Hawassa UNIVERSITY

Daye campus

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Course module for Fundamentals of Database Systems-Chapter One

Prepared by: Senbeto K. (MSc)

Hawassa University
Feb, 2022
Bensa Dayye
 Fundamentals of Database Systems: Course Module 2021/2022

Contents
CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Introduction to Database Systems ............................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Basics of Database ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Database Systems versus File Systems......................................................................................... 5
1.3. Database approaches ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.4. Database Management System (DBMS) .................................................................................... 12
1.5. Actors on the Scene .................................................................................................................... 16
1.6. Database Development Life Cycle (DDLC)............................................................................... 17
1.7. Application Areas of Database System ...................................................................................... 18

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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Database Systems

1.1. Basics of Database

Brian storming: what is database, File, DBMS?

Databases and database systems are an essential component of life in modern society: most of us encounter
several activities every day that involve some interaction with a database. For example, if we go to the
bank to deposit or withdraw funds, if we make a hotel or airline reservation, if we access a computerized
library catalog to search for a bibliographic item, or if we purchase something online—such as a book,
toy, or computer—chances are that our activities will involve someone or some computer
program accessing a database. Even purchasing items at a supermarket often automatically updates the
database that holds the inventory of grocery items.

Data can be searched quickly and used for different applications if it is stored in an organized manner with
other related data. We can use computer software known as a database to organize our data.
Database definition:
 A database is a collection of related data (information) about people, objects and events, etc. stored
in a computer in a systematic way, such that a computer program can read it to answer questions.
The software used to manage and query a database is known as a database management system
(DBMS)
 By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example,
consider the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of the people you know. You may have
recorded this data in an indexed address book or you may have stored it on a hard drive, using a
personal computer and software such as Microsoft Access or Excel. This collection of related data
with an implicit meaning is a database.
 We will use the word data as both singular and plural, as is common in database literature; the
context will determine whether it is singular or plural. In Standard English, data is used for plural
and datum for singular.
 Database is a shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet the information needs of
multiple users in an organization
 A collection of information organized and presented to serve a specific purpose. (A telephone book is a
common database.) A computerized database is an updated, organized file of machine-readable
information that is rapidly searched and retrieved by computer. That provides a base or foundation for
procedures such as retrieving information, drawing conclusions, and making decisions.
 A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment
of data cannot correctly be referred to as a database. A database is designed, built, and populated with
data for a specific purpose.
 It has an intended group of users and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.
In other words, a database has some source from which data is derived, some degree of interaction with
events in the real world. In order for a database to be accurate and reliable at all times, it must be a true
reflection of the miniworld that it represents; therefore, changes must be reflected in the database as soon
as possible.
Traditionally, data was kept on paper. This could be organized in different ways. For example: student
records are often organized alphabetically (from A to Z) and put into filing cabinets. Now computers
have become the first choice for storing data. There are two main reasons for this:
 A computer can store a lot of data in a small space. One hard disk can easily store as much data
as a room full of filing cabinets

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 Computers can search through this information very quickly. For example: it could find the
home address of a student from a student records database in just a few seconds
Today, Databases are essential to every business. They are used to maintain internal records, to present
data to customers and clients on the World-Wide-Web, and to support many other commercial
processes. Databases are likewise found at the core of many modern organizations.

Examples of databases:
 A student records database for a school, college or university
 university database might contain information about the following: Entities such as
students, faculty, courses, and classrooms.
 A patient records database for a hospital or clinic
 A stock database for a local shop
 A book database for a library
 Human resources databases
 A bank transaction database

Thus, the DB course is about:

 How to organize data
 Supporting multiple users
 Efficient and effective data retrieval
 Secured and reliable storage of data
 Maintaining consistent data
 Making information useful for decision making

Database Management System (DBMS)

A computer database relies upon software to organize the storage of data. This software is known as a
database management system (DBMS). A DBMS is a set of programs that enables users to create a
database and access the data in the database. It is a complex set of software programs that controls the
organization, storage, management, and retrieval of data in a database.

A DBMS allows the user to define the structure of a database, put the data into the database and to
manipulate the data in the database. A DBMS is a powerful tool for creating and managing large amounts
of data efficiently and allowing it to persist over long periods of time, safely. These systems are among
the most complex types of software available. Databases management systems are categorized according
to the database model that they support (relational model, hierarchical model or the network model)
 We can call the database and the DBMS together a database system.
 File: - is a collection (ordered arrangement) of related record (completed row of data)

 We will discuss more about DBMS later in this chapter

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1.2. Database Systems versus File Systems

Group discussion:
Compare database system and file system.

The early database systems, which appeared in the late 1760’s, evolved from file system. However, file
systems do not be generally guarantee that data cannot be lost if it is not backed up, and do not support
efficient access to data-items whose location in a particular file is not known. Further, file systems do not
directly support item. Their support for a schema for the data-is limited to the creation of directory
structures for files.

File System
The file system is basically a way of arranging the files in a storage medium like a hard disk, pen drive,
DVD, etc. The file system organizes the files and helps in the retrieval of files when they are required.
File systems consist of different files which are grouped into directories. The directories further contain
other folders and files. The file system performs basic operations like management, file naming, giving
access rules, etc. It is directly installed into the computer with the Operating systems such as Windows
and Linux.

Example:
NTFS (New Technology File System), EXT (Extended File System).

Database system

Database systems are ubiquitous today, and most people interact, either directly or indirectly, with
databases many times every day. The primary goal of a database is to provide an environment that is both
convenient and efficient for people to use in retrieving and storing information. Database systems are
designed to store large bodies of information. The management of data involves both the definition of
structures for the storage of information and the provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of
information. In addition, the database system must provide for the safety of the information stored, in the
face of system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If data are to be shared among several users,
the system must avoid possible anomalous results.
The database systems or Database Management System (DBMS) is a software for storing and retrieving
user’s data while considering appropriate security measures. It consists of a group of programs that
manipulate the database. The DBMS accepts the request for data from an application and instructs the
DBMS engine to provide the specific data. In large systems, a DBMS helps users and other third-party
software to store and retrieve data.

Examples:
There are different database applications available to buy. Each database application has its own specific
strength and weakness. Some of the common database applications are:
 Microsoft Access,
 Microsoft SQL,
 Oracle and
 Informix.

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KEY DIFFERENCES:
 A file system is a software that manages and organizes the files in a storage medium, whereas
DBMS is a software application that is used for accessing, creating, and managing databases.
 Data inconsistency is higher in the file system. On the contrary Data inconsistency is low in a
database management system.
 File system does not provide support for complicated transactions, while in the DBMS system, it
is easy to implement complicated transactions using SQL.
 File system does not offer concurrency, whereas DBMS provides a concurrency facility.

Difference between File System and DBMS:

Basis File System DBMS
Structure The file system is software that manages DBMS is software for creating,
and organizes the files in a storage accessing, and managing databases.
medium within a computer.
Data view The file system provides the details of data DBMS gives an abstract view of data
representation and storage of data. that hides the details
Data Redundant data can be present in a file In DBMS there is no redundant data.
Redundancy system.
Backup and It doesn’t provide backup and recovery of It provides backup and recovery of
Recovery data if it is lost. data even if it is lost.
Query There is no efficient query processing in Efficient query processing is there in
processing the file system. DBMS.
Consistency There is less data consistency in the file There is more data consistency
system. because of the process of
normalization.
Complexity It is less complex as compared to DBMS. It has more complexity in handling as
compared to the file system.
Security File systems provide less security in DBMS has more security mechanisms
Constraints comparison to DBMS. as compared to file systems.
Cost It is less expensive than DBMS. It has a comparatively higher cost than
a file system.
Data There is no data independence. In DBMS data independence exists.
Independence
User Access Only one user can access data at a time. Multiple users can access data at a
time.

1.3. Database approaches

Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the development in
technology and services. These levels could best be described by categorizing the levels into three levels
of development. Even though there is an advantage and a problem overcome at each new level, all methods
of data handling are in use to some extent. The major three levels are;
 Manual Approach
 Traditional File Based Approach
 Database Approach

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1. Manual Approach
In the manual approach, data storage and retrieval follow the primitive and traditional way of information
handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose. For example, a library card catalog is a database
that may be created and maintained manually.
The data storage and retrieval will be performed using human labor.
 Files for as many events and objects as the organization has been used to store information.
 Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labeled and stored in one or more
cabinets.
 The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on the sensitivity of the
information contained in it.
 Insertion and retrieval are done by searching first for the right cabinet then for the right the file
then the information.
 One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data
Limitations of the Manual approach
 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
 You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
 Limited to small size information
 Cross referencing is difficult
 Require a huge space to store
 Time consuming to do with it
 Difficult to share and duplicate
An alternative approach of data handling is a computerized way of dealing with the information. The
computerized approach could also be either decentralized or centralized base on where the data resides
in the system.

2. Traditional File Based Approach

After the introduction of computer for data processing to the business community, the need to use the
device for data storage and processing increase. There were, and still are, several computer applications
with file-based processing used for the purpose of data handling. Even though the approach evolved
over time, the basic structure is still similar if not identical.

 File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
 This approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.
 A collection of application programs performs services for the end-users. In such systems,
every application program that provides service to end users define and manage its own data
 Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in the
organization.
 Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to serious
data duplication problem.

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 Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach

 Separation or Isolation of Data: Available information in one application may not be known.
Data Synchronization is done manually.
 Limited data sharing- every application maintains its own data.
 Lengthy development and maintenance time
 Duplication or redundancy of data (money and time cost and loss of data integrity)
 Data dependency on the application- data structure is embedded in the application; hence, a
change in the data structure needs to change the application as well.
 Incompatible file formats or data structures (e.g. ―C++, Java or COBOL) between different
applications and programs creating inconsistency and difficulty to process jointly.
 Fixed query processing which is defined during application development.

The most significant problem experienced by the traditional file-based approach of data handling can be
formalized by what is called “update anomalies”. We have three types of update anomalies;
(anomaly=irregularity= difficulty)
1. Modification Anomalies: a problem experienced when one or more data value is modified on one
application program but not on others containing the same data set.
2. Deletion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one record set is deleted from one application but
remain untouched in other application programs.
3. Insertion Anomalies: a problem experienced whenever there is new data item to be recorded, and the
recording is not made in all the applications. And when same data item is inserted at different applications,
there could be errors in encoding which makes the new data item to be considered as a totally different
object.

3. Database Approach
Following a famous paper written by Dr. Edgard Frank Codd in 1970, database systems changed
significantly. Codd proposed that database systems should present the user with a view of data organized
as tables called relations. Behind the scenes, there might be a complex data structure that allowed rapid
response to a variety of queries. Queries could be expressed in a very high-level language, which greatly
increased the efficiency of database programmers.
The database approach emphasizes the integration and sharing of data throughout the organization.
Thus, in Database Approach:

 Database is just a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
 The database is integrated with minimum amount of or no duplication.
 Database is a collection of logically related data where these logically related data comprise
entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an organization's information.
 In addition to containing data required by an organization, database also contains a description
of the data which is known as “Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or
“Data about Data” or sometimes “Data Directory”.
 Since a database contains information about the data (metadata), it is called a self-descriptive
collection of integrated records.
 The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and update that
information on demand.

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 Database is designed once and used simultaneously by many users.

 Unlike the traditional file-based approach, in database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the data definition from the application. Thus, the
application is not affected by changes made in the data structure and file organization.
 Database application will perform the combination of: Creating database, Reading, Updating
and Deleting data.
Benefits of the database approach
 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same data instead of storing data in
redundant manner for each user.
 Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query languages, the users can easily access
data without programming experience.
 Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in database to decrease the redundant
data stored at different applications.
 Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity constraints in the database approach will
maintain the quality leading to better decision making
 Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data redundancy will avoid inconsistency of the data in
the database to some extent.
 Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems are
implanted in a full-scale DBMS.
 Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications will be integrated together with
additional constraints to facilitate validity and consistency of shared data resource.
 Security measures can be enforced: the shared data can be secured by having different levels of
clearance and other data security mechanisms.
 Improved decision support: the database will provide information useful for decision making.
 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using and dealing with data by different unite
of an organization can be balanced and standardized by using database approach.
 Compactness: since it is an electronic data handling method, the data is stored compactly (no
voluminous papers).
 Speed: data storage and retrieval are fast as it will be using the modern fast computer systems.
 Less labour: unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not demand much
resource.
 Centralized information control: since relevant data in the organization will be stored at one
repository, it can be controlled and managed at the central level.

Characteristics of the Database Approach

 A single repository maintains data that is defined once and then accessed by various users.
 The main characteristics of the database approach are the following:
 Self-describing nature of a database system
 Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction
 Support of multiple views of the data
 Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing

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1. Self-Describing Nature of a Database System

A database system contains not only the database itself but also a complete definition or description of the
database structure and constraints. This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog, which contains
information such as the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and various
constraints on the data. The information stored in the catalog is called meta-data, and it describes the
structure of the primary database

The catalog is used by the DBMS software and also by database users who need information about the
database structure. A general-purpose DBMS software package is not written for a specific database
application. Therefore, it must refer to the catalog to know the structure of the files in a specific database,
such as the type and format of data it will access. The DBMS software must work equally well with any
number of database applications—for example, a university database, a banking database, or a company
database—as long as the database definition is stored in the catalog.

In traditional file processing, data definition is typically part of the application programs themselves.
Hence, these programs are constrained to work with only one specific database, whose structure is
declared in the application programs. For example, an application program written in C++ may have struct
or class declarations, and a COBOL program has data division statements to define its files.
Whereas file-processing software can access only specific databases, DBMS software can access diverse
databases by extracting the database definitions from the catalog and using these definitions.

2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction

In traditional file processing, the structure of data files is embedded in the application programs, so any
changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs that access that file. By contrast,
DBMS access programs do not require such changes in most cases. The structure of data files is stored in
the DBMS catalog separately from the access programs. Application programs should be as independent
as possible from details of data representation and storage. The DBMS can provide an
abstract view of the data to insulate application code from such details. We call this property program-
data independence.

The characteristic that allows program-data independence is called data abstraction.

The structure of a database is described through metadata which is also stored in the database. An
application software does not need any knowledge about the physical data storage like encoding, format,
storage place, etc. It only communicates with a database management system (DBMS) via a standardized
interface with the help of a standardized language like SQL. The access to the data and the metadata is
entirely done by the DBMS. In this way all the applications can be totally separated from the data.
Therefore, database internal reorganizations or improvement of efficiency do not have any influence on
the application software.

A DBMS provides users with a conceptual representation of data that does not include many of the
details of how the data is stored or how the operations are implemented. Informally, a data model is a
type of data abstraction that is used to provide this conceptual representation. The data model uses logical
concepts, such as objects, their properties, and their interrelationships, that may be easier for most users
to understand than computer storage concepts. Hence, the data model hides storage and implementation
details that are not of interest to most database users.

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3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data

A database typically has many users, each of whom may require a different perspective or view of the
database. A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is derived from the
database files but is not explicitly stored. Some users may not need to be aware of whether the data they
refer to is stored or derived. A multiuser DBMS whose users have a variety of distinct applications must
provide facilities for defining multiple views
For example, one user of the database may be interested only in accessing and printing the transcript of
each student; the view for this user is shown in Figure 1 (a). A second user, who is interested only in
checking that students have taken all the prerequisites of each course for which they register, may
require the view shown in Figure 1 (b).

Figure 1.(a)

Figure 1.(b)

Two views derived from the university database in Figure 1. (a) The TRANSCRIPT view. (b) The
COURSE_PREREQUISITES view.

4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

A multiuser DBMS, as its name implies, must allow multiple users to access the database at the same
time. This is essential if data for multiple applications is to be integrated and maintained in a single
database.

The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure that several users trying to update the
same data do so in a controlled manner so that the result of the updates is correct.
For example, when several reservation agents try to assign a seat on an airline flight, the DBMS should
ensure that each seat can be accessed by only one agent at a time for assignment to a passenger. These
types of applications are generally called online transaction processing (OLTP) applications. A
fundamental role of multiuser DBMS software is to ensure that concurrent transactions operate correctly
and efficiently.

The concept of a transaction has become central to many database applications. A transaction is
an executing program or process that includes one or more database accesses, such as reading or
updating of database records. Each transaction is supposed to execute a logically correct database
access if executed in its entirety without interference from other transactions. The DBMS must
enforce ACID transaction properties.
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 The atomicity property ensures that either all the database operations in a transaction are
executed or none are. A transaction is atomic what means that it cannot be divided up any
further. A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it should either be performed in its
entirety or not performed at all. Atomicity is more generally known as ‘all or nothing rule.’
Which implies all are considered as one unit, and they either run to completion or not
executed at all. One example of a transaction is the transfer of an amount of money from
one bank account to another. The debit of the money from one account and the credit of it
to another account makes together a consistent transaction. This transaction is also
atomic. The debit or credit alone would both lead to an inconsistent state. After finishing
the transaction (debit and credit) the changes to both accounts become persistent and the
one who gave the money has now less money on his account while the receiver has now a
higher balance.

 Consistency: This property refers to the uniformity of the data. Meaning that if it is
completely executed from beginning to end without interference from other transactions, it
should take the database from one consistent state to another.
 The isolation property ensures that each transaction appears to execute in isolation from
other transactions, even though hundreds of transactions may be executing concurrently.
 Durability or permanency: The changes applied to the database by a committed
transaction must persist in the database. These changes must not be lost because of any
failure.
Limitations and risk of Database Approach
 Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
 Complexity in designing and managing data
 The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
 High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
 Complex backup and recovery services from the user’s perspective
 Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency
 High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central system.

1.4. Database Management System (DBMS)

 Database Management System (DBMS) is a Software package used for providing EFFICIENT,
CONVENIENT, SAFE and MULTI-USER storage and access to MASSIVE amounts of
PERSISTENT (data outlives programs that operate on it) data. A DBMS also provides a systematic
method for creating, updating, storing, retrieving data in a database. DBMS also provides the
service of controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency control, and
recovery.
 DBMS: Is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The DBMS
is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing,
manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications.
 Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and constraints of the
data to be stored in the database. The database definition or descriptive information is also
stored by the DBMS in the form of a database catalog or dictionary; it is called meta-data.
 Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on some storage medium that
is controlled by the DBMS.
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 Manipulating a database includes functions such as querying the database to retrieve

specific data, updating the database to reflect changes in the mini-world, and generating
reports from the data.
 Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the database
simultaneously.
 Protecting the database and maintaining it over a long period of time are also important
functions provided by DBMS. Protection includes
 system protection against hardware or software malfunction (or crashes) and
 Security protection against unauthorized or malicious access.

 An application program accesses the database by sending queries or requests for data to the
DBMS. A query typically causes some data to be retrieved; a transaction may cause some data to
be read and some data to be written into the database.
 The term query, originally meaning a question or an inquiry, is loosely used for all types of
interactions with databases, including modifying the data
 Through the application of database management systems, organizations and individuals can store
a lot of data.
 For example, you can create a database of the employees of an organization by recording some
detailed information about each employee such as name, marital status, sex, salary, date of birth,
date of employment, level of education, field of study, etc. Then you can ask the computer
questions like:
▪ How many female employees are there? The computer will give you the number of
female employees automatically.
▪ List employees with a salary of Birr 500 and above. The computer will list such
employees on the screen or print it on paper.
▪ The kinds of questions you can ask the computer are unlimited. The computer will
respond to the questions immediately and accurately.
Tip: A question that is presented to a database management system like one of the above is called a query.

Function (Benefits) of DBMS

 Data Processing: means storage, retrieval and update in the database.
 A user accessible catalogue: Catalogue is an object or a place in the DBMS which stores almost
all of the information of the database, including schema Information, user information right of the
users, and many more things about the database. Modern relational DBMS require that the
administrative users of the database
 Concurrency Control Services: access and update on the database by different users
simultaneously should be implemented correctly.
 Recovery Services: Recovery services mean that in case a database gets an inconsistent State to
get corrupted due to any invalid action of someone, the DBMS should be able to recover itself to
a consistent state, ensuring that the data loss during the recovery process of the database remains
minimum.
 Authorization Services (Security): The database is intended to be used by a number of users,
who will perform a number of actions on the database and data stored in the database, The DBMS
is used to allow or restrict different database users to interact with the database. It is the
responsibility of the database to check whether a user intending to get access to database is
authorized to do so or not.
 Integrity Services: rules about data and the change that took place on the data, correctness and
consistency of stored data, and quality of data based on business constraints.
 Utility services: sets of utility service facilities like Importing data, Statistical analysis support etc.

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 User Interfaces: The data in a database may be accessed by numerous people all with different
levels of expertise. It is important that the system provides an adequate variety of user interfaces
so that it may be used as efficiently and effectively by all those who access it. The DBMS must
allow the same data to be viewed in different ways.
 Flexibility: Because programs and data are independent, programs do not have to be modified
when types of unrelated data are added to or deleted from the database, or when physical storage
changes. Only the data are change from the storage area.
 Fast response to information requests: Because data are integrated into a single database,
complex requests can be handled much more rapidly, then if the data were located in separate,
non-integrated files. In many businesses, faster response means better customer service. Possible
fast data retrieve from the data store.
 Less storage area: Theoretically, all occurrences of data items need be stored only once, thereby
eliminating the storage of redundant data. System developers and database designers often use data
normalization to minimize data redundancy.
 Data duplication is reduced: As data is integrated, present on different locations so chances of
data duplication are much reduced and date is updated form.
 Data is easy to understand: As data is managed according to the needs of the user and it is in
very easy format so that you have no difficulty in using the data through database management
system

Components of Database Management system

The DBMS environment has five components. To design and use a database, there will be the interaction
or integration of Hardware, Software, Data, Procedure and People.
1. Hardware: are components that one can touch and feel. These components are comprised of
various types of personal computers, mainframe or any server computers to be used in multi-user
system, network infrastructure, and other peripherals required in the system.
2. Software: are collection of commands and programs used to manipulate the hardware to perform
a function. These include components like the DBMS software, application programs, operating
systems, network software, language software and other relevant software.
3. Data: since the goal of any database system is to have better control of the data and making data
useful, Data is the most important component to the user of the database.
There are two categories of data in any database system: that is Operational and Metadata.
✓ Operational data is the data actually stored in the system to be used by the user.
✓ Metadata is the data that is used to store information about the database itself.
 The structure of the data in the database is called the schema, which is composed of the Entities,
Properties of entities, and relationship between entities and business constraints.
4. Procedure: this is the rules and regulations on how to design and use a database. It includes
procedures like how to log on to the DBMS, how to use facilities, how to start and stop DBMS,
how to make backup, how to treat hardware and software failure, how to change the structure of
the database.
5. People: this component is composed of the people in the organization that are responsible or play
a role in designing, implementing, managing, administering and using the resources in the
database. This component includes group of people with high level of knowledge about the
database and the design technology to other with no knowledge of the system except using the data
in the database.

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Figure 1.1. People in DBMS environment.

 NB. To complete our initial definitions, we will call the database and DBMS software together a
database system

Figure 1.2. A simplified database system environment.

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1.5. Actors on the Scene

This section deals with users and actors of Database system. For a small personal database, such as the
list of addresses, one person typically defines, constructs, and manipulates the database. However, many
persons are involved in the design, use, and maintenance of a large database with a few hundred users. In
this section we identify the people whose jobs involve the day-to-day use of a large database; we call them
the "actors on the scene."
As people are one of the components in database system environment, there are group of roles played by different
stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database system.
1. Database Administrator (DBA)
 Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources (the database itself,
the DBMS and other related software)
 Authorizing access to the database
 Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
 Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software resources
 Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of the system
 Involves in all steps of database development
2. Database Designer (DBD)
 Identifies the data to be stored and choose the appropriate structures to represent and store
the data.
 Should understand the user requirement and should choose how the user views the
database.
 Involve on the design phase before the implementation of the database system.
3. End Users
 End users are people, whose job requires accessing the database frequently for various
purposes. In general, the user of the database can be deleting, updating, inserting or
modifying data from the database and generating reports. The database primarily exists
for their use. There are different group of users in this category.
1. Naïve or Parametric Users:
 Are end users make up a sizable portion of database end users.
 Their main job function revolves around constantly querying and updating the
database, using standard and pre-specified types of queries.
 The tasks that such users perform are varied:
 Bank tellers check account balances and post withdrawals and deposits.
 Reservation agents for airlines, hotels, and car rental companies check
availability for a given request and make reservations.
 Social media users post and read items on social media Web sites.
 Unaware of the DBMS.
 Only access the database based on their access level and demand
2. Sophisticated Users
 Are users familiar with the structure of the Database and facilities of the DBMS
 Have complex requirements
 Have higher level queries
 Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business analysts, etc
3. Casual Users
 Users who access the database occasionally.
 Need different information from the database each time.
 Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their needs.
 Most of the time middle to high level managers.
4. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst
 System analyst determines the user requirement and how the user wants to view the database.

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 The application programmer implements these specifications as programs; code, test, debug,
document and maintain the application program.
 The application programmer determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert, update and delete
data in the database.
 The application could use any high-level programming language according to the availability, the
facility and the required service.

1.6. Database Development Life Cycle (DDLC)

As it is one component in most information system development tasks, there are several steps in designing
a database system. Here more emphasis is given to the design phases of the system development life cycle.
The major steps in database design are;

1. Planning: that is identifying information gap in an organization and propose a database solution to
solve the problem. The scope of the database system, its users, and its applications are defined.
2. Analysis: that concentrates more on fact finding about the problem or the opportunity. Feasibility
analysis, requirement determination and structuring, and selection of best design method are also
performed at this phase. The interfaces for various categories of users, the response time constraints,
and storage and processing needs are identified.
3. Design: in database development more emphasis is given to this phase. The phase is further divided
into three sub-phases.
a. Conceptual Design: revolves around discovering and analyzing organizational and user data
requirements. The important activities are to identify entities, attributes, relationship and
constraints on the data.
✓ If you are modelling data for a library, you might think of books, authors, borrowers, and
librarians;
✓ If you are creating a data model for a bank, your entities would be accounts, clients, money,
and so on.
✓ Relationships model the way these entities interact. In the preceding example, a book can
have several authors, and a client can have several accounts. While a librarian could
potentially relate to an author.
✓ Used to elicit and structure all data requirements
✓ Mostly uses an Entity Relationship Model to describe the data at this level.
b. Logical Design: is the process of constructing a model of the information used in an enterprise
based on a specific data model (e.g., relational, hierarchical or network or object), but independent
of a particular DBMS and other physical considerations.
✓ a data model mapping of physical(actual) implementation of the database using a
commercial DBMS like Relational SQL.
✓ Conceptual design (schema) is transformed from the high-level data model into the
implementation data model.
✓ Here you begin by thinking of attributes. Does an author have a name? A date of birth?
Does a book have an identification number? A number of pages?
✓ Its result is a database schema in the implementation data model of the DBMS.
c. Physical Design: involves the design of internal storage, file organizations, indexes, access
paths of the database.
✓ This is where your abstract ideas gain concreteness.
✓ You are getting ready to translate ideas into scripts and implement them in an actual
DBMS of your choice. This is the stage when you define the names for your tables
(which might be different from the entities’ names), names for your columns.
4. Implementation: the testing and deployment of the designed database for use.

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5. Operation and Support: administering and maintaining the operation of the database system and
providing support to users. Tuning the database operations for best performance

1.7. Application Areas of Database System

Application and format of database varies from organization to organization and from person to person.
Database systems can be applied in different areas some of them are:
 Banking: For customer information, accounts, and loans, and banking transactions.
 Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among the first to use
databases in a geographically distributed manner: terminals situated around the world accessed
the central database system through phone lines and other data networks.
 Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades.
 Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of monthly statements.
 Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly bills, maintaining
balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information about the communication networks.
 Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of financial instruments
such as stocks and bonds.
 Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
 Manufacturing: For management of supply chain and for tracking production of items in
factories, inventories of items in warehouses/stores, and orders for items.
 Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes and benefits, and for
generation of pay checks.
 Insurances, Metrology, Geographical Analysis etc.

Some other examples of Database systems

Multimedia databases: store images, audio clips, and video streams digitally.
Geographic information systems (GIS) can store and analyze maps, weather data, and satellite images.
Data warehouses and online analytical processing (OLAP) systems are used in many companies to
extract and analyze useful business information from very large databases to support decision making.

Real-time and active database technology is used to control industrial and manufacturing processes.
Database search techniques are being applied to the World Wide Web to improve the search for information
that is needed by users browsing the Internet.

A database can be of any size and complexity. For example, Contact Book: the list of names and addresses
referred to earlier may consist of only a few hundred records, each with a simple structure, is smaller
database. On the other hand, the computerized catalog of a large library may contain half a million entries
organized under different categories—by primary author’s last name, by subject, by book title—with each
category organized alphabetically is the medium sized database.

An example of a large commercial database is Amazon.com. It contains data for over 20 million books,
CDs, videos, DVDs, games, electronics, and other items. The database occupies over 2 terabytes and is
stored on 200 different computers (called servers). About 15 million visitors access Amazon.com each day
and use the database to make purchases. The database is continually updated as new books and other items
are added to the inventory and stock quantities are updated as purchases are transacted. About 100 people
are responsible for keeping the Amazon database up-to-date.

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Presentation:
 Database Approach (File oriented Vs Database oriented approach)
Read and present in the class about data base approach.

I. Assessments:
1. Which one of the following true about database?
A. is a collection of related record in the folders and subfolders
B. Organized collection of information in computerized format.
C. Disorganized collection of information in computerized format.
D. Organized collection of information in bookshelf format.
2. What are the approaches of database?
3. What is data?
Possible answers
B
 Manual, File oriented and Database oriented approaches.
 Data is the raw fact which is meaningless by itself till it is processed and organised

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