Unit of Competence: Administrate Network

and Hardware Peripherals

Module Title: Administrating Network and
Hardware Peripherals
LG Code: ICT ITS 2 M02 04 15
TTLM Code: ICT ITS2 TTLM 04 15 v1
 LO:1 Basic network concepts
1.1 what is a computer network.
A computer network is two or
more computers connected to
each other. so that they can
exchange information, such as
e-mail messages or documents,
or share resources, such as disk
storage or printers.
 There can be many different components that
can be part of a network.
 These can be grouped into four main
categories:
Hosts
Shared Peripherals
Networking Devices
Networking Media
 Hosts are devices that send and receive
information/messages directly across a
network. (e.g. Computer, server).
 Shared peripherals are not directly
connected to the network, but are connected
to hosts.
(e.g. Printer, scanner, webcam)
 Networking devices and networking
media are used to connect all the hosts
together.
(e.g. Network cable, hub, switch, and router).
 Some devices can be in multiple categories.
For example, a normal printer connected to a
host is a peripheral.
 Hosts can act as a client, a server or both.
 Servers are hosts that have software installed
that enables them to provide information, like
email or files, to other hosts on the network.
Each service requires separate server
software.
(e.g. A host requires web server software to
provide web services to the network).
example of client software is a web browser.
 Clients are computer hosts that request and
display information obtained from the server.
(e.g. client software is a web browser.)
 Hostscan run both client and server software.
A network without a dedicated server is called
a Peer-to-Peer network.
Peer-to-Peer networks are easy to setup and
can be used for simple tasks.
if the network is large
it is usually required to have a
dedicated server.
if it is acting as both a client
and a server.
etc
 The term network topology refers to the
shape of how the computers and other
network components are connected to each
other.
 There are several different types of network
topologies, each with advantages and
disadvantages.
 network topologies, two important terms
are used:
1.Node 2. packet
Node: A node is a device that is connected to
the network. For our purposes here, a node is
the same as a computer.
Network topology deals with how the nodes of
a network are connected to each other.
Packet: A packet is a message that is sent over
the network from one node to another node.
The packet includes the address of the node
that sent the packet, the address of the node
the packet is being sent to, and data.
1. Bus topology
The first type of network topology is called a bus,
in which nodes are connected together in a line,
a bus topology works is to think of the entire
network as a single cable,
 Bus topology is commonly used for LANs.
If the cable in a bus network breaks, the network is
effectively divided into two networks.
 Nodes on either side of the break can continue to
communicate with each other,
 but data can't span the gap between the networks,
 nodes on opposite sides of the break can't
communicate with each other.
2. Star topology
 star topology, each network node is
connected to a central device called a
hub or a switch, . Star topologies are
also commonly used with LANs.
 If a cable in a star network breaks,
only the node connected to that
cable is isolated from the network.
 In a true star topology, as when a
switch is used, each computer sees
only those packets that were sent
specifically to it, as well as broadcast
packets that were specifically sent to
all computers on the network.
a ring topology, packets are sent around the
circle from computer to computer.
ring topologies were common in LANs, as two
popular networking technologies used rings:
ARCNET and Token Ring.
Token Ring is a popular network technology for
IBM midrange computers.
. ARCNET is still used for certain applications
such as factory automation, but is rarely used in
business networks.
 A fourth type of network topology, known
as mesh, has multiple connections between
each of the nodes on the network.
 The advantage of a mesh topology is that if
one cable breaks, the network can use an
alternative route to deliver its packets.
 Mesh networks are not very practical in a LAN
setting.
 mesh networks are common for metropolitan
or wide area networks.
 These networks use devices called routers to
route packets from network to network.
 Networks come in all sizes and shapes.
 In fact, it is common to categorize networks
based on the geographical size they cover, as
described by the following:
Local area networks:
A local area network, or LAN, is a network in
which computers are relatively close together,
such as within the same office or building.
 A LAN can, in fact, contain hundreds of
computers.
 a LAN is contained within a single building, but a
LAN can extend to several buildings on a campus
— provided the buildings are close to each other.
A wide area network, or WAN, is a network
that spans a large geographic territory, such
as an entire city, region, or even an entire
country.
 WANs are typically used to connect two or
more LANs that are relatively far apart.
e .g, a WAN may connect an office at one side
of the country to an office on the other side of
the country.
 A metropolitan area network, or MAN, is a
network that's smaller than a typical WAN but
larger than a LAN.
 Typically, a MAN connects two or more LANs
within a same city but are far enough apart
that the networks can't be connected using a
simple cable or wireless connection.
 A protocol is a set of rules that enables
effective communications to occur. We
encounter protocols every day.
 An example of an everyday protocol is a
conversation between two people.
 There are many rules, or protocols, that must
be followed in order for the message to be
understood.
 For instance:
Identification of
sender/receiver
Agreed way of communicating
(face-to-face, telephone, etc)
Common language
 Tip Various protocols tend to be used
together in matched sets called protocol
suites.
 The two most popular protocol suites for
networking are TCP/IP and IPX/SPX.
 TCP/IP was originally developed for UNIX
networks and is the protocol of the Internet.
 IPX/SPX was originally developed for NetWare
networks and is still widely used for Windows
networks.
 A third important protocol is Ethernet, a low-
level protocol that's used with both TCP/IP
and IPX/SPX.
 The OSI model is a way of describing how to
design computer networking protocols.
Instead of creating one set of rules to govern
every aspect of networking, each part of the
protocol is divided into its own section. So a
protocol is made up of 7 parts.
 the first two layers of the OSI model deal with
the physical structure of the network and the
means by which network devices can send
information from one device on a network to
another.
 By far, the most popular set of protocols for
the Physical and Data Link layers is Ethernet.
 The current version of Ethernet is defined by
the IEEE standard known as 802.3.
 Various types of Ethernet operate at different
speeds and use different types of media.
However, all the versions of Ethernet are
compatible with each other, so you can mix
and match them on the same network by
using devices such as bridges, hubs, and
switches to link network segments that use
different types of media.
 The actual transmission speed of Ethernet is
measured in millions of bits per second, or Mbps.
 Ethernet comes in three different speed versions:
10Mbps, known as Standard Ethernet;100Mbps,
known as Fast Ethernet; and 1000Mbps, known
as Gigabit Ethernet.
 Keep in mind, however, that network
transmission speed refers to the maximum speed
that can be achieved over the network under ideal
conditions.
 In reality, the actual throughput of an Ethernet
network rarely reaches this maximum speed.
 Ethernet operates at the first two layers of the
OSI model — the Physical and the Data Link
layers.
 However, Ethernet divides the Data Link layer
into two separate layers known as the Logical
Link Control (LLC) layer and the Medium
Access Control (MAC) layer.
 shows how the various elements of Ethernet
match up to the OSI model.
 Standard Ethernet is the original Ethernet. It
runs at 10Mbps, which was considered fast in
the 1970s but is pretty slow by today's
standards.
 Because the cost of Fast Ethernet has
dropped dramatically in the past few years,
Fast Ethernet has pretty much replaced
Standard Ethernet for most new networks.
 Standard Ethernet comes in four incarnations,
depending on the type of cable used to string the
network together:
1. 10Base5:
The original Ethernet cable was thick (about as
thick as your thumb), heavy, and difficult to work
with. It is seen today only in museums.
2. 10Base2:
This thinner type of coaxial cable (it resembles
television cable) became popular in the 1980s and
lingered into the early 1990s. Plenty of 10Base2
cable is still in use, but it's rarely installed in new
networks.
10Base2 (like 10Base5) uses a bus topology, so
wiring a 10Base2 network involves running cable
from one computer to the next until all the
computers are connected in a segment.
3. 10BaseT:
Unshielded twisted-pair cable (also known as UTP)
became popular in the 1990s because it's easier to
install, lighter, more reliable, and offers more flexibility
in how networks are designed.
10BaseT networks use a star topology with hubs at the
center of each star. Although the maximum length of
10BaseT cable is only 100 meters, hubs can be chained
together to extend networks well beyond the 100-meter
limit.
10BaseT cable has four pairs of wires that are twisted
together throughout the entire span of the cable.
However, 10BaseT uses only two of these wire pairs, so
the unused pairs are spares.
4. 10BaseFL:
Fiber-optic cables were originally supported at 10Mbps
by the 10BaseFL standard. However, because faster
fiber-optic versions of Ethernet now exist, 10BaseFL is
rarely used.
 Fast Ethernet refers to Ethernet that runs at
100Mbps, which is ten times the speed of
standard Ethernet. The following are the
three varieties of fast Ethernet:
1. 100BaseT4:
The 100BaseT4 protocol allows transmission
speeds of 100Mbps over the same UTP cable as
10BaseT networks. To do this, it uses all four
pairs of wire in the cable. 100BaseT4 simplifies
the task of upgrading an existing 10BaseT
network to 100Mbps.
2. 100BaseTX:
The most commonly used standard for office
networks today is 100BaseTX, which transmits
at 100Mbps over just two pairs of a higher
grade of UTP cable than the cable used by
10BaseT. The higher-grade cable is referred to
as Category 5. Most new networks are wired
with Category 5 or better cable.
3. 100BaseFX:
The fiber-optic version of Ethernet running at
100Mbps is called 10BaseFX. Because fiber-
optic cable is expensive and tricky to install, it
isn't used much for individual computers in a
network.
However, it's commonly used as a
network backbone. For example, a fiber
backbone is often used to connect individual
workgroup hubs to routers and servers.
 Gigabit Ethernet is Ethernet running at
1,000Mbps, which is 100 times faster than
the original 10Mbps Ethernet.
 Gigabit Ethernet is considerably more
expensive than Fast Ethernet, so it's typically
used only when the improved performance
justifies the extra cost.
 Gigabit Ethernet is even used for desktop
computers that require high-speed network
connections.
1. 1000BaseT:
Gigabit Ethernet can run on Category 5 UTP
cable, but higher grades such as Category 5e or
Category 6 are preferred because they're more
reliable.
2. 1000BaseLX:
Several varieties of fiber cable are used with
Gigabit Ethernet, but the most popular is called
1000BaseLX.
 The building blocks of networks are network
hardware devices such as servers, adapter
cards, cables, hubs, switches, routers, and so
on. This chapter provides an overview of
these building blocks.
2.1 Servers
 Server computers are the lifeblood of any
large network. Servers provide the shared
resources that network users crave, such as
file storage, databases, e-mail, Web services,
and so on.
 The hardware components that comprise a
typical server computer are similar to the
components used in less expensive client
computers.
 However, servers usually use different CPUs,
require much more RAM (up to 12-32GB),
faster Hard Drives (SCSI) and many network
adaptors.
 The term form factor refers to the size,
shape, and packaging of a hardware device.
Server computers typically come in one of
three form factors:
 Tower case – Used if few servers are
needed
 Rack mount – Used if many servers
are needed
 Blade – Used if many servers are
needed and space is a premium.
 Every computer on a network, both clients and
servers, requires a network interface card (or NIC)
in order to access the network.
 NIC is usually a separate adapter card that slides
into one of the motherboard's expansion slots.
 However, most newer computers have the NIC
built into the motherboard.
 The network interface cards that you use must
have a connector that matches the type of cable
that you use.
 If you plan on wiring your network with thin net
cable, make sure that the network cards have a
BNC connector. For twisted- pair wiring, make
sure that the cards have an RJ-45 connector.
 A NIC is a Physical layer and Data Link layer
device. Because a NIC establishes a network
node, it must have a physical network
address, also known as a MAC address.
 The MAC address is burned into the NIC at
the factory, so you can't change it.
 Every NIC ever manufactured has a unique
MAC address.
 an Ethernet network by using one of three
different types of cable:
I. coaxial cable, which resembles TV
cable, or twisted-pair cable, which
looks like phone cable.
II. Twisted pair cable is some times
called UTP, or 10BaseT cable.
III. fiber-optic cables that span long
distances at high speeds
 Transmission Media is the physical path
between the transmitter and the receiver in a
data communication system.
* There are 2 basic categories of
Transmission Media:
1. Wire/Guided
2. Wireless/Unguided.
 Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system
that guides the data signals along a specific
path. The data signals are bound by the
"cabling" system. Guided Media is also known
as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a generic
sense in the previous sentences and is not
meant to be interpreted as copper wire
cabling only.
 Transmission Media consists of a means for
the data signals to travel but nothing to guide
them along a specific path. The data signals
are not bound to a cabling media and as such
are often called Unbound Media.

 Commonly there are three types of guided

transmission cable:-
1. Twisted Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Optical fiber cable
 Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated
strands of copper wire twisted around each
other.
 The oldest, least expensive and most
commonly used transmission media.
 Two types of twisted-pair cable:-
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable
is the most popular and is generally the best
option for school networks. The quality of
UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to
high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of
wire inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted
with a different number of twists per inch to
help eliminate interference from adjacent
pairs and other electrical devices.
 It is the most commonly used cable types in LANs.
 It is made up of four twisted pairs enclosed in a
plastic jacket.
 Depending on the bandwidth offered there are
seven types of UTP cables such as Cat-1,Cat-2,cat-
3,cat-4,cat-5,cat-6 and cat-7
 The Most commonly used UTP cables are category-
5 cables and its bandwidth is 1000Mbps.
 Uses a woven copper braid jacket and higher quality
protective jacket. Also uses foil wrap b/n and around
the wire pairs
 Much less susceptible to interference and supports
higher transmission rates than UTP
 shielding makes it somewhat harder to install
 same 100 meters limit as UTP
 uses RJ-45 telephone-type connectors (larger than
telephone and consists of eight wires vs. telephone’s 4
wires)
 Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner
conductor is held inside an insulator with the other
conductor woven around it providing a shield. An
insulating protective coating called a jacket covers
the outer conductor.
 The outer shield protects the inner conductor from
outside electrical signals. The distance between the
outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the
type of material used for insulating the inner
conductor determine the cable properties or
impedance. Typical impedances for coaxial cables are
75 ohms for Cable TV, 50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet
and Thicknet. The excellent control of the impedance
characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to
be transferred than Twisted Pair cable.
 An optical fiber consists of an extremely thin
cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded
by a concentric layer of glass, known as the
cladding. The fibers are sometimes made of
plastic. Plastic is easier to install, but cannot
carry the light pulses for as longa distance
asglass.
 Two types of optical fiber are commonly available:
single-mode and multimode.
 Multimode fiber (MMF) has a larger core than single-
mode. This larger core allows hundreds of light rays
to flow through the fiber simultaneously.
 Single-mode fiber (SMF), on the other hand, has a
small core that allows only a single light beam to
pass. The light transmissions in single-mode fiber
pass through the core in a direct line, like a flashlight
beam.
 The numerous light beams in multimode fiber bounce
around inside the core, inching toward their
destination. Because light beams bounce within the
core, the light beams slow down, reduce in strength,
and take some time to travel along the cable.
 For this reason, single-mode fiber's speed and distance are
superior to those of multimode.
 Single-mode fiber is used for long runs because
it can transmit data 50 times further than
multimode fiber and at a faster rate. For
example, single-mode fiber might be used on an
organization’s corporate campus between
buildings.
 Multimode fiber provides high bandwidth at high
speeds over medium distances (up to about 3000
feet) but can be inconsistent for very long runs.
 Cable Maximum Maximum Advantages Disadvantages Connector
Type Speed Cable length used
STP 100Mbps 185m Resistant to EMI Expensive D-shell
connector
UTP 100Mbps 185m Inexpensive Not resistant to RJ-45
Easy to install EMI connector
Resistant to
physical stress

Coaxial 10Mbps 185m, 500m or Easy to install Not resistant to BNC

10 km Less sensitive to physical stress Connector
EMI than Expensive T-connector
UTP/STP compared to UTP Terminator

Optical 155Mbps- 10km depending Resistant to EMI Expensive SMA

Fiber 1000Mbps on the fiber type High data Difficult to install connector
transfer rate
Three types of Ethernet cables are available:
Straight-through cable
Crossover cable
Rolled cable

Making Ethernet 10Base-T cables:

Straight-thru cable: PC-to-HUB.
Crossover cable: PC-to-PC.
Making console cables:
Rollover cable:
 10 Base T: HUB port

1: Receive
1: Transmit
2: Receive
2: Transmit
3: Transmit
3: Receive
4: Not used
4: Not used
5: Not used
5: Not used
6: Transmit
6: Receive
7: Not used
7: Not used
8: Not used
8: Not used

B
A side
side
 1: White Orange 1: White Green
2: Orange 2: Green
3: White Green 3: White Orange
4: Blue 4: Blue
5: White Blue 5: White Blue
6: Green 6: Orange
7: White Brown 7: White Brown
8: Brown 8: Brown

2. Straight-Through cabling system

1: White Orange
1: White Orange
2: Orange
2: Orange
3: White Green
3: White Green
4: Blue
4: Blue
5: White Blue
5: White Blue
6: Green
6: Green
7: White Brown
7: White Brown
8: Brown
8: Brown
 The crossover cable can be used to
connect
 Switch to switch
 Hub to hub
 Host to host
 Hub to switch
 Router direct to host
 Rolled Cable
 you can use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect
a host to a router console serial
communication (com) port.
 To complete our examination of networking
on a physical level, this chapter looks at the
network devices used to create networks.

•Hubs •CSU/DSU
•Wireless access points
•Switches
(WAPs)
•Bridges •Modems
•Repeaters •Network interface
•Routers cards (NICs)
•Gateways •Transceivers
•Firewalls
 Hubs are simple network devices, and their
simplicity is reflected in their low cost.
 Small hubs with four or five ports (often referred
to as workgroup hubs) provide everything
needed to create a small network.
 Most hubs are referred to as either active or
passive.
 Active regenerate a signal before forwarding it to
all the ports on the device and requires a power
supply.
 Passive hubs, which today are seen only on older
networks, do not need power and they don't
regenerate the data signal
The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the
connected devices and forward it to all the other ports on
the hub. The method of sending data to all systems
regardless of the intended recipient is referred to as
broadcasting.
 On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub.
Despite their similar appearance, switches are far
more efficient than hubs and are far more desirable
for today's network environments.
 As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a
length of twisted-pair cable. Multiple switches are
often interconnected to create larger networks.
 Rather than forwarding data to all the connected
ports, a switch forwards data only to the port on
which the destination system is connected.
 It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC)
addresses of the devices connected to it to
determine the correct port. A MAC address is a
unique number that is stamped into every NIC. By
forwarding data only to the system to which the
•Collisions occur on the network when two devices attempt to
transmit at the same time. Such collisions cause the
performance of the network to degrade. By channeling data
only to the connections that should receive it, switches
reduce the number of collisions that occur on the network.
•Switches can also further improve performance over the
performance of hubs by using a mechanism called full-
duplex. On a standard network connection, the
communication between the system and the hub is said to be
half-duplex.
 Switching Methods
 Cut-through
◦ the switch begins to forward the packet as soon as it is
received.
◦ No error checking is performed on the packet,
◦ so the packet is moved through quickly.
◦ the switch can propagate errors
◦ 30 times faster than store-and-forward switching
 Store-and-forward
◦ the switch waits to receive the entire packet before
beginning to forward it.
◦ also performs basic error checking.
 Fragment-free
◦ works by reading only the part of the packet that enables
it to identify fragments of a transmission.
 On some managed switches, you can select the switching
method you want to use.
 Working with Hubs and Switches
 Hubs and switches have two types of ports: medium
dependent interface (MDI) or uplink port and medium
dependent interface crossed (MDI-X).
 Uplink port allows you to connect two hubs and
switches to create larger networks.
 Bridges are networking devices that connect
networks.
 Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks into
subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on each
larger subnet or for security reasons.
 Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets
and manages the traffic flow between them. Today,
network switches have largely replaced bridges.
 A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data,
based on the destination MAC address written into
each frame of data.
 If the bridge believes the destination address is on
a network other than that from which the data was
received, it can forward the data to the other
networks to which it is connected.
 If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the
data is blocked from passing. Bridges "learn" the MAC
addresses of devices on connected networks by
"listening" to network traffic and recording the network
from which the traffic originates.
 The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By
preventing unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other
network segments, a bridge can dramatically reduce the
amount of network traffic on a segment.
 Repeaters are usually used to strengthen signals
going long distances.
 A repeater amplifies the signal it receives on one
port before it transmits it on other ports.
 Because the repeater does not check on the
contents of the data it receives or retransmits,
frames that are corrupted by noise and other
factors can also be repeated.
 The development of the hub replaced the
repeater for all practical purposes, because it
performs the same functions, and can include
additional features.
 Routers are network devices that literally route data
around the network.
 By examining data as it arrives, the router can
determine the destination address for the data; then,
by using tables of defined routes, the router
determines the best way for the data to continue its
journey.
 Unlike bridges and switches, which use the
hardware-configured MAC address to determine the
destination of the data, routers use the software-
configured network address to make decisions.
 This approach makes routers more functional than
bridges or switches, and it also makes them more
complex because they have to work harder to
determine the information.
 A router is used to provide connectivity across wide
area network (WAN) links and route information
between two LAN segments.
 The figure below shows a router with two LAN
ports (marked AUI 0 and AUI 1) and two WAN ports
(marked Serial 0 and Serial 1). This router is
capable of routing data between two LAN segments
and two WAN segments.
 Gateways
 The term gateway is applied to any device,
system, or software application that can perform
the function of translating data from one format
to another.
 Actually, the term gateway refers more to a
network role than a network device.
 For example, a router that can route data from an
IPX network to an IP network is, technically, a
gateway.
 Another example of a gateway involves the
Systems Network Architecture (SNA) gateway,
which converts the data format used on a PC to
that used on an IBM mainframe or minicomputer.
A system that acts as an SNA gateway sits
between the client PC and the mainframe and
translates requests and replies from both
directions.
 The definition of gateways is vague, it's
because there is no definite answer. The
function of a gateway is very specific, but how
the gateway functionality is implemented is
not.
 Modems
 Modem is a contraction of the terms
modulator and demodulator.
 Modems perform a simple function: They
translate digital signals from a computer into
analog signals that can travel across
conventional phone lines.
 Modems provide a relatively slow method of
communication. In fact, the fastest modem
available on the market today has a
maximum speed of 56Kbps.
 available as
◦ internal devices that plug into PCI/ISA slots
◦ external devices that plug into serial or USB ports;
◦ PCMCIA cards designed for use in laptops
Cont….
 Cont….
Network Interface Cards (NICs)
 NICs are the mechanisms by which computers
connect to a network.
 NICs come in all shapes and sizes, and they
come in prices to suit all budgets.
 Known as network card, network adapter, and
LAN adapter, etc.
 When buying one consider
◦ Network compatibility – Ethernet/Token Ring
◦ Bus compatibility – PCI/ ISA /PCI-e
◦ Port compatibility – UTP/ Fibre
◦ Hardware compatibility – Easy to install /
Recognized by many OS’s
Cont….
Wireless Access Point (WAP)
 are a transmitter and receiver (transceiver)
device used for wireless LAN (WLAN) radio
signals.
 Depending on the size of the network, one or
more WAPs may be required. Additional WAPs
are used to allow access to more wireless
clients and to expand the range of the
wireless network.
 Communication depends on
◦ Distance between the client and the WAP
◦ Environmental conditions
Cont….
Transceivers
 The term transceiver does not necessarily
describe a separate network device but rather an
integrated technology embedded in devices.
 transceiver = transmitter and a receiver
 device that receives data, converts it, and then
sends it to another location
 RF transceivers, fiber-optic transceivers, Ethernet
transceivers, are examples
 can also be used in pairs to insert a fiber
segment into copper networks
Firewall
 a hardware or software system that is used to
separate one computer or network from
another one.
 The most common type is used to protect a
computer or an entire network from
unauthorized access from the Internet.
 can also be used to control the flow of data to
and from multiple networks within the same
organization. Firewalls
 can be programmed to filter data packets
based on the information that is contained in
the packets.
 Bit A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
 Byte A byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether
parity is used.
 Octet An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary
8-bit binary number.
 Network address This is the designation used in
routing to send packets to a remote network for
example, 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0.
 You can depict an IP address using one of three
methods:
 Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
 Binary, as in
10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
 Cont….
Summary of the three classes of networks
 Cont….

Network Address Range: Class A

 0xxxxxxx
◦ 00000000 = 0
◦ 01111111 = 127
Network Address Range: Class B
 10000000 = 128
 10111111 = 191
Network Address Range: Class C
 11000000 = 192
 11011111 = 223
Network Address Ranges: Classes D and E
 The addresses between 224 to 255 are
reserved for Class D and E networks.
 Class D (224–239) is used for multicast
addresses and Class E (240–255) for scientific
purposes
 Subnet Masks
 A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the
recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network
ID portion of the IP address from the host ID
portion of the IP address.
 The network administrator creates a 32-bit
subnet mask composed of 1s and 0s.
 The 1s in the subnet mask represent the
positions that refer to the network or subnet
addresses.