CONSTRUCTION

1. Write short notes on the following with sketches.

(a) length between perpendicular (LBP)
(b) bulwarks
(c) strakes of shell plating (shell expansion Plan)
(d) bilge keel

(a) Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP) :

Length between the forward and aft perpendiculars measured along the summer load line.

(b) Bulwarks

• Fitted on weather decks & Protection for personnel

• Not intended as a major structural feature
• Light scantlings & usually 1 metre in height,
• Bulwark stays are fitted not more than 1.83m apart.
• Bulwarks must be provided with Freeing Ports.

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(c) Strakes of shell plating (shell expansion Plan)

Shell expansion plan showing strakes, plates thickness and frames around the hull.
Plates are arranged in fore and aft lines around the hull, it is called strakes.
For identification, Plates are lettered starting from the strake adjacent to the keel. This
strake is called 'A' strake or Garboard Strake.
The separate plates in the strakes are numbered, usually from aft.
Plate 'C 12 port' will be the 12th plate from aft in the 3rd strake up from the keel on the port
side.

(d) Bilge Keel

Bilge keels are fitted at the turn of the

bilge to resist rolling; they also improve
slightly the steering qualities of the
vessel.

They usually extend over the midship

one-third or half length.

They should be attached to a continuous

flat bar which may be welded to the shell
plating.

The ends are to be gradually tapered and

should not end on an unstiffened panel.
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2. Describe the structural arrangement forward to withstand “Panting” with sketches.

PANTING
❖ This is a stress which occurs at the ends of a vessel due to variations in water pressure on the shell
plating as the vessel pitches in a seaway.
❖ The effect is accentuated at the bow when making headway.
❖ It is caused by unequal pressure as the bow passes through successive waves.
Panting arrangement
❖ Panting arrangements are to extend to 0.15L from forward and abaft the after peak bulkhead.
❖ Tiers of beams spaced not more than 2m apart vertically are to be fitted at alternate frames.
❖ Alternatively perforated flats may be fitted in lieu of panting beams 2.5m apart vertically.
❖ Tiers of beams are to be supported at the centre line by a partial wash bulkhead or pillars.
❖ Stringers may be omitted if the shell plating is of increased thickness.
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3. Sketch plane bulkhead showing connection to deck, sides and double bottom and the arrangement of
stiffener.

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4. How do you understand “Pounding”? Describe the provisions of additional structural strength to
withstand pounding.

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POUNDING
 Pounding is severe blow from sea on the the forepart due to heavy heaving, pitching , slamming.
 Pounding is local stress deforming particular the ship (forepart).
 The greatest effect is experienced in the light ship condition.
 It is compensate by strengthened the bottom from 0.05L between 0.25L and from forward.
❖ If bottom is framed longitudinally plate floors are to be fitted on alternate frames, girders are not more
than 2.1 m apart.
❖ If bottom is framed transversely, Plate floors are to be fitted on every frame intercoastal side girders not
more than 2.2m apart with half height girders not more than 1.1m apart.
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5. Sketch and label the midship section of tanker.
Midship section of tanker

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6. Define (i) rise of floor (ii) flare (iii) sheer ?

( i ) Rise of Floor

Rise of Floor is the distance from

the ‘line of floor’ to the horizontal,
measured at the ship’s side.

The object is to allow liquid in the

double bottoms to drain to the
centre line.

(ii) FLARE

FLARE or FLAM is the ‘fall out’ of the vessel’s

bow plating.

It increases buoyancy thus helping to prevent

the bow from diving deeply into head seas.
It also increases the breadth of the forecastle
head and allows the anchors to drop clear of the
shell plating.

(iii) Sheer
Sheer is the rise of a vessel’s deck fore and aft. It adds buoyancy to the ends where it is most needed. A
correction for sheer is applied when calculating the freeboard.
Usually forward sheer is about two times the aft sheer.

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7. Describe the stress concentration in the deck round hatch openings and how to compensate it?

High Local Stress Holes cut in the deck plating, like hatchways, masts, etc. create areas of stress
concentration due to the lack of continuity created by the opening.

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 Hatchways in the majority of dry cargo ships extend across the
deck for approximately one – third of the beam.
Special arrangements must be made to compensate for the
structural discontinuity caused by these large opening.

(1) Plate thickness increased at the hatch corners.

(2) Rounded hatch corners is require.
(3) The hatch coaming should be extended beyond the
corner to form a bracket, Deck Girders.
(4) The deck openings should be well rounded off to a
reasonable radius, preferably elliptical or parabolic in shape,
to avoid a concentration of stress at these points.
(5) In addition to the plating beams will also be cut at hatchways
and the ends of the half beams will be connected to the hatch
coamings and supported by deck girders. The deck girders are
usually integral with the hatch coamings.
(6) A pillar will often be placed near the hatch corners at the
intersection of the deck girder and strong beam.

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8. Describe racking stress and its causes?

When a vessel is rolling the accelerations on the ship’s structure are liable to cause distortions in the
transverse section.

The greatest effect is under light ship conditions.

The racking stress comes mainly on the corners of the ship, that is, on the tank side brackets and beam
knees, which must be made strong enough to resist it.

Transverse bulkhead and web frames are provide very great resistance to this racking stress.

Bulkheads are an important element of transverse strength, particularly against racking stresses.

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9. Explain with sketches about the cellular double bottom.

Cellular Double Bottom

 Framing within the double bottom is to be either longitudinal or traverse.
 Vessels over 120 metres in length are to be framed longitudinally.
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 Sufficient holes are to be cut in the inner bottom floors and side girders to provide adequate ventilation
and access.
 Their size should not exceed 50% depth of double bottom and be circular or elliptical in shape.

Transverse Framing – Requirements

❖ Plate floors are to be fitted at every frame in the engine room, under boilers, under bulkheads and toes
of brackets to deep tank stiffeners.
❖ Side girders are to be fitted between the centre girder and margin plate extending as far forward and aft
as is practicable.

Longitudinal Framing – Requirements

➢ Plate floors are to be fitted at every frame under the main engines and the foremost shaft tunnel bearing
and at alternate frames outboard of the engine seating, also under boiler bearers, bulkheads and toes of
brackets to deep tank stiffeners.
➢ Side girders are to be fitted between the centre girder and margin plate extending as far forward an aft as
practicable.

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 10. Sketch the following.
(i)Beam knee (ii)Garboard strake (iii)Stealer plates (iv) Cofferdams

(i) Beam Knee

Beam Knees are fitted to provide and efficient

connection between the frames and beams.

They have a small amount of resistance against

racking stresses.

The rules govern the length of overlap, welding area,

width of flange (minimum 50mm), size and thickness.

(ii) Garboard strakes

Garboard strakes are the strakes of shell plating next to the keel on either side (i.e. the “A Strake”).

Garboard strakes

(OR)

(iii) Stealer Plate

Stealer plate is the combined plate of the strakes at the ends

of vessels.
At the end of a vessel, particularly at the bow, the width of the
strakes decreases and it is desirable to merge two strakes into
one. This being done by a stealer plate.

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(iv) Cofferdam

Cofferdams

Cofferdams are to be provided at the forward

and after ends of the oil cargo spaces, they
are to be at least 760mm in length.

Pump rooms and water ballast tanks will be

accepted in lieu of cofferdams.

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11. Define: (a) Sheer strake (b) Gross Tonnage?

(a) Sheer strake

Sheer strake are the upper strake of shell plating, next to the upper deck. (The “J strake” in the sketch)

Sheer Strake

(b) Gross Tonnage

Gross Tonnage means the measure of the overall size of a ship. It will be obtained from a formula based on
the volume of all enclosed spaces in the ship and a constant which is to be either calculated or tabulated.

GT = K1V
where: V = total volume of enclosed spaces of ship in m3
K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10V
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12. Define (i) camber (ii) Tumblehome ?
(i) Camber
Camber or Round of Beam helps to shed water from decks and to strengthen the upper deck, upper flange
of ship girder, against longitudinal bending stresses, especially compression.

(ii) Tumblehome
Tumblehome is the 'fall in' of the side plating from the waterline to the upper deck. Modern vessels have
little tumblehome.

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13. Describe and sketch a stern frame for a single screw ship.

(OR)

Stern frame
Stern frames may be cast, forged or fabricated from steel plate.

In the case of cast or forged steel stern frames they may be in one piece or in two or more sections riveted
or thermit welded together.

Cast steel and fabricated stern frames are to be strengthened at intervals by transverse webs.

All stern frames are to be efficiently attached to the adjoining structure and the lower part of the stern
frame is to be extended forward to provide and efficient connection to the flat plate keel.
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14. Explain what is mean by "Hogging" and "Sagging" and distinguish between them.
Hogging
longitudinal bending stress.
occurs when the ship bends upwards longitudinally.
cause tensile stress in the deck area and compression stress in the bottom area in the
amidships region.
When a ship is being loaded, too much weight in the ends may cause hogging.

Sagging
longitudinal bending stress.
occurs when the ship bends downwards longitudinally.
cause tensile stress in the bottom area and compression stress in the deck area in the
amidships region.
When a ship is being loaded, too much weight at amidships may cause hogging.

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15. Write short notes on the following with sketches. (i) Duct keel (ii) Margin plate
(i) Duct keel

A DUCT KEEL or PIPE TUNNEL, consisting of 'twin' centre girders, is frequently fitted forward of the
engine room, pipe lines being led through it.
These 'ducts' may be fitted between the centre line and ship's side and are then referred to as pipe tunnels.

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The sides are not to be more than 1.83m apart and the inner bottom and bottom shell plating are to be
suitably stiffened so as to maintain continuity of strength.

(ii) Margin Plate

Margin plate is the fore and aft plate between bilge and double bottom tank.
The margin plate forms the outer edge of the double bottom and must be watertight.

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16. Write short notes on the following:
(a) plate floors
(b) breast hook
(c) strum box

(a)Plate floors

Plate floor are vertical transverse plate floors fitted both transversely and longitudinally framed.

Transverse Framing
Solid Plate floors are to be fitted at every frame in the engine room, under boilers, under bulkheads and
toes of brackets to deep tank stiffeners.
Run transversely from the continuous centre girder to the bilge.
Spacing of plate floors is not to exceed 3.05m.

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Longitudinal Framing
Plate floors are to be fitted at every frame under the main engines and the foremost shaft tunnel bearing
and at alternate frames outboard of the engine seating, also under boiler bearers, bulkheads and toes of
brackets to deep tank stiffeners.
Spacing of plate floors is not to exceed 3.7m.

(b) Breast hook

Breast Hook is the triangular

plate at the stem connecting to
stringer plates.

It gives stiffening to the stringers

and the stem.

(c) Strum box

Strum boxes are not fitted in machinery spaces or tunnel

sections but must be fitted in cargo holds bilge system.

These strum boxes have perforations not more than 10mm

diameter with a total area of at least twice that required for
the suction pipe.

It is should be possible to clear the strum without breaking

any joint in a suction pipe.

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17. Explain compensation for loss of strength at hatch coaming.
(1) Inset plates of increased thickness may be required at the hatch corners.
(2) The arrangement of hatch coaming and adjacent structure with rounded hatch corners is require.
(3) Note that the hatch coaming should be extended beyond the corner to form a bracket, Deck Girders.
(4) The deck openings should be well rounded off to a reasonable radius, preferably elliptical or
parabolic in shape, to avoid a concentration of stress at these points.
(5) In addition to the plating beams will also be cut at hatchways and the ends of the half beams will be
connected to the hatch coamings and supported by deck girders. The deck girders are usually integral
with the hatch coamings.
(6) A pillar will often be placed near the hatch corners at the intersection of the deck girder and strong
beam.
(7) The vertical fencing plate around hatchway.
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(8) The height of hatch coaming on weather deck is to at least 0.6 m, thickness 11 mm.
(9) Stays to be supported for hatch coaming, called hatch coaming stay and stay are at interval of not more
than 3 m.

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18. Describe and sketch an arrangement of steel hatch cover and coaming at weather deck.

(1) Steel hatch covers consist of plated covers stiffened by webs or stiffeners.
(2) The portable sections are connected to one another and can quickly be open or closed either manually
or hydraulically.
(3) They must have cleats about 2 metres apart, with a minimum of 2 cleats per panel. At hatch ends, one
cleat is to be adjacent to the hatch corner.
(4) Cross joint wedges should be about 1.5 metres apart: or special arrangements should be made.
(5) MacGregor hatch covers are a very strong and efficient type and do not require separate beams.
(6) The hatches are made watertight by rubber gaskets pulled down by cleats and cross joint wedges.
(7) Eccentric wheels are used for raising and lowering while clearing coaming for rolling it along the
coaming track way.
(8) Balancing rollers are used when the hatch cover is pulled into its position.
(9) Coamings on weather decks must extend well above the deck, to ensure that water cannot enter the
ship’s hull.
(10) The height of hatch coaming on weather deck is to at least 0.6 m and thickness 11 mm.
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(11) Stays to be supported for hatch coaming, called hatch coaming stay and stays are at interval of not
more than 3 m.
(12) Inset plates of increased thickness may be required at the hatch corners.
(13) The arrangement of hatch coaming and adjacent structure with rounded hatch corners is require.
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19. Draw a side elevation of a general cargo ship, showing holds, engine room, peak tanks, double bottom
tanks, hatchways and position of bulkhead.

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20. Define Stringer Plate?
Stringer plate
Stringer plate is the fore and aft horizontal plate connecting to ship's side.

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(12) Plates
(1) Shoe plate
Shoe plate is the first plate of the flat plate keel joining to stem bar.

(2) Coffin plate

Coffin plate is the last plate of the flat plate keel joining to stern frame.

(3) Fashion plate

Fashion plate is the curved plate of bulwark at the break of poop and forecastle.

(4) Fish plate

Fish plate is the vertical iron plates at the side and end of deck.

(5) Stealer plate {Pls see Q: 10 (iii)}

Stealer plate is the combined plate of the strakes at the ends of vessels.

(6) Striker Plate

Striker Plate is the double plate on hull below sounding pipe to prevent the strike of sounding rod.

(7) Stringer plate {Pls see Q: 20}

Stringer plate is the fore and aft horizontal plate connecting to ship's side.

(8) Breast Hook {Pls see Q: 16}

Breast Hook is the triangular plate at the stem connecting to stringer plates.

(9) Margin plate {Pls see Q: 15}

Margin plate is the fore and aft plate between bilge and double bottom tank.
(10) Gusset plate
Gusset plate is the triangular or rectangular or diamond shape plate connecting at the joints especially at
the hatchway corner.

(11) Oxter plate

Oxter plate is the curve shell plate of rudder post head at the stern frame.

(12) Boss plate

Boss plate is the round shell pate around the propeller shaft at the stern frame.

(1) Shoe plate (2) Coffin plate

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 (4) Fish plate
(3) Fashion plate

(5) Stealer plate

(6) Striker plate

(8) Breast hook

(7) Stringer plate

(9) Margin plate

(10) Gusset plate

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 (12) Boss plate
(11) Oxter plate
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