2.1.

Failure Prevention and

Stress Calculations
2.1.1
2 1 1 Introduction
Strength
y Strength is a property of a mechanical
element
y It results from
◦ material identity
◦ the treatment
◦ processing
◦ loading
y FAILURE

y Failure can mean

◦ A part has separated into two or more pieces

◦ Has become permanently distorted

◦ Has had its reliability downgraded

◦ Has
H had
h d its
i function
f i compromised
i d
2.1.2. STATIC STRENGTH

y The engineer should have available the results of a great

many strength tests of the particular material chosen

y These tests should be made on the specimens having

◦ Same heat treatment

◦ Surface finish

◦ Size

◦ Same loading condition

2.1.3.
2 1 3 Stress concentration factor

Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the

stress distribution in the neighbourhood
of the discontinuity so that the elementary
q
stress equations no longer
g describe
the state of stress in the part at these locations.
Such discontinuities are called stress raisers,
andd the
h regions
i i which
in hi h they
h occur are called
ll d
areas of stress concentration
SStress concentration
i ffactor for
f round
d bar
b with
ih
fillet
y A theoretical,
theoretical or geometric,
geometric stress-
stress
concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to
relate the actual maximum stress at the
discontinuityy to the nominal stress. The
factors are defined by the equations
y where Kt is used for normal stresses and
Kts for shear stresses. The nominal stress
σ0 or τ0 is more difficult to define.
define
Generally, it is the stress calculated by
using the elementary stress equations and
the net area, or net cross section. But
s metimes the gross
sometimes r ss cross
cr ss section
secti n is used
sed
instead, and so it is always wise to double
check
h k your source off Kt or Kts Kt before
b f
calculating the maximum stress.
2.1.4.
2 1 4 Failure theories
2.1.4.1. Maximum shear stress
theory
Case 1: σA ≥ σB ≥ 0. For this case, σ1 = σA and σ3 = 0. 
E
Equation for
ti f max shearh reduces to a yield condition of
d t i ld diti f
σA ≥ Sy
Case 2: σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB . Here, σ1 = σA and σ3 
Case 2: σA ≥ 0 ≥ σB . Here, σ1  σA and σ3 = σB , and Eq. 
σB , and Eq.
for max shear becomes σA − σB ≥ Sy
Case 3: 0 ≥ σA ≥ σB . For this case, σ1 = 0 and σ3 = σB , 
and Eq. for max shear gives σB ≤ −Sy
 2 1 4 2 Distortion energy theory
2.1.4.2.
Distortion Energy Theory (DE), Von-Mises or Von-Mises-Hencky Theory
(Hueber, Poland: 1904, von-Mises, Germany+US, 1913
and Hencky, Germany+US, 1925)

The Distortion Energy Theory (DE) originated from the

observation that ductile materials stressed hydrostatically exhibited
yield strengths greatly in excess of the values given by the simple
tension test.
Therefore, it was postulated that yielding was not a
simple tensile test or compressive phenomenon at all,
but, rather that it was related somehow to the angular
distortion of the stressed element
2.1.4.3. Coulomb Mohr Theory for
Ductile Materials
y Not all materials have compressive strengths
equal to their corresponding tensile values. For
example,
p the yyield strength
g of magnesium
g alloys
y in
compression may be as little as 50 percent of
their yield strength in tension.
y The ultimate strength of gray cast irons in
compression varies from 3 to 4 times greater
th the
than th ultimate
lti t tensile
t il strength.
t th So,
S ini thi
this
section, we are primarily interested in those
theories that can be used to predict failure for
materials whose strengths in tension and
p
compression are not equal.
q
y A variation of Mohr’s
Mohr s theory
theory, called the
Coulomb-Mohr theory or the internal-friction
theory, assumes that the boundary BCD in
the followingg Figure.
g
y Consider the conventional ordering of
the principal stresses such that σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥
σ3
y Triangles OBiCi are similar, therefore
y where B1C1 = St/2St/2, B2C2 = (σ1 − σ3)/2,
σ3)/2
and B3C3 = Sc/2, are the radii of the right,
center, and left circles, respectively. The
distance from the origing to C1 is St/2, to
C3 is Sc/2, and to C2 (in the positive σ
direction) is (σ1 + σ3)/2.Thus
Example 1
2.1.4.4.Failure of Ductile
Materials Summary
y the Figure below shows that either the
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS) or
the Distortion Energy Theory (DE) is
acceptable
p for design
g and analysis
y of
materials that would fail in a ductile
manner.
y The selection of one or the other of
these
h theories
h i iis somethinghi thath you, the
h
engineer, MUST DECIDE.
y For Design Purposes: Maximum Shear Stress
(MSS) Theory is
◦ easy
◦ quick to use
◦ conservative
y If the problem is to learn why a part failed,
then the Distortion Energy (DE) Theory may
be best to use. The Figure shows that the
locus of the DE passes closer to the central
area of the data points, and thus is generally
a better predictor of failure.
failure
y For ductile materials with , the Mohr
Theory is the best available. However, the
theory requires the results from three
separate modes of tests, graphical
construction of the failure locus, and fitting
the largest Mohr’s circle to the failure locus.
y Coulomb-Mohr Theory (CM) which requires
only tensile and compressive yield strengths
and represents an alternative to Mohr
Theory. It is easily dealt with in equation
form.
y The maximum-shear-stress (MSS) theory
predicts that yielding begins whenever the
maximum shear stress in any element equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension-
test specimen of the same material when that
specimen begins to yield
y The distortion-energy theory predicts that
yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy
per unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield
in simple tension or compression of the same
material
y compressive
p strengths
g are not equal q to their
corresponding tensile values
2.1.4.5Maximum-Normal
2.1.4.5Maximum- Normal--Stress
Theory for Brittle Materials
yThe maximum-normal-stress
maximum normal stress (MNS)
theory states that failure occurs whenever
one of the three principal stresses equals or
exceeds the strength.
g Again
g we arrange g the
principal stresses for a general stress state
in the ordered form σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3. This
theory then predicts that failure occurs
whenever
σ1 ≥ Sut or  σ3 ≤ −Suc
y where Sut and Suc are the ultimate tensile
and compressive strengths, respectively, given
as positive quantities.
y with σA ≥ σB,,
σA ≥ Sut or σB ≤ −Suc
y As
A before,
b f the
h failure
f l criteria equations
can be converted to design equations. We
can consider two sets of equations where
σA ≥ σB as
2.1.4.6 Modifications of the
Mohr Theory for Brittle
Materials
y We will discuss two modifications of the
Mohr theory for brittle materials: the
Brittle- Coulomb-Mohr (BCM) theory
and the modified Mohr ((MM)) theory. y
y The equations provided for the theories
will be restricted to plane stress and be of
the design type incorporating the factor
off safety.
f
A Brittle
A. Brittle--Coulomb
Coulomb--Mohr
B Modified Mohr
B.
I Modified Mohr I
I.
II Modified Mohr II
II.Modified
2.1.4.7.Failure of Brittle Materials
Summary
yAll theories agree in the first and third
quadrant.
y In the fourth quadrant:
◦ MNS fails.
◦ CM Conservative.
◦ M d I Mohr
Mod. M h less
l conservative.
ti
◦ Mod. II Mohr matches experimental data
better
2 1 4 8 Selection of Failure Criteria
2.1.4.8.
y For Ductile Materials:
y The preferred criterion is the DE theory,
although some designers also apply the
MSS theoryy because of its simplicity
p y and
conservative Nature.
y For
F Brittle
B ittl behaviour:
b h i Refer
R f tot the
th
flowchart of Figure shown below