COMPUTER NETWORKS – UNIT V – PART 1 05/05/2020

Syllabus
Network Layer: Repeaters, Bridges, Hubs, Switches, Routers, Gateways, Routing algorithms -
Shortest path routing, Distance vector routing, Link state routing; X.25 layers and protocols,
Congestion control - Leaky bucket algorithm, TCP/IP Protocol Suite- IP protocol, IP addresses,
Subnetting, ARP, RARP; ICMP, ISDN Services and channels, Broadband ISDN, ATM- Design
goals, architecture and layers.

Repeaters
A single Ethernet segment can have a maximum length of 500 meters with a maximum of
100 stations. To extend the length of the network, a repeater may be used. Functionally, a
repeater can be considered as two transceivers joined together and connected to two different
segments of coaxial cable. The repeater passes the digital signal bit-by-bit in both directions
between the two segments. As the signal passes through a repeater, it is amplified and
regenerated at the other end. The repeater does not isolate one segment from the other, if there
is a collision on one segment, it is regenerated on the other segment. Therefore, the two
segments form a single LAN and it is transparent to rest of the system.
Ethernet allows five segments to be used in cascade to have a maximum network span of 2.5
km. With reference of the ISO model, a repeater is considered as a level-1 relay. It simply
repeats, retimes and amplifies the bits it receives. The repeater is merely used to extend the
span of a single LAN. Important features of a repeater are as follows:
• A repeater connects different segments of a LAN.
• A repeater forwards every frame it receives.
• A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
• It can be used to create a single extended LAN

Hubs

Hub is a generic term, but commonly refers to a multiport repeater. It can be used to
create multiple levels of hierarchy of stations. The stations connect to the hub with RJ-45
connector having maximum segment length is 100 meters. This type of interconnected set
of stations is easy to maintain and diagnose. Figure next page shows how several hubs can be
connected in a hierarchical manner to realize a single LAN of bigger size with a large
number of nodes.
Hub as a multi-port repeater can be connected in a hierarchical manner to form a single LAN
with many nodes.

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Bridges
The device that can be used to interconnect two separate LANs is known as a bridge. It is
commonly used to connect two similar or dissimilar LANs. The bridge operates in layer 2, that
is data-link layer and that is why it is called level-2 relay with reference to the OSI model. It
links similar or dissimilar LANs, designed to store and forward frames, it is protocol
independent and transparent to the end stations.
Use of bridges offer a number of advantages, such as higher reliability, performance, security,
convenience and larger geographic coverage. But, it is desirable that the quality of service
(QOS) offered by a bridge should match that of a single LAN. The parameters that define the
QOS include availability, frame mishaps, transit delay, frame lifetime, undetected bit errors,
frame size and priority. Key features of a bridge are mentioned below:
• A bridge operates both in physical and data-link layer.
• A bridge uses a table for filtering/routing.
• A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.
• Types of bridges:
o Transparent Bridges.
o Source routing Bridges.

Switches

Switch is a device that connects devices together on a computer network. When it

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Routers

Router is used to connect the two different networks. When it receives a data packet
in its interface, it reads the destination network information and forward the data
packet from its port that is associated with destination network. Router makes this
decision based on its routing table and security policy. On internet routers perform
traffic directing function, by directing the packet to next network on its journey. Data
packet would be forwarded from one router to another router until it reaches its
destination network. DSL router is an example of router that connects PC to internet.

Gateways
A gateway works above the network layer, such as application layer as shown in Fig. As a
consequence, it is known as a Layer-7 relay. The application level gateways can look into the
content application layer packets such as email before forwarding it to the other side. This
property has made it suitable for use in Firewalls discussed in the next module.