TRANSMISSION LINE AND WAVEGUIDES UNIT NOTES

UNIT - I - TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

PART A

1.Define the line parameters?

The parameters of a transmission line are:
Resistance (R) is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the wire. Its
unit is ohm/Km
Inductance (L) is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the wire. Its
unit is Henry/Km
Capacitance (C) is defined as the loop capacitance per unit length of the wire. Its
unit is Farad/Km
Conductance (G) is defined as the loop conductance per unit length of the wire.
Its unit is mho/Km

2. What are the secondary constants of a line? Why the line parameters are
called distributed elements?
The secondary constants of a line are: Characteristic Impedance and
Propagation Constant. Since the line constants R, L, C, G are distributed through
the entire length of the line, they are called as distributed elements. They are also
called as primary constants.

3. Define Characteristic impedance

Characteristic impedance is the impedance measured at the sending end of
the line. It is given by Z0 = Z/Y, where
Z = R + jωL is the series impedance
Y = G + jωC is the shunt admittance

4. Define Propagation constant

Propagation constant is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of the
sending end current or voltage to the receiving end current or voltage of the line. It
gives the manner in the wave is propagated along a line and specifies the variation
of voltage and current in the line as a function of distance. Propagation constant is
a complex quantity and is expressed as γ =α+jβ. The real part is called the
attenuation constant α whereas the imaginary part of propagation constant is called
the phase constant β.

5. What is a finite line? Write down the significance of this line?

A finite line is a line having a finite length on the line. It is a line, which is
terminated, in its characteristic impedance (ZR=Z0), so the input impedance of the
finite line is equal to the characteristic impedance (Zs=Z0).

6. What is an infinite line?

 An infinite line is a line in which the length of the transmission line is
infinite. A finite line, which is terminated in its characteristic impedance, is termed
as infinite line. So for an infinite line, the input impedance is equivalent to the
characteristic impedance.

7. What is wavelength of a line?

The distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is
changing through 2Π radians is called a wavelength.

8. What are the types of line distortions?

The distortions occurring in the transmission line are called waveform
distortion or line distortion. Waveform distortion is of two types:
a) Frequency distortion b) Phase or Delay Distortion.

9. How frequency distortion occurs in a line?

When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along the
line, all the frequencies will not have equal attenuation and hence the received end
waveform will not be identical with the input waveform at the sending end because
each frequency is having different attenuation. This type of distortion is called
frequency distortion.

10. How to avoid the frequency distortion that occurs in the line?
In order to reduce frequency distortion occurring in the line,
a) The attenuation constant α should be made independent of frequency.
b) By using equalizers at the line terminals which minimize the frequency
distortion. Equalisers are networks whose frequency and phase characteristics are
adjusted to be inverse to those of the lines, which result in a uniform frequency
response over the desired frequency band, and hence the attenuation is equal for all
the frequencies.

11. What is delay distortion?

When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along the
line, all the frequencies will not have same time of transmission, some frequencies
being delayed more than others. So the received end waveform will not be
identical with the input waveform at the sending end because some frequency
components will be delayed more than those of other frequencies. This type of
distortion is called phase or delay distortion.

12. How to avoid the frequency distortion that occurs in the line?
In order to reduce frequency distortion occurring in the line,
a) The phase constant β should be made dependent of frequency.
b) The velocity of propagation is independent of frequency.
c) By using equalizers at the line terminals which minimize the frequency
distortion. Equalizers are networks whose frequency and phase characteristics are
adjusted to be inverse to those of the lines, which result in a uniform frequency
response over the desired frequency band, and hence the phase is equal for all the
frequencies.
13.What is a distortion less line? What is the condition for a distortion less
line?
A line, which has neither frequency distortion nor phase distortion is called a
distortion less line. The condition for a distortion less line is RC=LG. Also,
a) The attenuation constant α should be made independent of frequency.
b) The phase constant β should be made dependent of frequency.
d) The velocity of propagation is independent of frequency.

14. What is the drawback of using ordinary telephone cables?

In ordinary telephone cables, the wires are insulated with paper and twisted
in pairs, therefore there will not be flux linkage between the wires, which results in
negligible inductance, and conductance. If this is the case, the there occurs
frequency and phase distortion in the line.

15. How the telephone line can be made a distortion less line?
For the telephone cable to be distortion less line, the inductance value should
be increased by placing lumped inductors along the line.

16. What is Loading?

Loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing lumped
inductors at specific intervals along the line, which avoids the distortion.

17. What are the types of loading?

a) Continuous loading
b) Patch loading
c) Lumped loading

18.What is continuous loading?

Continuous loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by
placing a iron core or a magnetic tape over the conductor of the line.

19. What is patch loading?

It is the process of using sections of continuously loaded cables separated by
sections of unloaded cables which increases the inductance value.

20. What is lumped loading?

Lumped loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing
lumped inductors at specific intervals along the line, which avoids the distortion.

21. Define reflection coefficient

Reflection Coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the reflected voltage to
the incident voltage at the receiving end of the line Reflection Coefficient
K=Reflected Voltage at load /Incident voltage at the load.
K=Vr/Vi
22. Define reflection loss.
Reflection loss is defined as the number of nepers or decibels by which the
current in the load under image matched conditions would exceed the current
actually flowing in the load.

23. What is Impedance matching?

If the load impedance is not equal to the source impedance, then all the
power that are transmitted from the source will not reach the load end and hence
some power is wasted. This is called impedance mismatch condition. So for proper
maximum power transfer, the impedances in the sending and receiving end are
matched. This is called impedance matching.

24. Define the term insertion loss

The insertion loss of a line or network is defined as the number of nepers or
decibels by which the current in the load is changed by the insertion . Insertion
loss=Current flowing in the load without insertion of the network/Current flowing
in the load with insertion of the network.

25. When reflection occurs in a line?

Reflection occurs because of the following cases:
1) when the load end is open circuited
2) when the load end is short-circuited
3) when the line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance
When the line is either open or short circuited, then there is not resistance at the
receiving end to absorb all the power transmitted from the source end. Hence all
the power incident on the load gets completely reflected back to the source causing
reflections in the line. When the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance,
the load will absorb some power and some will be reflected back thus producing
reflections.

26. What are the conditions for a perfect line? What is a smooth line?
For a perfect line, the resistance and the leakage conductance value were
neglected. The conditions for a perfect line are R=G=0. A smooth line is one in
which the load is terminated by its characteristic impedance and no reflections
occur in such a line. It is also called as flat line.

27. When will a transmission line deliver maximum power to a load?

A transmission line will deliver maximum power to a load when the load
resistance is equal to the characteristics resistance.

28. Define SWR.

The ratio of maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage and current on a
line having standing waves is called the standing wave ratio(SWR)
SWR=|Vmax/Vmin|
SWR=|Imax/Imin|.
29. How are practical lines made appear as infinite lines?
A finite line terminated in aload equivalent to the characteristics impedance
appears at the sending end as an infinite line.

30. Give the general equation for the input impedance of a dissipation line.
Zs=Z0 [(ZRcoshγl+Z0sinhγl)/ (Z0coshγl+ZRsinhγl)]
Where Z0 is the characteristic impedance
ZR is the receiving end impedance
γ is the propagation constant
l is the length of the transmission line from the sending end.

31. How will you find the propagation constant if the values of open and short
circuited impedance are given?
Propagation constant can be determined from the following expression
Tanhγl=√ZSC/ZOC

32. Write the expression for wavelength and velocity of wave.

Wavelength λ = 2П/β
Velocity of propagation ν = ω / β

33. When does reflection take place on a transmission line?

When the load impedance(ZR) is not equal to characteristic impedance(z 0) of
the transmission line(i.e ZR≠Z0) reflection takes place.

34. Write the campbells formula for propagation constant of a loaded line.
coshγ'l=(ZC/2Z0)sinhγl+coshγl
where ZC is the impedance of loading point.
Z0 is the characteristic impedance
γ is the propagation constant
l is the distance between two loading coils.

35. Write the equation of SWR interms of reflection coefficient.

S=|1+K| / |1-K|
Where K is the reflection coefficient.

36. Write the equation of reflection coefficient interms of SWR.

|K|=(S-1)/(S+1)
Where S is the SWR
K is the reflection coefficient

37. What is the need for loading?

The condition for distortionless line is [L/C] =[R/G]
To achieve this, L has to be increased. This can be done by loading. The need for
loading is to make the transmission line a distortionless one.
38. What is the input impedance of a open circuit line?
ZS=ZOC=Z0coshγl

39. What is the input impedance of an short circuit line?

ZS=ZSC=Z0tanhγl

40. Write the expression for the characteristic impedance and propagation
constant for the dissipationless line.
Propagation constant γ=√LC (G/C+jω)
Characteristics impedance Z0=√L/C

PART B - 8 & 16 Mark Questions

1. Explain in detail about the waveform distortion. Derive the condition for a
distortion less line?
2. Derive the general solutions of transmission line
3. Derive the reflection loss of a transmission line
4. Derive the input impedance of a transmission line. Also find the input
impedance of open and short circuited lines.(MAY/JUNE2005)
5. A cable has the following parameters : R : 48.75 ohm/km, L : 1.09 mH/km,
G : 38.75 MU/km and C : 0.059 uf/km. Determine the characteristic
impedance, propagation constant and wavelength for a source of f : 1600 Hz
and Es : 1.0 volts.(NOV/DEC2006).
6. A transmission line has the following parameters per km R : 15 ohm, C :
15,uf, L :1 mH and G :1 ,uU. Find the additional inductance to give
distortionless transmission. Calculate
attenuation and phase constant for the loaded line(NOV/DEC2007).
7. A cable has been uniformly loaded by an inductance such that
wl >> R . Assuming leakage conductance to be nil, deduce an
expression for attenuation and phase constant without
neglecting R(MAY/JUNE2007).
8. Derive an expression for insertion loss in transmission lines.

PART C -Assignment Questions

1. Define and derive the expression for characteristics impedance and

propagation constant. Considering transmission line as a T-section.

2. A 60mile length of 0.108inch diameter open wire line is terminated in Zo. A

generator of 450ohm internal resistance and 2V,600C, is connected to the
sending end. Find Is,IR and power output of generator and power delivered
to the load. Also determine wavelength and velocity of propagation.
 3. Derive the input impedance of a transmission line. Also find the input
impedance of open and short circuited lines.

4. A 14 km line is terminated by its characteristics impedance. At a certain

frequency the voltage at 1 km from the sending end is 10% below that at the
sending end. Find the voltage across the load impedance interms of
percentage of the sending end voltage.

UNIT II - HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINE

PART A

1. State the assumptions for the analysis of the performance of the radio frequency line.
Due to the skin effect, the currents are assumed to flow on the surface of the
conductor.The internal inductance is zero. The resistance R increases with √ f while inductance L
increases with f. Hence ωL>>R. The leakage conductance G is zero.

2. What is dissipationless line?

A line for which the effect of resistance R is completely neglected is called
dissipationless line.

3. What is the nature and value of Z0 for the dissipation less line?
For the dissipation less line, the Z0 is purely resistive and given by, Z0=R0 = √ L/c

4. What are nodes and antinodes on a line?

The points along the line where magnitude of voltage or current is zero are called nodes
while the points along the lines where magnitude of voltage or current first maximum are called
antinodes or loops.

5. What is standing wave ratio?

The ratio of the maximum to minimum magnitudes of voltage or current on a line having
standing waves called standing waves ratio.

6. What is the range of values of standing wave ratio?

The range of values of standing wave ratio is theoretically 1 to infinity.

7. What are standing waves?

If the transmission is not terminated in its characteristic impedance ,then there will be
two waves traveling along the line which gives rise to standing waves having fixed maxima and
fixed minima.

8. How will you make standing wave measurements on coaxial lines?

For coaxial lines it is necessary to use a length of line in which a longitudinal slot, one
half wavelength or more long has been cut. A wire probe is inserted into the air dielectric of the
line as a pickup device, a vacuum tube voltmeter or other detector being connected between
probe and sheath as an indicator. If the meter provides linear indications, S is readily determined.
If the indicator is non linear, corrections must be applied to the readings obtained.

9. Why the point of voltage minimum is measured rather than voltage maximum?
The point of a voltage minimum is measured rather than a voltage maximum because it is
usually possible to determine the exact point of minimum voltage with greater accuracy.
 10. What is the use of eighth wave line?
An eighth wave line is used to transform any resistance to an impendence with a
magnitude equal to Roof the line or to obtain a magnitude match between a resistance of any
value and a source of Ro internal resistance.

11. Why is a quarter wave line called as impendence inverter?

A quarter wave line may be considered as an impendence inverter because it can
transform a low impendence in to a high impendence and vice versa.

12. What is the application of the quarter wave matching section?

An important application of the quarter wave matching section is to a couple a
transmission line to a resistive load such as an antenna .The quarter –wave matching section then
must be designed to have a characteristic impendence Ro so chosen that the antenna resistance
Ra is transformed to a value equal to the characteristic impendence Ra of the transmission line.
The characteristic impendence Ro of the matching section then should be
Ro’ = √ Ra Ro

13. What do you mean by copper insulators?

An application of the short circuited quarter wave line is an insulator to support an open
wire line or the center conductor of a coaxial line .This application makes se of the fact that the
input impendence of a quarter –wave shorted line is very high, Such lines are sometimes referred
to as copper insulators.

14. Bring out the significance of a half wavelength line.

A half wavelength line may be considered as a one-to – one transformer. It has its
greatest utility in connecting load to a source in cases where the load source cannot be made
adjacent.

15. Give some of the impendence –matching devices.

The quarter – wave line or transformer and the tapered line are some of the impendence –
matching devices.

16. What are the importance of a quarter wave line?

The impedance of a quarter wave line is that it matches the load with the source and ensures
that maximum power is bring transferred to load. It may be used as
 An impedance inverter.
 Couple a transmission line to a resistive load such as antenna.
 Serve as an insulator to support an open wire line.

17. What is the functional operation of quarter wave transformer?

A quarter wave section of line may be thought as a transformer to match a load of Z R to a
source of ZS. Such a match can be obtained if the characteristic impedance R0 of matching line is
given as R'0=|√ZS√ZR |.
PART B

1. Derive an expression for the voltage and current on the dissipation less
line.(nov/dec2006)

2. Derive an expression for the input impedance under open and short circuited
condition.

3. Derive an expression for the input impedance of the dissipation less line.

4. What are standing waves? Derive the expression for standing wave Ratio.

5. A transmission line has characteristic impedance of 50 ohm and terminated in load

impedance of (75+j40) ohm. Calculate reflection coefficient and VSWR.

PART C -ASSIGNMENT QUESTION

1.Derive an expression for the input impedance of the dissipation less line.

2.What are standing waves? Derive the expression for standing wave Ratio.

3.A transmission line has characteristic impedance of 50 ohm and terminated in load
impedance of (75+j40) ohm. Calculate reflection coefficient and VSWR.

UNIT III - IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN HIGH FREQUENCY LINES

PART A

1. What are the constant S circles?

The input impedance equation for a dissipationless line if expressed in terms of standing
wave ratio S, results in the form of a circle. These circles are called as constant S circle. Since,
the minimum value of S is unity, S circles surround the 1,0 point.

2. Give the names of circles on smith chart.

The names of circles on the smith chart are
Constant-R circles
Constant-X circles.

3. Explain how smith chart can be used as an admittance chart.

The smith chart may be used as an admittance chart, the R and X axes become g and b
axes, with the usual implication that capacitive susceptance is positive above and inductive
susceptance below the V or real axes. The point at the left of the conductance of G axis then
represents zero conductance or an open circuit, while the point at extreme right represent infinite
conductance or a short circuit.

4. Explain impendence matching using stub.

In the method of impendence matching using stub, an open or closed stub line of suitable
length is used as a reactance shunted across the transmission line at a designated distance from
the load ,to tune the length of the line and the load to resonance with an anti resonant resistance
equal to Ro.

5. Give reasons for preferring a short-circuited stub when compared to an open – circuited
stub.
A short circuited stub is preferred to an open circuited stub because of greater ease in
constructions and because of the inability to maintain high enough insulation resistance at the
open –circuit point to ensure that the stub is really open-circuited .A shorted stub also has a
lower loss of energy due to radiation ,since the short – circuit can be definitely established with a
large metal plate ,effectively stopping all field propagation.

6. What are the two independent measurements that must be made to find the location and
length of the stub?
The standing wave ratio S and the position of a voltage minimum are the independent
measurements that must be made to find the location and length of the stub.
7. What is the use of a circle diagram?
The circle diagram may be used to find the input impendence of a line m of any chosen
length.

8. How is the circle diagram useful to find the input impendence of short and open
circuited lines?
An open circuited line has s = α ,the correspondent circle appearing as the vertical axis
.The input impendence is then pure reactance , with the value for various electrical lengths
determined by the intersections of the corresponding βs circles with the vertical axis.
A short circuited line may be solved by determining its admittance .The S circle is again
the vertical axis, and susceptance values may be read off at appropriate intersection of the βs
circles with the vertical axis.

9. List the applications of the smith chart.

The applications of the smith chart are, (iii) In single stub matching
(i) It is used to find the input impendence and input admittance of the line.
(ii) The smith chart may also be used for loss lines and the locus of points on
 line then follows a spiral path towards the chart center, due to attenuation.

10. What are the difficulties in single stub matching?

The difficulties of the smith chart are
(i)Single stub impedance matching requires the stub to be located at a definite point on the line.
This requirement frequently calls for placement of the stub at an undesirable place from a
mechanical view point.

(ii)For a coaxial line, it is not possible to determine the location of a voltage minimum without a
slotted line section, so that placement of a stub at the exact required point is difficult.

(iii)In the case of the single stub it was mentioned that two adjustments were required ,these
being location and length of the stub.

11. What is stub matching?

For the maximum transfer of power, the sending end impedance and the receiving end
impedance of a transmission line should be matched perfect. In practical cases, this impedance
matching is not perfect. So a stub is placed on the transmission line and its length position is
adjusted for maximum power transfer. This is called as stub matching.

12. What is the transformation utilized for formulating the smith chart?
The transformation utilized for formulating the smith chart is called as bilinear or molius
transformation.

13. Why short circuit stub is preferred to an open circuited stub?

The short circuit stub is preferred to an open circuited stub for the reason that the length
of stub is easily alterable by moving the short at any desired length of stub.

14. Why is single stub matching inaccurate on coaxial line?

For a coaxial line, it is not possible to determine the location of a voltage minimum
without a slotted line section, so that the placement of a stub is extremely difficult at the required
point. Hence the single stub matching inaccurate on coaxial line.

15. Write the bilinear transformation? Mention its utility with respect to the smith chart.
 A linear variable if related to another linear variable linearly, then the relation between
those to variable transforms one set of variable in one domain to another set of variables.
This is called as bilinear transformation.
 The idea of bilinear transformation is useful in deriving the constant R and constant X
circles. These circles constitute the smith chart.

16. Write down the expression to determine the length of stub.

Lt=(λ/2П) tan^-1 [ (1-|k| )^2/2|k|]

Where
K is the reflection coefficient
Λ is the wavelength.

PART B

1.Why Double stub matching is preferred over single stub matching.

2.What are impedance matching devices. Write short notes on eighth line and half line.
3.Write short notes on quarter wave line and write its applications.

4.Write short notes on exponential line for impedance transformation.

5.Explain in detail about single stub matching.(may/june 2005)

6.Explain in detail about double stub matching.

PART C -ASSIGNMENT QUESTION:

1.Derive an expression for voltage and current at any point on the radio frequency line
terminated in ZR.

2.Explain in detail about single stub and double stub matching on a line.

3.Explain in detail about smith chart.

UNIT IV -PASSIVE FILTERS

PART-A

1. What is Neper? [M/J – 12], [A/M – 04]

Neper is the natural logarithmic measure of a ratio of two voltage magnitudes or current
magnitudes. It is denoted as ‘N’. 1 Neper (1N) = ln|V1/V2| = ln|I1/I2|

2. Define – Bel [M/J – 12], [A/M – 04]

Bel is the logarithm of ratio of input power to the output power. 1 Bel = log (P1/P2)

3. When is a network said to be symmetrical? [N/D – 11]

A network is said to be symmetrical, when the two series arms of a T network are equal
or the two shunt arms of a π network are equal.

4. Define – Decibel.
Decibel is the logarithmic measure of power. It is the logarithmic ratio of two power
levels. It is used to express ratios such as gain, loss and relative values. It is denoted as ‘dB’. 1
Decibel (1dB) =10 log|P1/P2| = 20log|V1/V2|=20log|I1/I2|
5. What is a ladder network?
Ladder network is a cascaded connection of several T or π networks. Current and voltage
ratios - Propagation constant, - Properties of Symmetrical Networks.

6. What is meant by attenuation constant (α)? [M/J – 12]

Attenuation constant (α) is the magnitude of ratio between input and output quantities of
the network. The unit of attenuation constant is Neper.

7. What is meant by phase constant (β)? [M/J – 12]

Phase constant (β) is the phase angle between input and output quantities of network. The
unit of phase constant is radian.

8. When is the image impedance said to be characteristic impedance?

The image impedance is said to be characteristic impedance (Iterative impedance), if the
image impedances Z1i and Z2i of a symmetrical network are equal. Filter fundamentals – Pass
and Stop bands.

9. Define – Filter.
Filter is defined as the reactive network that will freely pass desired bands of frequencies
while totally suppressing the other band of frequencies.

10. Define – Cutoff Frequency [M/J – 07]

Cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at which the network changes from a pass
band region to a stop band region or vice versa. Constant K Filters - Low pass, High pass band,
pass band elimination filters.

11. What are called constant–k filters? [A/M – 05], [M/J – 06], [N/D – 06], [M/J – 07]
If Z1 and Z2 are series and shunt arm impedances of a reactance network, then
A composite filter is a combination of constant k filters, m derived filters and m derived half
sections.

12. What are called crystal filters?

Filters made up of piezoelectric crystals are called crystal filters. It has lattice structure
and has resonant frequency with high Q value. Hence it is possible to design narrow band crystal
filters with sharp cutoff frequency.

PART-B

1. i) Derive the relevant equation of m-derived low pass filter and design m-derived T-type low
pass filter to work into load of 500ohms with cut off frequency at 4kHz and peak attenuation at
4. 15kHz.

2. Explain the structure and application of crystal filter design a low pass filter with cut
off frequency 2600 Hz to match 550 ohms use one derived section with infinite
attenuation at 2850Hz.

3. i) Derive the equation for the characteristics impedance of symmetrical T and Π networks.
ii) Discuss the properties of symmetrical network in terms of characteristics impedance
and propagation constant.

4. With suitable filter section design constant K low pass and high pass filter.

5. Calculate the values of the inductor and capacitor of a prototype constant k low pass filter
composed of Π section to operate with a terming load of 600ohms and to have a cut off
frequency of 3 KHz.
Construct a band stop constant k filter?
6. Discuss the characteristics of symmetrical network?
Design an m derived T section low pass filter having cut off frequency fc= 1000Hz
design impedance Rk=600ohms and frequency of infinite attenuation f∞=1050 Hz.

7. (i) Design a m-derived T-section low pass filter having a cutoff frequency (fc) of 5000 Hz and
a design impedance of 600 ohms. The frequency of infinite attenuation is 1.25 fc.
(ii) Draw and explain the operation of crystal filters.

8 (i) Design a constant-K T-section bandpass filter with cutoff frequencies of 1 KHz and 4 KHz.
The design impedance is 600 ohms.
(ii) Draw a constant-K T-section band elimination filter and explain the operation with necessary
design equations.

9. Design a constant K band pass filter deriving expressions for the circuit components. A
constant High pass filter cut off frequency of 2300 Hz. The load resistance is 500 ohm.
Calculate the values of the components used in filter.

10. Design a composite High pass filter to operate into the load of 600 ohm and have a cutoff
frequency of 1.2Khz. The filter is have one constant k section, one m derived section with f
infinity =1.1KHz and suitably terminated half setion. Discuss the merits and demerits of the
m derived filter and crystal filter.
PART C- ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1.Calculate the values of the inductor and capacitor of a prototype constant k low pass
filter
composed of Π section to operate with a terming load of 600ohms and to
have a cut off frequency of 3 KHz.
Construct a band stop constant k filter?

2.Discuss the characteristics of symmetrical network?

Design an m derived T section low pass filter having cut off frequency fc=
1000Hz design impedance Rk=600ohms and frequency of infinite attenuation
f∞=1050 Hz.

3. Design a m-derived T-section low pass filter having a cutoff frequency (fc) of
5000 Hz and a design impedance of 600 ohms. The frequency of infinite attenuation
is 1.25 fc.

UNIT V - WAVE GUIDES AND CAVITY RESONATORS

PART A

1. Why is circular or rectangular form used as waveguide?

Waveguides usually take the form of rectangular or circular cylinders because
of its simpler forms in use and less expensive to manufacture.

2. What is an evanescent mode?

When the operating frequency is lower than the cut-off frequency, the
propagation constant becomes real i.e., γ = α . The wave cannot be propagated. This
non- propagating mode is known as evanescent mode.

3. What is the dominant mode for the TE waves in the rectangular waveguide?

The lowest mode for TE wave is TE10 (m=1 , n=0).

4. What is the dominant mode for the TM waves in the rectangular waveguide?

The lowest mode for TM wave is TM11(m=1 , n=1)

5. What is the dominant mode for the rectangular waveguide?

The lowest mode for TE wave is TE10 (m=1 , n=0) whereas the lowest mode
for TM wave is TM11(m=1 , n=1). The TE10 wave have the lowest cut off frequency
compared to the TM11 mode. Hence the TE10 (m=1 , n=0) is the dominant mode of a
rectangular waveguide. Because the TE10 mode has the lowest attenuation of all
modes in a rectangular waveguide and its electric field is definitely polarized in one
direction everywhere.

6. Which are the non-zero field components for the for the TE10 mode in a
rectangular waveguide?

Hx, Hz and Ey.

7. Which are the non-zero field components for the for the TM11 mode in a
rectangular waveguide?

Hx, Hy ,Ey. and Ez.

8. Define characteristic impedance in a waveguide

The characteristic impedance Zo can be defined in terms of the voltage-current
ratio or in terms of power transmitted for a given voltage or a given current. Zo (V,I)
= V/I

9. Why TEM mode is not possible in a rectangular waveguide?

Since TEM wave do not have axial component of either E or H ,it cannot
propagate within a single conductor waveguide.

10. Explain why TM01 and TM10 modes in a rectangular waveguide do not
exist.
For TM modes in rectangular waveguides, neither m or n can be zero because
all the field equations vanish ( i.e., Hx, Hy ,Ey. and Ez.=0). If m=0,n=1 or m=1,n=0
no fields are present. Hence TM01 and TM10 modes in a rectangular waveguide do
not exist.

11. What are degenerate modes in a rectangular waveguide?

Some of the higher order modes, having the same cut off frequency, are called
degenerate modes. In a rectangular waveguide , TEmn and TMmn modes ( both m ≠ 0
and n ≠ 0) are always degenerate.

12.Write the boundary conditions for the rectangular wavwguide in rectangular

cocrdinate system(TMwave).

 EZ=0 at x=0, for all values of y from 0 to b

 EZ=0 at x=a, for all values of y from 0 to b

 EZ=0 at x=0, for all values of x from 0 to a

 EZ=0 at x=b, for all values of x from 0 to a

13. What is the attenuation constant in the range of propagation?

α= [power loss per unit length] / [2*power transmitted]

14. What are the assumptions to be taken for analysis of rectangular waveguide
in TE and TM modes?

 The walls of the hollow guide are perfectly condudting

 The dielectric within the hollow guide is perfect dielectric i.e lossless

15. State the reason of impossibilities of TEM wave in waveguide

The reason is the axial component of Ebar is not present in TEM waves,
hence it cannot exist in rectangular waveguide.

16. What conclusion for TE and TM waves in wave impedance?

For TE waves Zz (TE) > η0

For TM waves Zz (TM) > η0

17. Explain why TEM mode is not possible in rectangular waveguide.

Since Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave do not have axial component

of either E or H, it cannot propagate within a single conductor waveguide. Consider a
TEM wave to exist within a hollow guide. In non magnetic materials .H=0 Which
requires that the lines of H be closed loops in a plane perpendicular to the axis.
According to Maxwell’s first equation, the magneto motive force around a closed
loop is equal to the axial current. For a coaxial line the axial current is conduction
current whereas for a hollow waveguide, the axial current is displacement current. But
an axial displacement current requires an axial component of E which is not present
in TEM wave. Therefore the TEM wave cannot exist in a waveguide.

18. What is a Waveguide?

A hollow conducting metallic tube of uniform cross section is used for
propagating electromagnetic waves. Waves, that are guided along the surfaces (walls)
of the tube is called a waveguide.

19. Why a rectangular waveguide is preferred over circular waveguides?

Rectangular waveguide are preferred over circular waveguides because of the
following reasons
 Rectangular waveguide is smaller in size than the circular waveguide of the
same operating frequency.
 It does not maintain its polarization through the circular waveguide.
 The difference between the lowest frequency on a domain mode and the next
mode of a rectangular waveguide is higher than that in a circular waveguide.

20. Mention the applications of the waveguides.

The waveguides are employed for transmission of energy at very high

frequencies where the attenuation caused by a waveguide is smaller.

Waveguides are used in microwave transmission. Circular waveguides are

used as attenuators and phase shifters.
21. Define wave impedance.
Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of the electric field intensity to the
magnetic field intensity.

(i.e) Zxy + = Ex/ Hy; Zyx + = Ey/ Hx; Zzx + = Ez/ Hx;

The wave impedance in the opposite direction are the negative of the above.
(i.e) Zxy + = - Ex/ Hy; Zyx + = - Ey/ Hx; Zzx + = - Ez/ Hx;

22. What is the cutoff wavelength and cutoff frequency of the TE 10 mode in a
rectangular waveguide ?

Cutoff wavelength, λc = 2a
Cutoff frequency, fc = c/2a

23. How are frequency and wave impedance related in a waveguide?

 For a propagating TEM wave?
 For a propagating TE wave?
 For a propagating TM wave?
 The wave impedance of a TEM wave is independent on frequency.
 The wave impedance of a TM wave is
 z=η/√(1-(fc/f)2)
 The wave impedance of a TM wave is
 z=η√(1-(fc/f)2)
Wave impedance decreases with frequency.

24. What are cavity resonators?

Cavity resonators are formed by placing the perfectly conducting sheets on the
rectangular or circular waveguide on the two end sections and hence all the sides are
surrounded by the conducting walls thus forming a cavity. The electromagnetic
energy is confined within this metallic enclosure and they acts as resonant circuits .

25. What are the types of cavity resonators?

There are two types of cavity resonators. They are:
a ) Rectangular cavity resonator
b ) Circular cavity resonator

26. Why rectangular or circular cavities can be used as microwave resonators?

Rectangular or circular cavities can be used as microwave resonators because
they have natural resonant frequency and behave like a LCR circuit.

27. How the cavity resonator can be represented by a LCR circuit?

The electromagnetic energy is stored in the entire volume of the cavity in the
form of electric and magnetic fields. The presence of electric field gives rise to a
capacitance value and the presence of magnetic field gives rise to a inductance value
and the finite conductivity in the walls gives rise to loss along the walls giving rise to
a resistance value. Thus the cavity resonator can be represented by a equivalent LCR
circuit and have a natural resonant frequency
28. Name the three basic configurations of coaxial resonators.
The basic configurations of coaxial resonators are:
 Quarter wave coaxial cavity
 Half wave coaxial cavity
 Capacitance end coaxial cavity

29. What is the dominant mode for rectangular resonator?

The dominant mode of a rectangular resonator depends on the
dimensions of the cavity.
For b<a<d, the dominant mode is TE101

30.What is the dominant mode for circular resonator?

The dominant mode of a circular resonator depends on the dimensions
of the cavity. Ford< 2a, the dominant mode is TM010

31.When a medium is said to be free- space.

A free-space medium is one in which there are no conduction currents and no

32. Why circular waveguides are not preferred over rectangular waveguides?
The circular waveguides are avoided because of the following reasons:
 The frequency difference between the lowest frequency on the dominant mode
and the next mode is smaller than in a rectangular waveguide, with b/a= 0.5
 The circular symmetry of the waveguide may reflect on the possibility of the
wave not maintaining its polarization throughout the length of the guide.
 For the same operating frequency, circular waveguide is bigger in size than a
rectangular waveguide.

33. Mention the applications of circular waveguide.

Circular waveguides are used as attenuators and phase-shifters.

34. Which mode in a circular waveguide has attenuation effect decreasing with
increase in frequency?
TE01
35. What are the possible modes for TM waves in a circular waveguide?
The possible TM modes in a circular waveguide are : TM01 , TM02 , TM11,
TM12.

36. What are the root values for the TM modes?

The root values for the TM modes are:
 (ha)01 = 2.405 for TM01
 (ha)02 = 5.53 for TM02
 (ha)11 = 3.85 for TM11
 (ha)12 = 7.02 for TM12

37. Define dominant mode for a circular waveguide.

The dominant mode for a circular waveguide is defined as the lowest order
mode having the lowest root value.

38. What are the possible modes for TE waves in a circular waveguide?
The possible TE modes in a circular waveguide are : TE01 , TE02 ,
TE11, TE12.

39. What are the root values for the TE modes?

The root values for the TE modes are:
 (ha)01 = 3.85 for TE01
 (ha)02 = 7.02 for TE02
 (ha)11 = 1.841 for TE11
 (ha)12 = 5.53 for TE12

40. What is the dominant mode for TE waves in a circular waveguide?

The dominant mode for TE waves in a circular waveguide is the
TE11 because it has the lowest root value of 1.841.

41. What is the dominant mode for TM waves in a circular waveguide?

The dominant mode for TM waves in a circular waveguide is the
TM01 because it has the lowest root value of 2.405.

42. What is the dominant mode in a circular waveguide?

The dominant mode for TM waves in a circular waveguide is the
TM01 because it has the root value of 2.405. The dominant mode for TE waves in a
circular waveguide is the TE11 because it has the root value of 1.841 .Since the root
value of TE11 is lower than TM01 , TE11 is the dominant or the lowest order mode
for a circular waveguide.

43. Mention the dominant modes in rectangular and circular waveguides?

 For a rectangular waveguide, the dominant mode is TE01
 For a circular waveguide, the dominant mode is TE11

44. Why is TM01 mode preferred to the TE01 mode in a circular waveguide?
TM01 mode is preferred to the TE01 mode in a circular waveguide, since it
requires a smaller diameter for the same cut off wavelength.

45. What are the performance parameters of microwave resonator?

The performance parameters of microwave resonator are:
 Resonant frequency
 Quality factor
 Input impedance

46. What is resonant frequency of microwave resonator?

Resonant frequency of microwave resonator is the frequency at which the
energy in the resonator attains maximum value. i.e., twice the electric energy or
magnetic energy.

47. Define quality factor of a resonator.

The quality factor Q is a measure of frequency selectivity of the resonator. It is
defined as

Q = 2 ∏ x Maximum energy stored / Energy dissipated per cycle

= ω W/ P
Where W is the maximum stored energy
P is the average power loss.

48. What is a resonator?

Resonator is a tuned circuit which resonates at a particular frequency at which
the energy stored in the electric field is equal to the energy stored in the magnetic.

49. How the resonator is constructed at low frequencies?

At low frequencies upto VHF ( 300 MHz) , the resonator is made up of the
reactive elements or the lumped elements like the capacitance and the inductance.

50. What are the disadvantages if the resonator is made using lumped elements
at high frequencies?
The inductance and the capacitance values are too small as the
frequency is increased beyond the VHF range and hence difficult to
realize .

51. What are the methods used for constructing a resonator?

The resonators are built by
 using lumped elements like L and C
 using distributed elements like sections of coaxial lines
 using rectangular or circular waveguide

52. What is a transmission line resonator or coaxial resonator?

Transmission line resonator can be built using distributed elements like
sections of coaxial lines. The coaxial lines are either opened or shunted at the end
sections thus confining the electromagnetic energy within the section and acts as the
resonant circuit having a natural resonant frequency.

53. Why transmission line resonator is not usually used as microwave resonator?
At very high frequencies transmission line resonator does not give very high
quality factor Q due to skin effect and radiation loss. So, transmission line resonator is
not used as microwave resonator.

PART B:
1.Derive the equation of TM wave in rectangular waveguide.(NOV/DEC 2007)

2.Derive expression for cut-off frequency of rectangular waveguide as Hpf

3.Explain various modes of TE/TM for rectangular wave guide(MAY/JUNE 2008)

4.Derive the expression for wave impedance for TE and TM waves in rectangular
waveguide.(NOV/DEC 2007)

5.Explain mode of propagation ,dominant mode in TE and TM waves.

6.When the dominant TE10 mode is propagated through a standard rectangular

waveguide (a=2b), the phase constant was found to be 0.5 rad/cm and wave
impedance to be 473.76 ohm. Determine λ0, f, λc, a, b.
7.Write a short note on wave impedance.

8.What is meant by Bessels equation? Explain in brief method of finding solution of

the Bessels equation.
9.Derive the expression for the electric and magnetic field components for the TM
wave in circular waveguide.
10.Derive the expression for the electric and magnetic field components for the TE
wave in circular waveguide.
11.Derive the expression for the wave impedance interms of λ0 and η0 for TM and
TE waves.
12.Explain with neat diagrams excitation of waveguides.
13. Explain neatly a dominant mode of TMnm and TEnm wave.
14.A circular waveguide has an internal diameter of 4 cm. For a 10 GHZ signal
propagated in it in the TEn mode, calculate cut—off wavelength, guide wavelength
and characteristic impedance.

15.Obtain the expression for resonant frequency of circular cavity resonator.

16.Calculate the resonant frequency of a rectangular resonator of dimensions a : 3 cm,

b : 2 cm and d = 4 cm if the operating mode is TEioi. Assume free space within the
cavity.

PART C - ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS:

1.Derive the expression for wave impedance for TE and TM waves in rectangular
waveguide.

2. Derive the expression for TE, TM and TEM for circular wave guides.
3. Explain with neat diagrams excitation of waveguides.
4. A circular waveguide has an internal diameter of 9 cm. For a 30 GHZ signal
propagated in it in the TEn mode, calculate cut—off wavelength, guide wavelength
and characteristic impedance.