants. Low
temperature reduces the use of water and solute absorption by roots and vice-versa.
d. SOIL ATMOSPHERE (SOIL AIR)
Soil contains several gases in the pores found between the soil particles. These gases mainly include
oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapour.
e. SOIL ORGANISMS
Many organisms inhabit the soil, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoans, nematodes, insects,
earthworms, etc. These are called soil organisms. These organisms help in the aeration of soil,
nitrogen fixation, and therefore affect the growth of vegetation. Besides this, soil organisms are also
affected by the other physical and chemical properties of soil.
2. TOPOGRAPHIC FACTOR:
These factors are concerned with the surface features of the Earth. Topographic factors affect the
climate of different regions. These factors include latitude, altitude, the direction of the mountain, the
steepness of the mountain etc.
a. LATITUDES AND ALTITUDES:
Latitudes represent the distance from the equator. Altitudes represent the height above sea level.
These factors affect the temperature values, the velocity of wind, oxygen availability, light intensity.
The temperature is maximum at the equator and minimum at the poles. At high altitudes, the velocity
23
of wind increases, air pressure and temperature decrease while the intensity of light and humidity
increases. Because of these variations, vegetation at different altitudes varies, showing distinct
zonation.
b. THE DIRECTION OF MOUNTAINS:
North and south faces of mountains possess different types of flora and fauna because they differ in
certain climatic factors such as humidity, rainfall, light intensity, light duration, and temperature
regions.
c. THE STEEPNESS OF THE MOUNTAINS:
The steepness of the mountain affects the rainfall in a specific region and allows the rainwater to run
off. The loss of hilly areas causes water deficit and quick erosion of the topsoil that results in poor
vegetation. On the other hand, the plains are rich in vegetation due to the slow drain of surface water
and better retention of water in the soil.
3. CLIMATIC FACTORS
These are abiotic factors that determine the climatic conditions of a particular geographical region.
There are the following climatic ecological factors:
a. TEMPERATURE
Temperature determines the degree of hotness and coldness of a specific region. Temperature varies
with latitudes. Temperature is maximum at the equator and decreases gradually towards poles. Since
temperature is responsible for carrying out several enzymatic reactions in living beings, the
biodiversity of different geographical regions (towards the equator or poles) varies with the
temperature gradient.
b. SUNLIGHT
Sunlight is the vast and natural source of energy on the Earth. Plants utilise sunlight to perform
photosynthesis (conversion of solar energy into chemical energy). The energy gets passed on to the
herbivores when they consume plants and plant products. In a similar way, a food chain continues
from producers to herbivores and then to carnivores. The intensity, quality, and duration of sunlight
affect photosynthesis, germination, and flowering in plants. In comparison, these properties of light
affect the hibernation period, migration, and reproduction in animals.
c. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
It is the pressure exerted on the Earth’s surface. This pressure varies with the altitude. Variations in
the atmospheric pressure affect the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide, respectively, for
respiration and photosynthesis. The amount of oxygen is more at lower altitudes and gradually
decreases towards the higher altitude. Hence affects biodiversity at different altitudes
d. THE HUMIDITY OF AIR
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the transpiration rate in
plants and sweating in animals. This, in turn, affects the distribution of plants and animals on the
Earth.
e. WATER
Water is the basis of life for all organisms. Water is required for temperature regulation,
osmoregulation, and other physiological activities. Rainfall is the main source of water on Earth.
Rainfall majorly depends upon the geography of the area, velocity and the direction of the wind.
Most of the rainfall occurs in the hilly region when clouds strike the mountains. On the contrary,
there is partial or no rainfall on the opposite side of the mountains. The areas with sufficient rainfall
have epiphytes, while those with the scarcity of rain have xerophytic vegetation. Likewise, animals
living in xerophytic regions are also adapted to conserve and store water.

24
BIOTIC FACTORS:
All living beings constitute the biotic components of the ecosystem. Producers, consumers, and
decomposers are the three main categories. Biotic factors include all the living beings interacting
with each other and shape their environment. The interdependence is reflected in their interactions
mainly for food, space, reproduction, and protection. These interactions among them are broadly
classified into the following two categories:
 Positive interaction
 Negative interaction
1. POSITIVE INTERACTIONS
These are beneficial interactions. Positive interactions can be classified as follows:
a. MUTUALISM
It is an association of two species in which both species are benefited. Mutualism is demonstrated by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) living in root nodules of legumes. The bacterium fixes
atmospheric nitrogen and makes it available to the plants and, in exchange, derives nutrition from the
host plant.
In obligate mutualism, species are entirely dependent upon each other, and neither species can
survive under natural conditions without the other. For example, algal and fungal components in
lichens. The fungi provide protection to algae, and algae prepare food for the fungi.
In facultative mutualism, both the interacting species are not strictly dependent on each other. It can
be illustrated with an example of a sea anemone, which gets attached to the shell of a hermit crab.
The sea anemone attaches on the back of the crab, providing camouflage and protection to the carb,
and in turn, the sea anemone is transported about reaching new food sources.
b. COMMENSALISM
It is a relationship between the two species where one species is benefited while the other neither
benefited nor harmed. The species that derive benefit is called the commensal, while the other
species is called the host. Commensalism can be demonstrated with the example of suckerfish and
sharks. The suckerfish attached to the shark’s surface and dispersed to distant areas with a better
food supply. In exchange, the shark does not get any benefit from the suckerfish
2. NEGATIVE INTERACTIONS
It is an association in which one species is benefited while the other is harmed. These can be
classified as follows:
a. PREDATION
The interaction between the species involving killing and consuming prey is called predation. The
species that eats the other is called predator, and the one consumed is called prey. The herbivore-
carnivore interaction illustrates predation interaction in a food chain. Pitcher plants capturing insects
is an example of the prey-predator relationship between plant and animal. The predators keep a
check on the population size of the prey.
b. COMPETITION
It is an interaction between the two species where both suffer adverse effects, or both are harmed,
known as competition. It occurs when the resources for survival are in short supply. Competition is
basically of two types:
i. Interspecific Competition (between individuals of different species)
ii. Intraspecific Competition (between individuals of the same species).

25
 c. PARASITISM
It is an interaction of species in which one typically small organism (the parasite) lives in or on the
larger species (host) to obtain nutrition.
It also involves shelter, in addition to deriving nutrition. Based on the host-parasite relationship,
parasites are of two types, namely, holoparasite and hemiparasite. Holoparasites are total parasites
that are dependent on the host for their complete nutrition. Cuscuta is a complete stem parasite of the
host plant Acacia. The organisms that derive only water and minerals from their host plant while
synthesising their own food by photosynthesis are called hemiparasites. They are also called partial
parasites.
d. AMMENSALISM
It is an interaction in which one species is inhibited while the other species is neither benefited nor
harmed. The inhibition is done by the secretion of certain chemicals called allelopathic substances.
Amensalism is also called antibiosis. Penicillium notatum produces penicillin to inhibit the growth of
a variety of bacteria
Significance of Ecological Factors
The significance of ecological factors are as follows:
1. Ecological factors of different habitats help to develop mathematical models to relate the
interaction of parameters and to predict their effects.
2. Ecological factors are related to the evolutionary development of organisms.
3. The distinct characteristics of plants and animals that empower them to be successful under a
prevailing set of environmental conditions are called adaptation. Ecological factors play an
important role in morphological, physiological, and behavioural adaptations in organisms
according to their surroundings
4.
 ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
Ecological concepts are general understandings (or facts) about ecosystems and ecosystem
management and conservation.
CONCEPT 1
Levels of biological organization (genes, populations, species, communities, ecosystems,
landscapes, regions).
Life is dynamic and involves multi-scale ecological patterns and processes that operate from
genes, populations, species, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, to regions. Although each
scale is important, the interdependence of scales needs to be understood and assessed in order to
conserve biodiversity. Each of these scales interacts with their finer/faster and coarser/slower
neighbouring scales resulting in hierarchies and adaptive cycles that have been referred to as a
panarchy.
CONCEPT 2
Native species are those that naturally exist at a given location or in a particular ecosystem – i.e.,
they have not been moved there by humans.
Invasive alien species have the potential to displace native species and threaten ecosystems or
species with economic or environmental harm. Invasive alien species can be particularly
damaging since they are not subject to natural predators and diseases that keep populations of native
species in check. Some invasive aliens cause a fundamental change in ecosystem composition,
structure and function.
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CONCEPT 3
A keystone species, ecosystem or process has a disproportionate influence on an ecosystem or
landscape
 Keystone species have effects on biological communities that are disproportionate to their
abundance and biomass. The loss of keystone species results in broader community or
ecosystem-level effects. A keystone species interacts with other species through predation,
symbiotic dependencies such as plant-pollinator relationships, or ecosystem modification
(e.g., cavity nesters, beaver impoundments).
 A keystone ecosystem is particularly important because it provides habitat for a large
portion or critical elements of an area’s biodiversity. Riparian ecosystems near streams,
lakes and wetlands are considered keystone since they cover a relatively small area yet
support a disproportionately large number of species. Estuaries are also a keystone ecosystem
because of their disproportionately large influence relative to their size and abundance.
 A keystone process is fundamental to the maintenance of an ecosystem.
CONCEPT 4
Population viability/thresholds “Viability” in this context refers to the probability of survival of a
population/species in the face of ecological processes such as disturbance. When the amount of
habitat available declines below the “extinction threshold”, a population/species will decline and
eventually disappear; in addition to habitat for particular populations, a species’ survival depends on
maintaining healthy genetic variability. Species-level details about movement, behaviour and life
history traits demonstrate that threshold responses vary by species and can be difficult to detect.
The concept of minimum viable population refers to the smallest isolated population having a
reasonable chance of surviving over time despite the foreseeable effects of demographic,
environmental and genetic events and natural disturbances. Therefore, in smaller populations,
the reproduction and survival of individuals decreases, leading to a continuing decline in
population numbers. This effect may be due to a number of causes such as inbreeding or the ability
to find a mate, which may become increasingly difficult as population density decreases.
CONCEPT 5
Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance or stress and
return to a stable state. The concept of ecological resilience is consistent with the notion that
ecosystems are complex, dynamic and adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium; most
systems can potentially exist in various states. Moreover, they continually change in unpredictable
ways in response to a changing environment. This concept measures the amount of stress or
disruption required to transform a system that is maintained by one set of structures and
processes to a different set of structures and functions. A resilient ecosystem can better withstand
shocks and rebuild itself without collapsing into a different state.
Ecosystem change can occur suddenly if the resilience that normally buffers change has been
reduced. Such changes become more likely when slow variables erode. Slow variables include the
diversity of species and their abundance in the ecosystem, and regional variability in the environment
due to factors such as climate. All of these variables are affected by human influence.
Both functional diversity and response diversity are important to maintain ecological
resilience. Functional diversity is the number of functionally different groups of species and
consists of two aspects: one that affects the influence of a function within a scale (see ‘levels of
biological organization’ above) and the other that aggregates that influence across scales. Response
diversity is the diversity of responses to environmental change among species contributing to the
same ecological function and provides adaptive capacity given complex systems, uncertainty and
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human influence. In a rangeland, for example, functional diversity increases the productivity of a
plant community as a whole, bringing together species that take water from different depths, grow at
different speeds, and store different amounts of carbon and nutrients. Response diversity enables a
community to keep performing in the same way in the face of stresses and disturbances such as
grazing and drought.
CONCEPT 6
Disturbances are individually distinct events, either natural or human-induced, that cause a change
in the existing condition of an ecological system. Disturbances can be described in terms of their
type, intensity, spatial extent, frequency and other factors.
 Natural disturbances include wildfire, flood, freshet, Lake turnover, drought, wind-throw,
and insect and disease outbreaks. Some “natural disturbances” may be responding to human-
caused climate change – a current example is the mountain pine beetle epidemic in the
interior of the province. Extreme natural disturbance events often characterize an ecosystem
and ensure the presence of some species. Disturbance is critical to maintaining the richness of
systems (e.g., riparian ecosystems) or rejuvenating them.
 Human-induced disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems include, for example, timber
harvesting, road building, and rural and urban development. Human-caused aquatic
disturbances include damming, water extraction from rivers and streams, wetland drainage
and pollution. Some of these human related disturbances cause lasting changes that can
fundamentally alter ecosystems and modify our approach to ecosystem management.
For example, to reduce fire damage on property and in forests, the management response is to
reduce the size and intensity of forest fires, which truncates the range of disturbances of
ecosystems.
 Biological legacies are the elements of a pre-disturbance ecosystem that survive to
participate in its recovery. They are a structural consequence of the selective filter that the
disturbance process imposes on the ecosystem. Biological legacies are critical elements of
ecosystem dynamics across a broad range of ecosystems studied. Examples are standing live
and dead trees in forests, which are common within the perimeter of a wildfire and play
critical roles in the establishment of new forests and in sustaining biodiversity.
The term “natural range of variability” (NRV) is used to describe naturally occurring variation
over time of the composition and structure found in a system, resulting in part from sequences of
disturbances.
Climate change will play an important (though not the only) role in future changes to the NRV. The
current rate of rapid climate change has the potential to shift ecosystems out of the range of
conditions they experienced historically. As a result, the past will become an increasingly
unreliable guide for estimating the current and future NRV for an area. Alternatively, NRV could be
estimated using climate models, however, it should be recognized that a time lag would be expected
as the composition and structure of an ecosystem shifts due to changes in the NRV.
CONCEPT 7
Connectivity/fragmentation is the degree to which ecosystem structure facilitates or impedes the
movement of organisms between resource patches. What constitutes connectivity is scale
dependent and varies for each species depending on its habitat requirements, sensitivity to
disturbance and vulnerability to human-caused mortality. Connectivity allows individual
organisms to move in response to changing conditions, such as seasonal cycles, a forest fire or
climate change. Loss of connectivity results in fragmentation. The degree and characteristics of
natural connectivity vary with differences in landscape type. Humans can impact connectivity and
cause fragmentation in ways that can adversely affect biodiversity. Connectivity and fragmentation
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are both important contributors to ecosystem function and processes. For example, some habitat
types (e.g., caves, bogs, cliffs) may be ‘naturally’ fragmented; others (e.g., streams, riparian habitat)
are essentially linear; and others are often distributed in large blocks or patches. A key management
challenge is how to deal with habitats that existed naturally in large patches but which, as a
result of human activity, have been converted into much smaller, sometimes isolated patches.
Another challenge is to reduce ‘unnatural’ connectivity to naturally fragmented and isolated habitats
so that the unique species they support are not displaced by invading species.
 ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Ecological principles are basic assumptions (or beliefs) about ecosystems and how they function
and are informed by the ecological concepts. Ecological principles build on ecological concepts to
draw key conclusions that can then guide human applications aimed at conserving biodiversity.
PRINCIPLE 1
Protection of species and species’ subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity.
At the population level, the important processes are ultimately genetic and evolutionary because
these maintain the potential for continued existence of species and their adaptation to changing
conditions. In most instances managing for genetic diversity directly is impractical and difficult to
implement. The most credible surrogate for sustaining genetic variability is maintaining not only
species but also the spatial structure of genetic variation within species (such as sub-species and
populations). Maintenance of populations distributed across a species’ natural range will assist
in conserving genetic variability. This ensures the continuation of locally adapted genetic variants.
Retaining a variety of individuals and species permits the adaptability needed to sustain ecosystem
productivity in changing environments and can also cause further diversity (future adaptability).
This will be particularly important given climate change; for example, the genetic potential of
populations at the edge of their range may be particularly important to help facilitate species
adaptation to changes. Species that are collapsing towards the edge (versus centre) of their range and
disjunct populations (where a local population is disconnected from the continuous range of the
species) are also particularly important to consider, given climate change, in order to conserve
genetic diversity and enable adaptation.
PRINCIPLE 2
Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species.
A species habitat is the ecosystem conditions that support its life requirements. Our understanding
of habitat is based on our knowledge of a species’ ecology and how that determines where a species
is known to occur or likely to occur. Habitat can be considered at a range of spatial and temporal
scales that include specific microsites (e.g., occupied by certain invertebrates, bryophytes, some
lichens), large heterogeneous habitats, or occupancy of habitat during certain time periods (e.g.,
breeding sites, winter range areas). Therefore, conserving habitat requires a multi-scale approach
from regions to landscapes to ecosystems to critical habitat elements, features and structures.
PRINCIPLE 3
Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat.
The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large areas usually contain
more species than smaller areas with similar habitat because they can support larger and more
viable populations. The theory holds that the number of species on an island is determined by two
factors: the distance from the mainland and island size. These would affect the rate of extinction
on the islands and the level of immigration. Other factors being similar (including distance to the
mainland), on smaller islands the chance of extinction is greater than on larger ones. This is one
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reason why larger islands can hold more species than smaller ones. In the context of applying the
theory more broadly, the “island” can be any area of habitat surrounded by areas unsuitable for the
species on the island. Therefore, a system of areas conserved for biodiversity that includes large
areas can effectively support more viable populations.
PRINCIPLE 4
All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections vary.
Species play many different roles in communities and ecosystems and are connected by those roles
to other species in different ways and with varying degrees of strength. It is important to
understand key interactions. Some species (e.g., keystone species) have a more profound effect on
ecosystems than others. Particular species and networks of interacting species have key, broad-
scale ecosystem-level effects while others do not. The ways in which species interact vary in
addition to the strengths of those interactions. Species can be predator and/or prey, mutualist
or synergist. Mutualist species provide a mutually beneficial association for each other such as
fungi that colonize plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. Synergistic species
create an effect greater than that predicted by the sum of effects each is able to create independently.
The key issue is that it is important to determine which among the many interactions the strong
ones are because those are the ones toward which attention need to be directed.
PRINCIPLE 5
Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems.
The type, intensity, frequency and duration of disturbances shape the characteristics of
populations, communities and ecosystems including their size, shape and spatial relationships.
Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining natural ecosystems by
influencing their structure including the size, shape and distribution of patches. The more regions,
landscapes, ecosystems and local habitat elements resemble those that were established from
natural disturbances, the greater the probability that native species and ecological processes
will be maintained. This approach can be strengthened by developing an improved understanding
of how ecosystems respond to both natural and human disturbances, thus creating
opportunities to build resilience in the system. For example, high frequency, low intensity fires
have shaped some forest ecosystems while low frequency, high intensity fires have shaped
grassland ecosystems. Since ecosystems can change dramatically at the site level due to natural
disturbances, considering their composition and structure of habitats at the landscape-level may be
more useful. For terrestrial ecosystems, this means taking into account:
a. Species composition
b. The amount and patch size distribution
c. The variety and proportion of consecutive stages of terrestrial habitat from young to old
d. The diversity of within community structure.
It is important to recognize that for some fewer mobile species, distribution of habitat is potentially
as influential as amount of habitat (i.e., patch size; connectivity).

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CHAPTER 7
IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY
Many individuals do not think about the damage they are causing on biodiversity. However, it is
important as humans to realize the impact we have on biodiversity because without it, there would be
no human existence. If no changes are made in the ways humans use resources on earth, there will
continue to be a degradation of biodiversity until human lives can no longer be sustained. Humans
affect biodiversity by their population numbers, use of land, and their lifestyles, causing damage to
habitats for species. It is important for humans to realize how their actions affect biodiversity and the
importance of maintaining what biodiversity is left on the earth. Through proper education, and by
demanding that governments make decisions to preserve biodiversity, the human population will be
able to sustain life on earth longer.
Human activities are causing major changes in biological communities worldwide, and these changes
can harm biodiversity and ecosystem function. Ecosystem function is important for supporting plant
and animal communities, and ensuring the long-term survival of human populations.
MAJOR IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY
More specific threats to biodiversity are posed by deforestation (estimated at 1% annually),
overgrazing, soil erosion, rampant hunting and fishing, and agricultural practices. As a result, it is
estimated that at least 12% of the flora is threatened and several of the faunal species are threatened
too. However, the real status of most species remains unknown. Some of the main threats to
biodiversity are:
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND LOSS OF HABITAT
1. Population Growth
2. Deforestation
3. Desertification
4. Soil Erosion
5. Irrigated Agriculture
6. Marine Environment
7. Increasing Wildlife Trade
8. Climate Change
9. Hunting
10. Pollution
11. Resource exploitation
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND LOSS OF HABITAT
Human activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among animals and plants globally
estimated at 50 to 100 times the average rate of species loss in the absence of human activities. Two
most popular species in rich biomes are tropical forests and coral reefs. Tropical forests are under
threat largely from conversion to other land-uses, while coral reefs are experiencing increasing levels
of over exploitation and pollution. If current rate of loss of tropical forests continues for the next 30
years, the projected number of species that the remaining forests could support would be reduced by
5 to 10 percent relative to the forest in the absence of human disturbance. The rate of decline would
represent 1000 to 10,000 times the expected rate of extinction without deforestation by humans.
Some studies suggest that, globally, as many as one half of all mammal and bird species may become
extinct within 200 to 300 years. Biodiversity loss can result from a number of activities, including:
 Habitat conversion and destruction
 Over-exploitation of species
 Disconnected patches of original vegetation
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  Air and water pollution
Over the coming decades, human inducted climate change increasingly become another major factor
in reducing biological/biodiversity. These pressures on biodiversity are, to a large extent, driven by
economic development and related demands including the increasing demand for biological
resources.
POPULATION GROWTH
The principal threat to biodiversity comes from the increased pressure on natural resources produced
by high population growth and demands for increased standards of living. The process of economic
development itself widens inequality and may force the poor to depend heavily on natural resources,
while the development models followed, in most instances, have been incompatible with the
sustainable use of natural resources.
SPECIES EXTINCTION
The best-known and most widely discussed impact of human activities on biodiversity has been that
of the extinction of species. The loss of species seems to capture the public imagination, perhaps
because of its irreversibility and the extraordinary nature of some of those species that have met their
demise. In addition, species extinctions constitute the obvious, as well as a genuinely useful,
barometer of change in biodiversity when this is measured in terms of species richness
POPULATION, INDIVIDUAL AND GENETIC DIVERSITY
The listing of a species as having a significant risk of extinction in the near future is commonly
associated with it having suffered a decline in population or geographic range size. In other words, it
has undergone a loss of local populations, a decline in the numbers of individuals in remaining
populations, or both. Such losses and declines are being experienced by huge numbers of species,
whether these are sufficient for them to be listed as threatened by global extinction or not. For
example, amphibian population declines are a global problem, with causes that may include
ultraviolet radiation, predation, habitat modification, environmental acidity and toxicants, diseases,
changes in climate or weather patterns, and interactions among these factors. Concerns have
similarly been expressed about declines in the abundances of species in a wide range of groups, such
as trees sharks and birds. Hughes et al. (1997) estimate that in tropical forests, 1800 populations may
be being destroyed per hour, 16 million annually. Gaston and Blackburn (2003) estimate that land-
use change alone may have caused the overall global bird population to decline by a fifth to a quarter
from pre-agricultural levels.
The extinction of individual local populations and declines in species’ local abundances both
represent potentially insidious forms of erosion of biodiversity. Population losses, in particular, will
tend to reduce the taxonomic, genetic and functional diversity of sites perhaps the performance of
ecosystems, without initially necessarily contributing to the global species extinctions that attract the
bulk of attention.
DEFORESTATION
Forest ecosystems contain as much as 80 percent of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity and provide
wood fiber and biomass energy as well as critical components of the Global cycles of water, energy
and nutrient. Forest ecosystems are being cleared and degraded in many parts of the world. Current
projections suggest that demand for wood will roughly double over the next 50 years, which will
make increasing use of sustainable forest practices more difficult. In addition to threats to
biodiversity and potential shortages in the supply of forest products, the degradation of forests
represents an enormous potential source of greenhouse gas emissions. Forest ecosystems contain
about three times the amount of carbon currently present in the atmosphere and about one-third of
this carbon is stored above ground in trees and other vegetation and two-third is stored in the soil.
When forests are cleared or burned, much of this carbon is released into the atmosphere.
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DESERTIFICATION
Desertification and deforestation are the main causes of biodiversity loss. Both processes are
decisively influenced by the extension of agriculture. The direct cost of deforestation is reflected in
the loss of valuable plants and animal species. Desertification process is the result of poor land
management which can be aggravated by climatic variations. Converting wild lands to agriculture
often involves ploughing the soils which leads in temperate regions to an average decline in soil
organic matter between 25 and 40 per cent over twenty-five years. Decreasing soil organic matter is
always a clear indication of soil degradation, and often is accompanied by reductions in water
infiltration, fertility, and ability to retain fertilizers.
SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil, it is one form of soil degradation. This
natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers),
snow, air (wind), plants, animals, and humans. Irrigated Agriculture. It is another major threat to
both the riverine and mangrove forests of Pakistan, which are fast disappearing Riverine forests were
rich in a wide variety of plants such as Obhan, and animals like hog, deer, jungle cat, fishing cat, and
gray and black partridges. Mangrove forests are particularly important habitats for certain fish
species as noted earlier. Both have been identified as endangered ecosystems, and if they disappear,
they take with them a unique association of species. Marginal changes in water releases at certain
times are critical to the preservation of riverine habitats, it might be possible to accommodate them,
but if they require water diversions at times when irrigation demands are high and water supplies are
short, the chances of being able to maintain them are low.
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Oceans play a vital role in the global environment. Covering 70 per cent of the earth's surface, they
influence global climate, food production and economic activities. Despite these roles, coastal and
marine environment are being rapidly degraded in many parts of the globe. In coastal areas, where
human activities are concentrated, pollution, over-exploitation of resources, development of critical
habitats such as wetlands, and mangroves, and water-flow from poor land-use practices have led to
drastic reductions in near shore fisheries production and aquatic biodiversity.
INCREASING WILDLIFE TRADE
According to Nick Barnes, “Trade is another cause of biodiversity depletion that gives rise to conflict
between North and South.” Global trade in wildlife is estimated to be over US $ 20 billion annually.
Global trade includes at least 40,000 primates, ivory from at least 90,000 African elephants, 1million
orchids, 4 million live birds, 10 million reptile skins, 15 million furs and over 350 million tropical
fish.
CLIMATE CHANGE
As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and altitudes in both hemispheres.
The increase in the amount of CO2 in the air affects the physiological functioning of plant and
species composition. Moreover, aquatic ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, mangrove swamps, and
coastal wetlands, are vulnerable to changes in climate. In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically
diverse marine systems, are potentially vulnerable to changes in both sea level and ocean
temperature. While most coral systems should be able to grow at a sufficient pace to survive a 15-to-
95-centimeter sea-level rise over the next century, a sustained increase of several degrees centigrade
would threaten the long-term viability of many of these systems.
 The current climate change Earth is facing is caused by the increase in global temperatures.
 Human activity is changing Earth's atmosphere faster than it has ever changed during its
history.
 The burning of fossil fuels in industry and by vehicles releases carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
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  The burning of fossil fuels in industry and by vehicles releases carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
 The burning of fossil fuels and the growth of animal agriculture has caused large amounts of
greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere.
 Higher concentrations of greenhouse gases trap more heat in the biosphere and result in
global warming. In turn, this drives climate change. The atmospheric concentration of CO2
has risen steadily since the beginning of industrialization.
Atmospheric CO When climate change affects an environment so much that it is unable to sustain
organisms, they must adapt, relocate, or face extinction. Because of this, climate change can have a
huge effect on biodiversity.
HUNTING
Hunting has deep roots in Pakistani culture. It was the recreation of the Moghul emperors and is still
extremely popular today. Wild animals have been hunted to extinction from hunting pressure.
Various lizards and snakes are hunted for their skins, as are crocodiles and the larger mammals.
Distributing the natural order has other subtler consequences. The increase in the numbers of wild
boars, jackals, and porcupines, for example, is directly attributable to the elimination of their
predators particularly in large cats.
POLLUTION
Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-reaching negative effects on biodiversity. Pollution
from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain in the air as particle pollutants or fall to
the ground as acid rain. Acid rain, which is primarily composed of sulfuric and nitric acid, causes
acidification of lakes, streams and sensitive forest soils, and contributes to slower forest growth and
tree damage at high elevations. In addition, chemical pollutants such as pesticides and herbicides
leach into soils and watersheds. Some fish species, such as salmonids, require small freshwater
streams to spawn. Polluted streams result in the abandonment of traditional spawning areas and
ultimately in the loss of salmon populations. Species’ sensitivity to pollution is variable. However,
many species are vulnerable to the indirect effects of pollution through the concentration of toxic
chemicals in top predators of food chains and disruption of predator-prey interactions.
RESOURCE EXPLOITATION
Humans constantly consume resources for their own needs. Some examples include the mining of
natural resources like coal, the hunting and fishing of animals for food, and the clearing of forests for
urbanization and wood use. Extensive overuse of nonrenewable resources, like fossil fuels, can cause
great harm to the environment. Recycling products made from nonrenewable resources (such as
plastic, which is made from oil) is one way to reduce the negative impacts of this resource
exploitation. In addition, the development and use of renewable resources, like solar or wind energy,
can help decrease the harmful effects of resource exploitation.
CONCLUSION
Biodiversity is an issue that affects everyone and therefore everyone should be aware of their effect
on biodiversity. As biodiversity decreases on earth, so do the chances of human survival. Therefore,
it is important to educate people on living in equilibrium with the environment. It is also important to
make sure that the government is making laws that will ensure biodiversity for the future and not
focus on shortsighted economics. If humans become extinct, it will likely be a result of their own
action or lack of action. Hopefully humans will realize this before it is too late.

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CHAPTER 8
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
The Global Convention on Biological Diversity, signed in 1992 at the Earth Summit, describes
biodiversity as the "variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part, this includes
diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems."
Among the ten policy fields, Loss of Biodiversity is probably the most controversial one. The
diversity of nature is the result of an evolutionary process that started about two billion years ago.
When looking, for example, at the destruction of rain forests over the last twenty years, it becomes
obvious that mankind is destroying this heritage at an incredible speed. Not surprisingly, the
biodiversity debate is laden with ethical, sometimes religious arguments. It was probably a biologist
who has coined the saying "don't put price tags on my butterflies"; however, economic reality puts
"price tags" on biodiversity every day, mostly ignoring the moral considerations raised by experts.
The number of species endangered by human activities and the number of natural or semi-natural
habitats being destroyed, fragmented or changed are constantly growing, thus destabilizing
ecosystems, causing the loss of vital resources together with genetic and cultural impoverishment.
Europe covers only 7% of the Earths land surface but contains a large biodiversity due to natural
fragmentation by rivers, mountains, seas, the influences of glaciation, etc. The pressures on European
biodiversity emanate from all sectors of society, with agriculture, forestry and transport being
particularly responsible for habitat loss and fragmentation.
Measuring pressure on biodiversity, although an ambitious task, is essential to supply the
controversial biodiversity debate with (hopefully) non-controversial, neutral and objective figures.
Given the complexity of the issue, one should not expect perfect solutions. Describing threats to the
"health" of ecosystems with just six indicators will resemble very much what a doctor would advise a
human patient: "stop smoking, drink less, avoid fat meals and ride your bicycle every day." Most of
the following indicators are of this rather general character. They are no substitute for a proper
diagnosis, or a detailed plan to preserve a valuable habitat, but they may serve to publicly monitor
the biggest threats to European biodiversity.
CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
A. CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
The Global Biodiversity Strategy identifies six fundamental causes of biodiversity loss
 unsustainably high rates of natural resource consumption and human population growth;
 steadily narrowing spectrum of traded products from agriculture and forestry, and
introduction of exotic species associated with agriculture, forestry and fisheries (including
bio-engineered species);
 economic systems and policies that fail to value the environment and its resources;
 inequity in ownership and access to natural resources, including the benefits from use and
conservation of biodiversity;
 inadequate knowledge and inefficient use of information;
 legal and institutional systems that fail to protect against unsustainable exploitation.
The above are a mixture of both direct and indirect (or underlying) causes, and are discussed in more
detail in the following sections.
1. DIRECT CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

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(A) HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION
Habitat loss and degradation is by far the leading cause of biodiversity loss in the region. In some
cases, habitat alteration is intensive and large-scale, for example, when native forest is converted to
plantation, or when a large dam inundates an area. In other instances, habitats are gradually eroded
over time, as when a native forest or grassland is fragmented by expanding agricultural practice
and/or population pressures. In either case, plant species are lost and many animal species are forced
from their natural habitats.
It is estimated that at least three quarters of all threatened bird species are in danger because of the
pressures on their natural habitats, and that habitat loss is also the principal factor for the decline of
at least three-quarters of all mammal species. In areas where forest degradation and conversion have
been most intense, such as South and Southeast Asia, a significant proportion of the endemic primate
species face extinction. Species of reptiles and amphibians are also declining for similar reasons;
habitat loss accounts for the decline of 68 per cent of all threatened reptile species and 58 per cent of
threatened amphibian species.
Although degradation of terrestrial habitats such as forests may gain the most attention, both marine
and freshwater habitats are also under serious pressure from human activities such as urbanization
and agricultural expansion. For example, river engineering works such as the construction of dams
and/or levees have the effect of either inundating or drying up wetlands and backwaters which are
important fish spawning grounds, and changing flow regimes to downstream lakes and estuaries,
thereby altering their ecologies. A substantial proportion of marine ecosystems are also at risk,
primarily due to the direct activities associated with coastal development, including dredging, filling,
breakwater construction, mining and drilling, but also from secondary effects such as pollution and
increased marine traffic.
The impacts of habitat pollution on biodiversity can be instantaneous or cumulative. For instance, oil
wastes can asphyxiate and/or poison a wide range of marine life – from algae to seabirds – whereas
other contaminants, such as radioactive wastes, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals, can take a
while to build up and cause harm within individual organisms, especially within species high on the
food chain. In addition, the impact of pollution can be secondary, for example, certain species of
algae will capitalize on high nutrient conditions introduced by some forms of pollution, undergoing
massive population explosions (known as blooms) which can in turn introduce toxins which are
harmful to marine life such as fish and shellfish, or to consumers of those produce, or which can
lower water clarity and oxygen content to the extent that marine life is depleted. Coral bleaching is
another frequent outcome of pollution-induced stress.
(B) OVER-EXPLOITATION OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
Throughout South and East Asia, a major factor in the excessive exploitation of wildlife has been
over-hunting in response to the unsustainable demands of both national and international trade in
goods such as animal parts for traditional medicine or curios. Species which have been particularly
affected include the tiger, which has been hunted almost to extinction in South Asia, and the
seahorse, which is harvested in numbers approaching 20 million per year – a rate which is unlikely to
be sustainable because of their low reproductive rate, complex social behavior (they are
monogamous, with males rearing the young) and low mobility. Already, it is thought that some 36-
seahorse species are threatened by this growing, unregulated harvest. Tortoise and river turtle species
also are exploited intensively in certain areas of the region; in Southeast Asia they have long been an
important source of meat and eggs, but there is also now a burgeoning international trade for their
use in traditional medicine, in countries such as People’s Republic of China. At least five turtle
species involved in this trade are now candidates for the most stringent listing available under the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES).

36
Uncontrolled harvesting of fish is playing a major role in jeopardizing freshwater and marine
ecosystems and their native biota, resulting in a situation whereby about 68 per cent of all threatened
marine fish species in the region suffer from over-exploitation. A prime example is the sturgeon in
Central Asia, where poaching is now so widespread that the few remaining stocks of this fish are
nearly gone. Aside from overfishing of commercial stocks, poor management practices are also to
blame for the decline in marine resources, which include blast fishing, fishing with cyanide and other
poisonous chemicals, muroami netting (pounding reefs with weighted bags to scare fish out of
crevices) and coral harvesting.
2. UNDERLYING CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
(A) INTERNATIONAL TRADE
As discussed above, the growing international demand for traditional medicines, rare foods, curios
and aquarium specimens etc. is leading to increasing over-exploitation of certain species within the
region. The pressures on some individual species are illustrated by the value of their markets, for
example, the market price for the body parts of a single tiger can be as much as US$5 million, and
top-quality dried seahorses can sell for as much as US$1 200 per kilogram in parts of People’s
Republic of China. In addition, according to a recent report by TRAFFIC, a group that monitors the
international wildlife trade, the annual Northeast Asian trade in tortoises and river turtles involves
some 300 000 kilograms of live animals, with a value of at least US$1 million.
Traditional herbal therapies are also growing rapidly in popularity amongst industrialized countries
of the world. The FAO estimates that between 4 000 and 6 000 species of medicinal plants are traded
internationally, with People’s Republic of China accounting for about 30 per cent of all such exports.
In the early 1990s, the booming US retail market for herbal medicines reached nearly US$1.5 billion,
and the current European market is thought to be even larger.
The Asian rattan palm is another species of plant that has been in decline in recent years due to high
international demand to supply an international furniture making industry worth US$3.5 to 6.5
billion annually. Rattan stocks are being depleted at an unsustainable rate throughout tropical Asia
due to a combination of the loss of native rainforest and over-harvesting. As a result, in the past few
years some Asian furniture makers have even begun importing rattan supplies from Nigeria and other
central African countries.
(B) POPULATION GROWTH AND POVERTY
Continued population growth and urbanization is exerting a constant and degrading pressure on
biodiversity throughout the region, primarily due to encroachment into natural habitats and their
conversion for human settlement, or for the expansion of agricultural production to meet increased
demand. In addition, the intensification of agriculture production is also encouraging the use of
hybrid seeds and agricultural chemicals, thereby further degrading natural habitats and biodiversity.
Poverty is another significant underlying factor in regard to the loss of biodiversity in the region. The
poor are frequently forced to occupy and/or subsist on marginal lands, and thereby often encroach
upon fragile ecosystems, such as wetlands in Bangladesh, hill forests in India and Nepal and
mangroves in Thailand. Urgent, but pragmatic, responses are therefore needed to address this
problem, for example focusing on developing alternative livelihood strategies for those who
currently rely on protected natural habitats for their living. It is worth mentioning, however, that it is
by no means clear whether poverty, with its pressure to survive, or affluence, with its pressure to
consume, ultimately leads to greater degradation of resources and the environment.
(C) BIOINVASION
Bioinvasions are the processes by which new (or “exotic”) species are introduced into a habitat. They
are rated second only to habitat loss as the major cause of biodiversity loss in the region, where they
37
are deeply enmeshed in basic economic processes such as trade and travel. Such processes have
created hundreds of exotic “pathways” for invasion, for example, container shipments of used tires
from Japan are believed to be responsible for the arrival of Asian tiger mosquito in New Zealand and
Australia, and the ballast water of foreign ships was thought to contain the poisonous plankton which
burst into the dinoflagellate “red tides” which devastated Australian fisheries in the 1980s. Other
examples include the introduction of the domestic cat to New Zealand, which is thought to have been
the main factor in the loss of many bird populations in that country, and the invasion of “exotic” rats,
particularly the black and the brown rat, which have also taken a similar toll on many island birds
across the region. Another spectacular example involves the brown tree snake, which invaded Guam
from Papua New Guinea around 1950 and has driven nine of the island’s 18 native birds into
extinction, along with several lizards and probably three species of bats.
Although mammals have in general been less susceptible than birds to invasive species, a significant
exception has been the unique marsupial and rodent fauna of Australia. The introduction of non-
native rabbits, foxes, cats, rats, and other animals in this country has combined with changing land-
use patterns during the past two centuries to give Australia the world’s highest rate of mammalian
extinction. In total, 19 species of mammal have become extinct since European settlement in the
Eighteenth Century, and at least one quarter of the remaining native mammalian fauna remains
threatened.
As yet there are few data to analyze their impact, but the rapidly increasing use of genetically
engineered micro-organisms, and their establishment (either directly or indirectly) within natural
habitats, could increase the potential risks to existing natural biota (see section below). This could
occur, for example, through engineered genetic traits which are harmful to non-target species upon
which other native biota depend, through a mixing (and subsequent loss) of genetic stocks, or
through their general competitive superiority and subsequent intrusiveness.
In agriculture, species which are considered favorable in some areas can become serious “biological
polluters” in other some areas. For example, the spice cardamom is a problem in lowland moist
forests of Sri Lanka and southern India, whilst black pepper has invaded forest edges in Malaysia. In
addition, Chromolaena odorata, the shrub valued by small farmers in Indonesia as a fallow crop, has
become a serious pest for many major tropical crops, such as rubber, oil palm, and coconut, and
arguably the single most invasive plant in tropical nature reserves.

B. CONSEQUENCES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

1. IMPACTS ON THE ECOSYSTEMS
One major consequence of biodiversity loss is the alteration and decline in species compositions,
which may then trigger local and global extinctions. Evidence also suggests that removal of key
herbivore and predator species may ultimately produce large-scale ecosystem changes. For instance,
removal of triggerfish has been linked with explosions in burrowing urchin populations (their prey),
which subsequently accelerate reef erosion through feeding activities. Moreover, the loss of a
region’s top predators or dominant herbivores is particularly damaging because it can trigger a
cascade of disruptions in the ecological relationships among species that maintain an ecosystem’s
diversity and function. Large mammals tend to exert inordinate influence within their ecological
communities by consuming and dispersing seeds, creating unique micro-habitats, and regulating
populations of prey species. Similarly, decades of excessive whaling reduced the number of whales
that die natural deaths in the open oceans. This may have adversely affected unique deep-sea
communities of worms and other invertebrates that decompose the remains of dead whales after they
have sunk to the ocean floor. Loss of biodiversity through bioinvasion of exotics also has a serious
repercussion as it could result in loss or alteration of genetic purity or genetic uniformity. Exotics can
pose a kind of internal threat to natives as they may cause the mixing of genetic stocks. An exotic
38
closely related to a native may interbreed with it, releasing its genes into the native gene pool. Such
genetic invasions can undermine the distinctiveness or stability of a native population by swamping
it in foreign genes. Among plant species, many crops interbreed with wild relatives, and it is possible
that these “exotic genes” could escape into wild plant populations – or that the crops themselves
could escape. The appearance of herbicide tolerant or disease-resistant wild plants could obviously
lead to major ecological- and agricultural-impacts.
Mixing of genetic stocks could also occur in freshwater and marine species. In marine ecosystems,
biodiversity loss has two important genetic consequences. Firstly, it affects the genetic variability
within a species. Species exhibiting broad genetic diversity (the range of genetic variability found
within different organisms in a population and between populations of a single species) are more
likely to adapt to changing conditions than species with narrow genetic diversity. Population
declines, by reducing genetic diversity, also reduce the ability of a species to adapt to changing
conditions. Secondly, these losses can have cascading, unanticipated effects on other species within
an ecosystem.
2. IMPACTS ON HUMANKIND
With the continued loss of terrestrial, freshwater and marine biodiversity in the region, fish, grains
and other food and medicinal products which are derived from these ecosystems are also under
increasing pressure. In most cases, these food and medicinal products are integral to the lives of poor
and indigenous communities, and so it is they who are being forced to find alternative livelihoods,
and who in many cases are suffering as a result. Moreover, although people who are more integrated
into regional and national economies tend to use fewer natural resources, they still may depend on
plant and animal diversity to generate cash income, for example in India, nearly six million people
make a living by harvesting non-timber forest products, a trade that accounts for nearly half the
revenues earned by Indian state forests.
Loss of biodiversity is also frequently associated with a decline in the quality of diet and/ or intake of
food for the poor, which can exacerbate the incidence of malnutrition and sickness, especially
amongst children. Moreover, humanity derives many of its medicines and industrial products from
the region’s wealth of biodiversity, and as plant and animal species with medicinal properties are
lost, primary healthcare for millions of people across the region, and in particular the poor, is at risk.
In response, professional ethno-botanists surveying medicinal plants used by different cultures are
racing against time to document traditional knowledge before it vanishes with its last elderly
practitioners.

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CHAPTER 9
PROTECTION/ CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the pillar that allows ecosystems to function and humans to thrive. Without
biodiversity in an ecosystem, we would not have the many plants and animals we find in our world
today, including us. Biodiversity is the “biological diversity in an environment as indicated by
numbers of different species of plants and animals.”
This includes the number of different species and genetic variation within the same species. The
different plants and animals in an environment work together to maintain balance in the ecosystem.
These interactions create functioning systems that provide food, medicine, and new technologies for
us.
Unfortunately, as we have spread across the globe we have disrupted and destroyed many
ecosystems by reducing their biodiversity. This damage can be seen in many places, like reduced
crop yields in developing countries and the increasing rate of animal extinction.
10 WAYS HOW WE CAN PROTECT BIODIVERSITY
Even though the biodiversity of many habitats has become threatened there are many things we can
do to help reduce this danger. These are some of the steps you can take to conserve biodiversity.
1. GOVERNMENT LEGISLATION
Governments have the power to control what is done to the habitats within their country. Legislation
that protects natural habitats by outlawing development, harvesting of natural resources, or other
human exploitation has a huge impact on maintaining natural biodiversity. Additionally, laws
protecting specific species like the USA’s Endangered Species Act helps protect animals that have
already been impacted. Protecting habitats before they have been altered is the best form on
biodiversity conservation and is most successfully implemented by government regulations.
2. NATURE PRESERVES
Nature preserves are a form of government regulation and are often known as National Parks. They
protect a region and the organisms that live there from certain forms of development and provide
access for people to visit them. This is excellent because it protects the natural habitat and is a place
where people can view the ecosystem. The goal is that over time this helps people have more respect
for the natural world and increases pressure on government to further protect other areas.
3. REDUCING AMOUNT OF INVASIVE SPECIES
Invasive species are sometimes introduced to an area on purpose, but also sometimes by accident. To
limit the number of invasive species moved by accident planes, ships, and cargo must be thoroughly
checked before it is offloaded in a new country. Additionally, people should not bring new species of
animals or plants to an area without consulting ecologists knowledgeable on the region.
4. HABITAT RESTORATION
After an area is damaged by human impacts, we can try to return it to its natural state. This means
bringing back the plants and animals that are naturally found there. This has been shown to be a
promising way of returning biodiversity to a region.
Wolf pack in the wild
One example of this is the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park. When wolves
returned to the region, they ate more elk and coyote, which increased the prey species of the coyote
and let riparian (river bank) areas trampled by elk recover.
These restoration projects can be undertaken by governments, local organizations, or NGOs.
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 5. CAPTIVE BREEDING AND SEED BANKS
Captive breeding is when animals in captivity (often at zoos) are bred. This is seen as somewhat
controversial, as it requires the capture of animals that are often near extinction. On the positive side
it provides the opportunity to increase the population of the species, so they can be reintroduced into
the wild. Seed banks are areas where huge varieties of plant seeds are stored. This provides a failsafe
if a species goes extinct in nature. The plant can be grown from a saved seed and reintroduced back
into its habitat. This is a very real issue and seed banks have been collecting samples for many years,
with some seed banks having over 2 billion seeds stored at a time.
6. RESEARCH
Understanding how species interact within their environment is crucial to protecting them. As
humans further understand species interaction, we find new and more direct ways to help protect
organisms and maintain biodiversity.
One example is the use of wildlife corridors in urbanized areas. By researching many different
species, we have found that this dramatically increase their populations [9]. It reduces the number of
animals that come into direct contact with humans and provides areas for migratory animals to move
long distances.
7. REDUCE CLIMATE CHANGE
As we know, climate change has disastrous consequences for all living things on earth. We use huge
amounts of fossil fuels, which directly cause climate change. We need to move away from fossil
fuels and towards alternative energy sources and natural or sustainable products. Reducing the
effects of climate change requires a worldwide effort.
8. PURCHASE SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTS
Many protects are now labeled with ecolabels that state if they are environmentally friendly. Some of
the most prominent ecolabels are Energy Star, USDA Organic, and Rainforest Alliance Certified.
Our consumption of natural resources is one of the main reasons for biodiversity loss, so it is our
responsibility to consume products that are produced in the most sustainable way possible.
Additionally, when we consume these goods, it increases demand for environmentally conscious
products pushing more producers to make them.
9. SUSTAINABLE LIVING
Sustainable living is something that we can each choose to do on a daily basis. Whether it be by
taking shorter showers, riding a bike to work, or buying ecolabel products it helps reduce the number
of resources we use.
Riding bike to work
This is arguably the most important way of protecting biodiversity because everyone can do it, often
with only small lifestyle changes. If everyone chose to live sustainably, biodiversity in a variety
habitat would improve.
10. EDUCATION
As with most environmental topics, education is one of the keys to success. Educating people about
the importance of biodiversity conservation increases public awareness of the issue. As public
awareness increases people become more involved and eventually influence their government
representatives, pushing for more environmental protection. Government legislation protecting our
natural environments is one of the most effective ways of protecting biodiversity

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CHAPTER 10
PROTECTION / CONSERVATION OF BIODEVERSITY
Conservation is the protection, restoration and sustainable management of biodiversity and natural
resources such as forests, water and the biological diversity within it. The conservation ethic
promotes the management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species,
ecosystems, evolutionary process, human culture and society. However, conservation biology
reformed around strategic plans with time to protect regional biodiversity with specific issues in the
later time. At the same time, priority has given to the strategic conservation plans to uses public
policy in local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems, and cultures. Action plans
identified the ways of sustaining human well-being, employing natural capital, market capital, and
ecosystem services for the survival of mankind as in recent years, while increasing loss of
biodiversity has posed a serious threat to the survival of human being.
EX-SITU CONSERVATION
Ex-situ conservation refers to the conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their
natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated/
domesticated plant/animal species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Some of
these include:
 Gene banks, e.g., seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field banks
 In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections
 Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction
into the wild
 Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanic gardens for research and public
awareness.
Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ methods as they provide an
"insurance policy" against natural calamities and extinction. These measures also have a valuable
role to play in recovery programs for endangered species. Ex-situ conservation provides excellent
research opportunities on the components of biological diversity. Some of these institutions also play
a central role in public education and awareness raising by bringing members of the public into
contact with plants and animals they may not normally come in contact with. It is estimated that
worldwide, over 600 million people visit zoos every year.
ISSUES TO CONSIDER WHEN IMPLEMENTING EX SITU CONSERVATION

CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT
What is the primary role for the ex-situ population (e.g., captive breeding for reintroduction, head-
starting, research etc.)? How many founder animals are required, where will they come from, and
what are the plans if sufficient founder animals cannot be found? What is the current captive
population, and the target population? How many organizations will be involved with the captive
component? How will the genetics of the captive population be managed?
CAPACITY BUILDING FOR EX SITU MANAGEMENT
Are there enough skilled people in the country to manage captive amphibian conservation programs
and which organizations are they based at? If not, how will enough people be trained to manage the
ex-situ programs?
EX SITU RESEARCH

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Is ex situ research required, either directly related to understanding or improving husbandry
protocols, or for other reasons (e.g., disease testing or management). If so, outline the research and
who will be responsible for undertaking it.
SUPPLEMENTATION/TRANSLOCATION
Is supplementation or translocation being considered for this species? If so, provide details of the
planned actions and who is responsible for managing the actions.
REINTRODUCTION STRATEGY
When threats facing the species in the wild have been mitigated, and/or suitable protected habitat is
available for animals to be reintroduced to the wild, how will this be managed? Include information
about pre-release health and disease checks, individual identification system of animals, who will
undertake the releases, how the short and long-term post-release monitoring will be carried out.
EDUCATION AND AWARENESS

PUBLIC EDUCATION AND RAISING AWARENESS

Are there any plans to help provide education to local communities, or to the general population
about the threats facing amphibians and what actions people might be able to take to help reduce
threats and protect amphibians? Public education could be provided via display panels in national
parks and forests; in museums, libraries, zoos and aquariums; or by more traditional teaching
programs in schools and local communities.
COMMUNITY AND STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
Have local communities, national and local governments, field researchers, the ex situ conservation
community, private landholders and other stakeholders been involved with the development of the
plan? What actions have been developed to ensure that they remain involved, and play their part in
achieving the outcomes of the plan?
IN-SITU CONSERVATION
In-situ refers to the conservation of habitats, species and ecosystems where they naturally occur, in
which elements of biodiversity as well as the natural processes and interactions are conserved. In-situ
is considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. Conserving the areas where
populations of species exist naturally is an underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity.
That is why protected areas form a central element of any national strategy to conserve biodiversity.
Approximately 8,500 protected areas exist throughout the world in 169 countries. This covers about
750 million hectares of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, which amounts to 5.2 % of the Earth’s
land surface.
PRESERVE DESIGN
Because of all the problems that face populations when their habitat shrinks and is fragmented into
isolated islands, few species can persist if their habitat is reduced to a single island, especially if that
island is small. The key to conserving rare species and vanishing ecological communities is to secure
habitat preserve networks that are designed to accomplish long-term protection. We now understand
a great deal about how to design these networks so as to minimize the risks rare species face. Single-
population modelling help us project the minimum size required to reduce local extinctions to
acceptably low levels, and meta-population modelling can help estimate the extinction probabilities
for alternative network configurations. These modelling exercises have resulted in a series of “rules”
guiding the design of preserves and preserve networks. The most important of these rules are:
1. Bigger is usually better, because larger preserves contain larger total population sizes,
reducing vulnerability to stochastic variation.
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 2. Round or square is better than long and skinny, because round preserves have the least
amount of edge per area.
3. Create multiple preserves whenever possible, as this minimizes the chance that a
catastrophe will wipe out an entire population.
4. Ensure at least one large preserve in the network, as this provides a reliable source of
dispersers to recolonize smaller patches following local extinctions.
5. Minimize distances among preserves, to facilitate local movements between patches and
reduce genetic isolation among them.
6. Add steppingstones and corridors between preserves, as these small pieces of habitat
greatly facilitate movement among preserves, thereby allowing a fragmented preserve system
to act more as if it were larger and more continuous.
7. A two-dimensional landscape configuration is better than linear, because it promotes
opportunities for recolonization among all habitat patches.
Protecting a series of habitat preserves by properly managing “islands” of habitat has become
the single most important means for protecting the rarest endangered biodiversity. On
continental islands, each habitat patch retains some opportunity for recolonization as long as we can
ensure that multiple sources of colonists continue to exist in separate patches.
HABITAT MANAGEMENT
Most species that are endangered today were vulnerable early on, because they have narrowly
specialized habitat tolerances. Our principal means for maintaining such species is to protect
many separate populations by preserving patches of their required habitat. However, simply
setting a habitat patch aside rarely suffices to ensure its long-term preservation. Left unattended,
most habitats remain subject to continuing influences from humans, either directly (such as
continued introduction of predators) or indirectly (for instance, artificially altered hydro periods).
Therefore, most natural preserves require habitat management to remain suitable for the
species and ecological systems they are designed to protect.
Mimicking natural disturbances can be the most important and difficult responsibility in
modern habitat management. For example, many grasslands support higher species diversity when
they are subject to periodic disturbances that mimic the temporary passage of a wild ungulate herd.
Thus, in the absence of wild ungulates carefully managed “short-rotation” grazing by cattle can
improve grasslands as bird habitat. On the other hand, cattle tend to loaf and forage near streams,
causing erosion of stream banks and degradation of the riparian thickets that are so important for
breeding bird communities. Proper management of cattle grazing, therefore, requires construction
and maintenance of fencing to permit control of stocking rates and exposure periods within each
management unit, and to limit the access of cattle to riparian habitats.
Species diversity in many habitats around the world (such as native grasslands, savannas, scrubs,
and numerous types of forests) is maintained by periodic wildfire. Many of the “post-fire
specialists” may be more endangered today by fire suppression than by outright habitat loss, in
these cases, proper habitat management requires prescribed burning to maintain the ecological
conditions under which the species evolved.

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CHAPTER 11
DEFINITIONS OF BIODIVERSITY
Biogeographical Realm: A biogeographic realm or ecozone is the broadest biogeographic division
of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms.
Biome: a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat, e.g.
forest or tundra.
Biosafety: The objective of the Convention’s Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is to ensure an
adequate level of protection in the safe transfer, handling and use of such living modified organisms,
specifically focusing on transboundary movements. The Protocol was adopted in January 2000 and
will enter into force once it has been ratified by fifty countries.
Biosphere: The biosphere, (from Greek bias = life, sphaira, sphere) is the layer of the planet Earth
where life exists. The biosphere is one of the four layers that surround the Earth along with the
lithosphere (rock), hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) and it is the sum of all the ecosystems.
The part of the planet occupied by living organisms can be pictured as a thin and irregular envelope
around the Earth’s surface, at most just a few kilometers deep on the globe’s radius of more than
6,000 km. Because most organisms depend directly or indirectly on sunlight, the regions reached by
sunlight form the core of the biosphere: i.e., the land surface, the top few millimeters of the soil, and
the upper waters of lakes and the ocean. Bacteria occur almost everywhere, even kilometers deep
within the Earth’s rocky crust. Active living organisms are usually absent where liquid water is
absent, but the dormant spores of bacteria and fungi are ubiquitous, from polar icecaps to many
kilometers above the surface of the Earth.
Biotechnology: Biotechnology is the general term applied to the use of living organisms or their
components in agricultural, industrial or medical production processes. The role of selected strains of
yeast in brewing and bread making is familiar, but micro-organisms are also used, for example, in
the industrial-scale production of antibiotics, vitamins, and enzymes for food and drink manufacture.
Critically Endangered: Critically Endangered (CR), a category containing those species that
possess an extremely high risk of extinction as a result of rapid population declines of 80 to more
than 90 percent over the previous 10 years (or three generations), a current population size of fewer
than 50 individuals, or other factors. E.g., Javan Rhinoceros,
Climate change: Climate change means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly
to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is addition to
natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
Cultivators: Cultivators are organisms and especially one of an agricultural or horticultural variety
or strain originating and persistent under cultivation.
Deciduous forest: Deciduous Forest, vegetation composed primarily of broad-leaved trees that shed
all their leaves during one season. This biome is found primarily in three middle-latitude regions
with a temperate climate characterized by a winter season and year-round precipitation.
Desertification: Under the UN Convention to Combat Desertification, desertification is defined
explicitly as “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human
activities.” Including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as:
 soil erosion caused by wind and/or water;
 deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil;
45
  long-term loss of natural vegetation.
Dryland: Some 60% of the world’s land surface may be considered as arid to some degree. In such
areas shortage of available liquid water is a major constraint on living systems. Aridity may be
defined, and measured, in a variety of ways. Probably the most useful at a global level is a measure
of the ratio of precipitation – rain, snow, fog, dew, etc. – (P) to potential evapotranspiration (PET).
Ecosystem: biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Ecoregion: large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species,
natural communities, and environmental conditions OR an area defined in terms of its natural
features and environment.
Ecozone: A large geographical region having a distinct biodiversity of flora and fauna.
Endangered Species: Endangered (EN), species that possess a very high risk of extinction as a result
of rapid population declines of 50 to more than 70 percent over the previous 10 years (or three
generations), a current population size of fewer than 250 individuals, or other factors. E.g., Mountain
Gorilla, Tiger.
Endemic species: Native to, and restricted to, a particular geographical region. Highly endemic
species, those with very restricted natural ranges, are especially vulnerable to extinction if their
natural habitat is eliminated or significantly disturbed.
Eutrophication: The process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients
(such as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant life usually resulting in the depletion
of dissolved oxygen.
Extinct and threatened species: some key points:
 Every species will become extinct at some point; virtually all species that have existed are
extinct.
 In geological time, origination of species has proceeded at a higher rate than extinction of
species, i.e., biodiversity has increased.
 In recent time, the known rate of extinction among mammals and birds is far higher than the
estimated average rate through geological time.
 It is possible to estimate the relative risk of extinction among recent species on the basis of
demography and distribution.
 All mammals and birds have been assessed for extinction risk: 24% of mammal species and
12% of birds were considered globally threatened in 2000.
Extinct Species: Extinct (EX), species in which the last individual has died or where systematic and
time-appropriate surveys have been unable to log even a single individual. Extinct in the Wild (EW),
species whose members survive only in captivity or as artificially supported populations far outside
their historical geographic range. E.g., Splendid poison frog, Spix's Macaw.
Forest: The FAO has defined natural or semi-natural forests as “ecological systems with a minimum
of 10% crown cover of trees and/or bamboo, generally associated with wild flora and fauna and
natural soil conditions and not subject to agricultural practices.” This is an extremely wide
definition, and includes many open vegetation systems that would not normally be regarded as
forests. A more rigorous definition, which accords much more closely with wider perceptions of
what constitutes a forest, is that of closed-canopy forest. Thresholds for defining closed-canopy
forest range from as low as 30% to as high as 75% crown cover.
Gene: A gene is a sequence of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that constitutes the coded information
for manufacture of proteins and other key substances in cells. This genetic material is copied and
46
passed on between generations and copied to all cells of an organism, and the substances produced
are responsible for the organization, development and maintenance of structure and life processes.
Genetic Engineering/ Genetic modification, is a special form of biotechnology in which a section
of DNA from one organism is introduced into another, in which it does not naturally occur, in order
to produce a genetically modified organism (GMO) with favorable properties based on the new
combination of genes. The new genes in the transgenic organism may be from an entirely different
type of organism, or from a closely related lineage.
Global Extinction: It is extinction of organism which are not found in whole world.
Indigenous species: In biogeography, a species is indigenous to a given region or ecosystem if its
presence in that region is the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention. E.g.,
Beaver.
Landrace: A landrace is a domesticated, locally adapted, traditional variety of a species of animal
or plant that has developed over time, through adaptation to its natural and cultural environment of
agriculture and pastoralism, and due to isolation from other populations of the species.
Least concern: species evaluated with a lower risk of extinction. Data Deficient: no assessment
because of insufficient data.
Local extinction: When there is no doubt that the last individual of a particular species has died
from a defined region or area.
Mangrove: A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The
term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species.
Marshes: It an area of low-lying land which is flooded in wet seasons or at high tide, and typically
always remains waterlogged.
Pisciculture: Pisciculture definition, the breeding, rearing, and transplantation of fish by artificial
means.
Protected areas: An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection of biological
diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other
effective means.
Range Land: It is a land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass-like
plants, forbs, or shrubs and is managed as a natural ecosystem.
Silviculture: It is a branch of forestry dealing with the development and chare of forests.
Species: A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes
or interbreeding. The species is the principle natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and
denoted by a Latin binomial., Homo Sapiens.
Species-rich habitats: Moist forests in the tropics are in general the most species- rich environments
on Earth. If recent estimates of the number of as yet unknown species, mainly insects, in tropical
forests are accepted, these regions, which extend over perhaps 7% of the world’s surface, may hold
up to 90% of the world’s species. If tropical forest small insects are discounted, then coral reefs and,
especially for flowering plants, areas of Mediterranean climate in South Africa and southwest
Australia, may be similarly rich in species.
Swamps: It is an area of low-lying, uncultivated ground where water collects; a bog or marsh.
The dimensions of biodiversity: This term is used by the Convention to refer to all aspects of
variability evident within the living world, including diversity within and between individuals,
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populations, species, communities, and ecosystems. Differences in pest resistance among rice
varieties, the range of habitats within a forest ecosystem, or the global extinction of species of lake,
fish, all illustrate different aspects of biological diversity. The term is commonly used loosely to
refer to all species and habitats in some given area, or even on the Earth overall.
Threatened Species: Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) species
are considered to be threatened with global extinction.
Variety: It is the quality or state of having different forms or types.
Vulnerable: A taxon is Vulnerable (VU) when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any
of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable, and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild. E.g., Leatherback sea turtle, Snow leopard.
Wetlands: A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or
seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands
from other landforms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the
unique hydric soil.

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