Ut L III Study Guide

•
ASNT
Level III
Study Guide
Ultrasonic M
by
Matthew J. Golis
• The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

•
The Ultrasonic Level III Study Guide. prepared by Dr. Matthew J. Golis. is partially hased on earlier
efforts by Robert Baker and Joseph Bush.
Publication and review of this Study Guide was under the direction of the Level III Program Com
mittee (now known as the National Certification Board).
Published by The American Society for

Nondestructive Testing. Inc.
•
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228
Copyright © 1992 by The American Society for

Nondestructive Testinf'. Inc. Alll'if'hts I'cserved.
ISBN 0-931403-29-4
Printed in the United States of America
•
-- Preface
This study guide has been developed to assist persons preparing to take the Ultrasonic LcvclllI
eXaIll111utlon offered through ASNT. It is intended to feature the Inaja!" concepts considered central
to the traditional uses of Ultrasonics NDT as it is practiced throughout the USA, and to present
abstracts of several of the typical technical specialities, codes, and standards from which "applica-
tions" questions arc sometimes derived, It is not intended to be a comprehensive coverage of all
possible technical issues that may appear on the LevellII test. but rather it is intended to retlect the
breadth of the possible technology topics which comprise potential questions material. It is vital that
the supplemental references be carefully reviewed to amplify on the statements ill tlie Guide ill UHlel
to place each technical topic into its proper context.
The problems at the end of each section are intended to be used as feedback regarding the lIsel',
understanding of the concepts discussed in the sections, They require both a general understanding
of many of the topics as well as an ability to solve complex interpretation and analysis issues,
Mi"ed 'Y MClllS of units arc used (both English and melIic) lieea,,,c liullt dl c fUlIlld ill cUlltcllljJur"r y
codes and specifications, They sometimes call for interpretations of graphs, plots, and related
figures, which are an integral part of the language of the engineering sciences and technologies,
Suggestions for improvement to the Guide, its questions, or the related codes and specifications
should be sent to Educational Materials Coordinator, ASNT, 1711 Arlingate Lane, PO Box 28518,
Columbus, OH 43228-0518, The author acknowledges the support given to this project by the
technical reviewers, publications staff at ASNT, and patticularly the Technical Scrvkcs Department,
who recognized the need for this document and made the necessary anangerncnts for getting it
Clllllpletcu,
iii
Contents
• 3
4
Chapter 1 . Physical Principles
Wavc Characteristics
Reflection
5 Refraction
5 Mode Conversion
6 Critical Angles
6 Diffraction
7 Resonance
8 Attenuation
11 Chapter 1 Review Questions
Chapter 2 . Eljuipmelll
15 Basic Instrumentation
18 Transducers and Coupling
24 Special Equipment f'eatures
Chapter 3 - Common Prllctices

33 Approaches to Testing
37 Measuring System Performance
•
38 Reference Ref1ec.:tors
39 Calibration
Chapter 4 - Practical Considerations

53 Signal Interpretation
54 Causes of Variability
56 Spcciallswes
56 Weld Inspection
58 Immersion Testing
61 Production Testing
62 In-service Inspection
Chapter 5 . Codes and Standards

69 Typical Approache,
71 Summaries of Requirement,
73 ASTM
74 Excerpts Taken from ASTM A609
75 ASME
76 Excerpts Taken from ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
79 Military Standards
80 Excerpls Taken from MIL·STD·21 S4
81 Building Codes
• 82
85
Excerpts Taken from a Representative Building Code
Chapter 5 Review Questions
v
91
91
Chapter 6 " Special Topics
Resonance Testing
Flaw Sizing Techniques
•
97 Appendix A " A Representative Procedure for Ultrasonic Weld Inspection
101 Form A. Ultrasonic Testing Technique Sheet
102 Form B. Ultrasonic Inspection Results Fortn
103 Review Questions for a Representative Procedure for Ultrasonic
Weld Inspection
107 Appendix B "List of Materials. Velocities. and Impedances
109 Appendix C " Answer Key to Chapter Review Questions
111 Appendix [) " References
vi
•
•
Chapter 1
Physical Principles
•
• Chapter 1
Physical Principles
Sound is the propagation of mechanical en- propagation is limited to short travel distances.
ergy (vibrations) through solids, liquids und The C0111mon wave rnodes and their charactcri;,-
gases. The ease with which the sound travels, tics arc summarized in Table 1.1.
however, is dependent upon the detailed nature
of the material and the pitch (frequency) of the
sound. At ultrasonic frequencies (above 20,000
Hertz [Hz]), sound propagates well through most Wave Characteristics
elastic or ncar~clastic solids and liquld5~ particu-
larly those with luw viscosities. At frequencies The propagation of ultrasonic waves depends
above 100 kilohertz (kHz), sound energy can be on the mechanical characteristics of density and
formed into beams, similar to that of light, and elasticity, the degrec to which the material sup-
thus can be scanned throughout a material, not porting the waves is homogeneous and isotropic,
unlike that of a flashlight used in a darkened and the diffraction phenomena found with con-
room. Such sound beams follow many of the tinuous (or quasi-continuous) waves.
physical rules of optics and thus can be reflected.
•
refracted, diffracted and absorbed (when Continuous waves are described by their
nonelastic materials arc involved). At extremely wavelength, i .c., the distance the wave advances
high frequencies (above 100 megahertz lMHz]), in each repeated cycle. This wavelength is pro-
the sound waves are severely attenuatcd and portional to the velocity at which the wave is ad-
Table 1.1. Common Wave Mode Characteristics
Mode Notable Characteristics Velocity Alternate Names
Longitudinal Bulk wave in all media VI. PreA8ure Wave

In-line motion Dilatational (Straight Beam)
Transverse Bulk wave in solids Shear

Polarized, c.g. 9;,r, SH Torsional (Angle Beam)
Transverse motion
Surface (Guided) Boundary wave in solids VR - 0.9 Vr Rayleigh Wave

Polarized vertically
Elliptlca1 motion
Polarized horizontally Love Wave
Plate (Guided) Twin-boundary wave - solids F(f,T,mJ Lamb Wave

Symmetrical
Hourglass motion
Asymmetncal.
-
Flexing motion
..a ( ... I Common colloquial terms
Signific8 approximatc rclutionGhip foJ' curnmon materialG
F(f, T, ml Depends on Frequency, Thickness, and Material
3
vancing and is inversely proportional to its fre- wave travels at 3.2 km/sec. In aluminum, the
•
quency of oscillation. Wavelength may be longitudinal wave velocity is 6.3 km/sec while
thought of as the distance from one point to the the shear velocity is 3.1 km/sec. The wave-
next identical point along the repetitive wavelengths of sound for each of these materials are
fonn. Wavelength is described mathematically calculated using Equation I-I for each applicable
by Equation 1-1. test frequency used. For example, a 5 MHz L-
wave in water has a wavelength equal to 1483/
Wavelength =VelocitylFrequency 5(10)6 m or 0.298 mm.
(Eq.I-1)
When sound waves are confined within
The velocity at which bulk waves travel is boundaries, such as along a free surface or be-
determined by the material's elastic moduli and tween the surfaces of sheet materials, the waves
density. The expressions for longitudinal and take on a very different behavior, being con-
transverse waves are given in Equations 1-2 and trolled bv the confining boundary conditions.
I -3, respectively. These types of waves are called guided waves,
i.e" they are guided along the respective surfaces,
V=~Ji.
I p
( 1-11)
(l1!-l) (1-2f!)
and exhihit velocities that arc dependent upon
clastic moduli, density, thickness, surface condi-
(Eq. 12) tions, and relative wavelength interactions with
the surfaces. For Rayleigh waves, the useful
depth of penetration is restricted to about one
wavelength below the surface. The wave motion
2(1 +11) is that of a retrograde ellipse. Wave modes such
as those found with Lamb waves have a velocity
(Eq. 1-3)
•
of propagation dependent upon the operating fre-
where quency, sample thickness and elastic moduli.
VL is the longitudinal bUlk wave velocitv,
• They arc dispersive (velocity changes with fre-
VT is the transverse (shear) wave velocity, quency) in that pulses transmitted in these modes
G is the shear modulus, tend to become stretched or dispersed as they
E is Young' s modulus at" elasticity propagate in these modes and/or materials which
!-l is the Poisson ratio, and exhibit frequency-dependent velocities.
p is the material density.
Reflection
Typical values of bulk wave velocities in Ultrasonic waves, when they encounter a dis-
common materials are given in Table 1.2. A crete change in materials, as at the boundary of
more complete list is given in Appendix A. two dissimilar materials, are usually partially re-
From Table 1.2 it is seen that, in steel, a longitu- flected. If the incident waves arc perpendicular
dinal wave travels at 5.9 kmlsec. while a shear to the material interface. the reflected waves are
redirected back toward the source from which
Table 1.2. Acoustic Velocities and Imped-
they came. The degree to which the sound en-
ance of Common Materials
ergy is reflected is dependent upon the difference
in acollstic properties. i.e., acoustic impedances,
Material VL (m/sec) VT (m/sec) Z
between the adjacent materials.
Steel .':J900 3230 40,0
Acoustic impedance (Equation )-4) is the
Aluminum 6320 :ll:lO 17.0 product of a wave's velocity of propagation and
the density of the material through which the
Plexiglas n1 2730 1430 3.2 wave is passmg.
Water 148:3 1.5
4
z= p *V CEq. 1-4)
•
where a mode of propagation different from that of the
•
Z is the acoustic impedance, incident wave, Figure Lla shows normal reflec-
p is the density, and tion and panial transmission, while Figure 1.1 b
V is the applicable wave velocity, shows oblique reflection and the partition nf
waves into ret1ected and transmitted wave
Table 1.2 lists the acoustic impedances of 1110des.
several common materials,
Referring to Figure I, I b, Snell's Law may be
The degree to which a perpendicular wave is statcd as:
reflected from an acoustic interface is given by For example, at a water-plexiglas'" inter-
the energy reflection coefficient The ratio of the V
reflected acrmstic energy to that which is inci- sin p= (v',)sin ex
dent upon the interface is given by Equation 1-5, (Eq. 1-6)
R= (Z,-Z/ face. the refracted shear wave angle is related to

(Z_+Z,)' the incident angle by
(Eq, 1-5)
where sin P= (l4301l483)sin ex = (O.964)sin ex
R is the Coefficient of Energy Ret1ection
for normal incidence For an incident angle of 30 degrees,
Z is the respective material acoustic imped-
ances with sin ~ = U.,)64 x U.S and ~ = 2~.g degrees
Z, = incident wave material.
Z, transmitted wave material. and Mode Conversion
•
T is the" Coctlicient of Energy Transmis- 11 should be noted that the acoustic velocities
sion. (V, and V 2) used in Equation 1-6 must conform
Note: T + R = I to the modes of wave propagation which exist
for each given casc. For example, a wave in wa-
In the case of water-to-steel, approximately ter (which supports only longitudinal waves) in-
88 percent of the incident longitudinal wave en- cident on a steel plate at an angle other than 90
ergy is reflected back into the water. leaving 12 degrees can generate longitudinal, shear, as well
percent to be transmitted into the steel.' These as heavily damped surface or other wave modes,
percentages are arrived at using Equation 1-5 depending on the incident angle and test part ge-
with 7" = 4~ unci 7" = 1 ~ Th,,,. ometry. The wave may be totally reflected if the
R = (45-1.5)'/(45+1.5)' = (43.5/46.5)' '" 0.875. incident angle is sufficiently large. In any case,
or 88 percent and T = I - R = I - 0.88 = 0.12, the waves generated in the steel will be refracted
or 12 percent. in accordance with Snell's T.aw. whether th"y
are longitudinal or shear waves.
Refraction
When a sound wave encounters an interface Figure 1.2 shows the distribution of transmit-
at an angle other than perpendicular (oblique in- ted wave energies as a function of incident angle
cidence). rel1ections occur at angles equal to the for a water-aluminum interface. For example, an
incident angle (as measured from the normal or L-wave with an incidence angle of 8 degrees in
perpendicular axis). If the sound energy is par- water results in (I) a transmitted shear wave in
tially transmitted beyond the interface, the trans- the aluminum with 5 percent of the incident
mitted wave may be ( I) refracted (bent), dcpend- beam energy, (2) a transmitted L-wave with 25
109 on the relatt ve acom,tlc velOCItIes 01 the re- percent and (3) a reflected L-wave with IlJ per-
•
spective media, and/or (2) partially convened to cent of the incident beam energy. It is evident
from the figure that for low incidence angles
IWhen Equation J ~5 is expressed for pre.;;sure \',:a\'c" rather than
the energy comaint:d in the wa\C's, the terms in parcmhc'5cs arc (less than the first critical angle uf 14 uegrees),
not squared. more than one mode may be generated in the
5
•
Figure].]. Incident~ ref1e~tp.rI, tranlil1.mittp.ti, Hnrl rpfrR~t,p.d WAVIA~.at.a
liquid-solid interface.
a. b.
z, v,
z, v,
Nvnnal
Incidence
Oblique
Inch.lt:!Iu,:1;5
aluminum. Note lhallhe sum of rhe reflecrcd rhe incident angle al which rhe refracted angle
longitudinal wave energy and the transmitted en- equals 90 degrees (in accordance with Snell's
ergy or energies is equal to unity at all angles. law) and can only occur if the wave mode veloc-
The relative energy amplitudes partitioned into ity in the second medium is greater than the
•
the different modes are dependent upon several wave velocity in the incident medium. It may
variables, including each material's acoustic im- also be defined as the incident angle beyond
r~rl8nc,e. ~~ch w~ve mode velocity (in both the which a specific 1110de cannot occur in the sec-
incident and refracted materials). the incident ond medium. In the case of a water-to-steel in-
angle. and the transmitted wave mode(s) re- terface, there are two critical angles derived from
fracted angle(s). Snell's Law. The first occurs at an incident
angle or 14.5 degrees for the longitudinal wave.
Critical Angles The second occurs at 27.5 degrees for the shear
The critical angle for the interface of two wave. Equation 1-7 can be used to calculate the
media with dissimilar acoustic wave velocities is critical incident angle for any material combina-
tion.
Figure 1.2. Reflection and transmission

coefficients versus incident
angle for water/aluminum (Eq.I-7)
interface.
..• 1.0
Reflected Longitudinal Wave
For example, the first critical angle for a wa-
ter-aluminum interface is calculated using the
~ critical angle equation as
~~ O.G Transmitted at'
.rH
= sin I (1483/6320) '" 13.6 degrees
~ 0.4· Longitudinal /
Wave / Transmitted
.,::
5' 0.2
She.... r W,,-ve
Diffraction
"
Plane waves advancing through homogene-
•
" as 40
ous and isotropic elastic media tend to travel in
Tn('iden('(': Angl(': (dP-grl'(,:R)
>(jaigitllay palh> unle" a change in media prop-
erties is enconntered. A flat (much wider than
6
the incident beam) interface of differing acoustic where
•
properties redirects the incident plane wave in ¢ is the beam divergence half angle,
the form of a specularJy (mirror-like) reflected or A is the wavelength in the media,
refracted plane wave as discussed above. The f is the frequency of oscillation,
a'~llm[1linn in thil;, cns~ is that the interface j" V is the velncity of sOllnd wnve prnp;'"i!j}"j-
large in comparison to the incident beam's di- tion.
mensions and thus does not encounter any D is the diameter of the aperture (trans-
"f':cief':s, " riue"r).
N is the length of the Near Field (Fresnel
On the other hand, when a wave encounters a Zone).
point reflector (sm"lI in comp"rison to" wave-
length), the reflected wave is re-radiated as a Note: The multiplier of 1.2 in Equation 1-8 is for
spherical wave front. Thus, when a plane wave the theoretical null. 1.08 is used for 20 dB down
f'nC()lIntf':f>; tht": eOef':1\ of fPflf':crivp inrf':rf}'lcPs., point (10 percent of peak), 0.1<1< is user! fm 10 r!R
such as near the tip of a fatigue crack. specular down point (32 percent of peak) and 0.7 for 6 dB
reflections occur along the "flat" surfaces of the down point (50 percent of peak).
CTfirk )'Inn rylinrlric:ll W::-1Vf'lf't, rlrf'. lrnllldw.n from
the edges. Since the waves arc coherent, i.e., the For example, a 20 mm diameter, L-wave
same frequency (wavelength) and in phase, their transducer, radiating into steel and operating at a
redirection into the p:lth of sllhseqllent <ldv<lncing frequency of? MH7. will have a near field given
plane waves results in incident and reflected by
(scattered) waves interfering. i.e., forming re- N '" [20(1 O)T x 2(10)'
gl()m:, of ff':infof('eme:nr (cOns.tfllcrivf' interfer-
200 (10)" '" 33.9 mm
4'" 5.9(10), 5.9
ence) and cancellation (destmctive interference).
•
and half-beam spread angle given hy
Thi, (.(.intf"rff':rin2" hf':h::lvinf i, Ch:lf:lctf"ri,ric
of continuous waves (or pulses from "ringing" 1.2 X 5.9(10)' } 10.2 degrees
¢ '" sin I {
ultrasonic transducers) and, when applied to 20(10) J * 2(10)'
edgps. :md ::Ipf':ftllff"S "f'fving::ls. s.Ollfef':s. of . . nlmd
beams, is known as wave diffraction. It is the If the 10 percent peak value was desired
fundamental basis for concepts such as trans- rather than the theoretical null, the 1.2 would be
ducer beam spread (directivity), near field, changed to 1.08 and ¢ would equal 9.2 degrees.
wavelength-limited !law detection sensitivity, Using the multiplier of 0.7 for the 6 dB down
and assists in the sizing of discontinuities using value. the half angle becomes 6 degrees.
dual transducer (crack-tip diffraction) tech-
niques. Figure 1.3 shows examples of plane Resonance
waves being changed into spherical or cylindri- Another form of wave interference occurs
cal waves as a reStl!t of diffraction from point re- when normally incident (at normal incidence)
flectors, linear edges and (transducer-like) aper- and reflected plane waves interact (usually
tures. within narrow, parallel interfaces). The ampli-
tudes of the superimposed acoustic waves arc ad-
Beam spread and the length of the near field ditive when the phase of the doubly-reflected
for round sound sources may be calculated using wave matches that of the incoming incident
Equations 108 and 109. wave and creates "standing" (as opposed as trav-
eling) acoustic waves. When standing waves oc-
sin QJ 1.2 ~ cur. the item is said to be in resonance. i.e., reso-
(Eq. 1 8) nating. Resonance OCCurs when the thickness of
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the item equals half a wavelength' or its mul-
tiples, i.e., when T ~ V/2F. This phenomenon
occurs when piezoelectric transducers arc ckctri~
(Eq. 19) cally excited at their characteristic (fundamental
7
•
Figure 1.3. Examples of diffraction due to the presence of edges.
u. Point Reflector b. Edge Reflector
c. Squ3l'e Apel."ature d. Round Aperature
resonant) frequency. It also occurs when longi- The relative impact of the pr""'ll"" of
tudinal waves travel through thin sheet materials scattering sources depends upon their siLc in
during immersion testin£;. comparison to the wavelength of the ultra-
sonic wave. Scatterers mll..:h smaHcr than \l
Attenuation wavelength are of little consequence. As the
Sound waves decrea;;", ]11 intensity as trrey
travel away from their source. due to geometrical
spreading, scattering, and absorption. Tn fine-
grained, homogen<'olJs. and isotropic elastic ma-
terials, the strength of the sound field is a\kcted
mainly by the nature of the radiating source and
scatterer size approaches that of a wavelength,
scattering within the matcri"l becomes in-
creasingly troublesome. The effects on such
signal attenuation can be partially compen-
smcd by u,ing longer wavcle.ngth (low"r fre-
quency) sound sources, usually at the cost of
•
its attendant directivity pattern. Tight patterns decreased sensitivity to discontinuities and
(small beam angles) lravel farther than widel'i resolution.
diverging patterns, -
Some scatters, such as columnar grains in
When ultrasonic waves pass through com- stainle"s steels and lominated composites, ex-
mon polycrystalline elastic engineering materials hibit highly anisou'opk elastic behavior. 1n
(that are generally homogeneous but contain these cases, the incident wave front becomes
evenly distributed scatterers, e.g" gas pores, S~¥ di,tortE'd "n" often appears to change direc-
regated inclusions, and grain boundaries), the tion (propagate beller in certain preferred di-
waves are partially reHeeted at each discontinu- rections) in response to the material's anisot-
ity and the energy is saill to be scanereu illto ml'Y· This behavior of some materials can to-
many different directions. Thus, the acoustic tally destroy the usefulness of the lJT ap-
wave that starts out as a coherent plane wave proach to materials evaluation.
front becomes partially retlilt:~tcd a' it pa,,'e;;
through the material. Sound waves in some matenals are ab-
sorbed by the processes of mechanical hyster-
esis, internal friction, or other energy loss
'"If a layer between two differing medIa has an a(ou~tic irtlQed-
•
'cluee equallo the geomctnc mC<ll1 of the owe! twu and its mechanisms. These processes occur ill lI(lll-
lhickne~;::, is equal to onc.~quarter wavelength, 100 percent of thi: elastic materials such as plastics, rubber, lead,
incident acousth.: energy, at rwr11lal inciuence, \vUl be tG.l.t'l,smitteu
through the dualintertace.s Der.'ausc the lrtledcring YI-'UVC5 io the and non-rigid coupling materials. As the me-
layer combine to .~en'e as an acoustic impedance tran:-:.fonner. chanical wave attempts \0 propagate through
8
sud! 1J1dtcrials, pun of ils energy i~ given up in operating frequency and thus any stated values
•
the form of heat and is not recoverable. Absorp- must be used with caution.
tion is usually the reason that testing of soft and
pliable materials is limited In relatively thin sec- Because many factors affect the Signals re-
tions. turned in pulse-echo testing. direct measurement
of material attenuation can be quite difftcult. De-
Attenuation is rnp"sured in terms or
the en- tected signals depend heavily upon operating fre-
ergy loss ratio per unit length, C.g., decibels per quency. boundary ].:omlilions, and waveform ge-
in. or decibels per meter. Y alU\:~s range frollll~.ss ometry (plane or other), as well as the precise na-
than 10 dB/m for aluminum to over ture of the materials being evaluated. Materials
100 dB/m or more for some castings. plastics. arc highly variable due to their thermal hi.,tory.
and concrete. balance of alloying or other integral constituents
(aggregate, fibers, matrix uniformity. water/void
Table 1.3 shows some typical values of at- content, to name a few), (if; well as mechanical
tenuation for common NDT applicati\lus. Be processing (forging. rolling. extruding, and the
awarf'> that attenuation is highly dependent upon preferential directional nature of these processes).
Table 1.3. Attenuation Values for Common Materials
Nature of Mater,al Attenuation' Principal

(dB/m) Cause
NQt'rnali,ed Steel 70 Scatter
• 90
Aluminum, Scatter
6061·T6511
Stainles~ SteeL 110 ScatterlRedirection

RXX
Plastic (clear acrylic) :180 Absorption

*Frequency of 2.25 MHz, LongitudinaJ wave mode
• 9
• Q.I-I Sound wave, continue to tmvel _ _ __

A. until they are reflected hy material surfaces
B. gradually dissipating by the effects of beam
'llIt:ad
C. gradually dissipating by scattering and ab-
sorption
Q. 1-7 V cloci ty measurements in a material re-
vealed that thc vclocity decreased as frequency in-
creased. This material is called _ _ __
A. dissipated
B. discontinuous
C. dispersi ve
D. all of the above D. degenerative
Q.1-2 Wavelength may be defined as _ _ __ Q. I -8 Plate thickness = 25.4 mm, pulse-echo,

A. [leyueucy di vided by velocity straight beam mc"surcd c1apsed time ~ 8 microsec-
B. the distance along a wave train from peak to onds. What is the most likely material?
trough A. carbon steel
C. tlIe uistdllce from one point to the nexl iden- D. lead
tical point along a wavetrain C. titanium
D. the distance along a wavetrain from an area D. aluminum
of high pallicle ululivu III vue 1I[ low PiU-
ticle motion Q.l-9 It can be deduced from Table 1.2 that the
densities of _ _ __
Q.I-3 To Uelt;IUliue wavelength _ _ __ A. water andplexiglus'U arc in thc ratio of 1.16:1
A. multiply velocity by frequency B. steel and aluminum are in the ratio of 2.8: I
B. divide velocity by frequency C. quartz and aluminum are in the ratio of 1.05: 1
C. uiviuc l"n:yueucy by velllcily D. all uf the above
D. none of the above
• Q.I-4 The wavelt:uglh or a 5 MHL suunu wave in

water is
A. 0.01 in.
B. 0.10 in.
C. 0.296 m
. (V, = 1.48(10)5 em/sec)
Q.l-l0 The acoustic energy reflected at a
plex;glasT>1-yuartz interface is equal 10 _ _ __
A.
B.
C.
D.
64 percent
41 perc<'nt
22 pel cent
52 percent
D. 3.00 mm
Q.1-11 The acoustic energy trallsrniUed through a
Q.I-5 Thickness resonance occurs when plex;glas™ -water interface is equal to _ _ __
transducers and test parts are excited at a fre- A. 87 percent
yuency "yual lu where V = S\Juuu vd\Jeity B. 36 percent
and T = item thickness. C. 13 percent
A.2TN D. 64 percent
B. T/2V
C. V/2T Q.I-12 The first critical angle at a water-
D. 2VIT plexiglas T " interface will be _ _ __
A. 1n uegrees
Q.I-6 Thc equations that show VI and V T being B. 33 degrees
dependent on elastic properties suggest that __ . C. 22 degrees
A. materials with higher densilies will usually D. nune uf' the abuve
have higher acoustic velocities
B. materials with higher moduli will usually Q.I-13 The second critical angle at a water-
have higher vdudlks plexiglasT'l illlerface will be _ _ __
•
C. wave velocities rely mostly upon the ratios A. 22 degrees
of elastic moduli to material density B. 33 degrees
D. v , will always be one-half of VL in (he c. 67 degrees
same material D. none of the above
11
Q.I ~ 14 The incident angle needed in immersion Q.1-20 Two plates yield different backwall
•
testing to develop a 70-degree shear wave in ret1ections in pulse-echo testing (18 dB) with
plexiglas™ equals _ _ __ their only apparent difference being in the
A. 83 degrees second material's void content. The plates are
B. 77 degrees both 3 in. thick. What is the effective change in
C. 74 degrees acoustic attenuation between the first and second
D. 65 degrees plate~
A. 3 dBlin
Q.I-IS Figure 1.2 shows the partition of inci- B. 6 dB/in
dent and transmitted waves at a water-aluminum C. 18 dBlin
interface. At an incidence angle of 20 degrees. D. none of the above
the reflected wave and transmitted waves are
respectively _ _ __ Q.I-21 The equation, sin <il = 0.7 AID, describes
A. 60 percent and 40 percent
B. 40 percent and 60 percent A. beam spread angle at SO percent decrease
C. 1/3 and 2/3 in signal from the centerline value
D. 80 percent and 20 percent B. one-half the beam spread angle at 50
percent decrease in signal from the
Q.l-16 From Figure 1.2 it is evident that the centerline value
sum of the incident wave's partitions (transmit- C. one-half the beam spread angle at )()
ted and ret1ected) is _ __ percent decrease in signal from the
A. highly irregular at low angles, bUl constant centerline value
above 30 degrees D. one-half the beam spread angle at 100
B. lower at angles between 16 and 26 degrees percent decrease in signal from the
•
C. rarely more than 0.8 centerline value
D. always equal \0 unity
Q.!-22 The beam spread half-angle in the far
Q.I-17 The principal attenuation modes are_. field of a 1 in. diameter transducer sending 5
A. absorption. scatter. beam spread MHz longitudinal waves into a I'lniglf1S T \I hlock
1S _ _ __
B. beam spread, collimation, scatter
C. scatter, absorption, focusing A. 0.5 degrees
D. scatter. beam spread. adhesion R. 1.~ ciq,rees
C. 3.1 degrees
Q.! 18 Attenuation caused by scattering _ _ . D. 6.2 degrees
A. increases with increased frequency and
grain size Q.I-23 The near field of a round 112 in. diame-
B. decreases with increased frequency and ter contact L-wave transducer being used on a
gram size steel test paT'! operatine"' i MHz is _ __
C. increases with higher frequency and de- A. 0.5 in.
creases with larger grain size B. I in.
D. decreases with higher frequency and C'. 1 cm
decreases with larger grain size D. 2 cm
Q.I-!9 In very fine-grain, isotropic crystalline Q.I-24 The depth of penetration of the sound
material, the principal loss mechanism at 2 MHz beam into a material can be increased by ___ .
IS _ _ __ A. using a higher frequency
A. scatter B. using a longer wavelength
B. mechanical hysteresis C. using a smaller transducer
C. beam spread
D. absorption
12
D. using a lower frequency and a larger
tr::tn"clllcer
•
•
Chapter 2
Equipment
•
• Chapter 2
Equipment
Basic Instrumentation generator (that forces the electron beam within
the cathode ray tube to move horizontally across
The basic electronic instrument used in the screen), and other special circuits as needed
pulsed ultrasonic testing contains a source of including markers, sweep delays, gates, elec-
voltage spikes (to activate the sound source, i.e., tronic distance amplitude correction (DAC)
the pulser) and a display mechanism that permits units, and other support circuits.
interpretation of recei vcd ultrasonic acoustic
impulses, i.e., the sweep generator, receiver and Pulse signals from the receiver search unit'
cathode ray tube (CRT). A block diagram of the are amplified to a level compatible with the CRT
basic unit is shown in Figure 2.1.
'The term pulse is used in two conl!;,:xls in ultrasonic NDT
systems. The electronic system sends an exciting electri\.~al
Several operations are synchronized by the "Pllh£' to the transducer being u:>ied to emit the ultrasonic wave.
clock (timer) circuitry which tri,ggers appropriate This eJectri(;al pulse is usually a unidirectional spike with a fast
components to initiate actions including the rise-time. The- re~ultjng acoustic "wave packet" ernittect by the
transducer is the ultrasonic pulse, characterized by.a predominant
•
pulser (that activates the transducer), the sweep ccolml frequency at the transducer's natural thickness resonance.
Figure 2.1, Block diagram of basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument.
j.,
Timer ... Sweep
/
• Generator
lit-
CRT
~Lu~
Pulsel'
H.
l( ~Ir
......!lJ'
.... v.
If
1L
• 15
Table 2.1. Instrumentation Controls Effects
Pulser
Instrument COl1trol
Pulse Lene,>th (Damping I

Comments on Signal Response
If short, improves depth resolution;

If long, improves penetration
•
Repetition Rut.a
Receiver
Frequency Response Wide Band-faithful reproduction of signal, higher background noise
Narrow Band-higher sen~iLivity, smoothed signals, requires matched (tuned)
system
Ifhigh. improves scnsitivitv. higher backg-round noise
Display
Sweep
-Mater-J[i1 Adjust Calibration critical fDr de])tn information
Delay Permits "spreading"of echo pulses for detailed analysis
Reject Lowers dynamic range, suppresses low-level noise, alters vertical linearity
Smoothing Suppresses detailed pulse structure
Output (Ahn'm, Record.'

Gates
Time Window
•
Selects portion of display for analysis, gate may distort pulses
rDelay, Width'
Sets output denditivity
Permits positive and negative images. allows triggering on both increasing and
decreasing pulses
and appear as vertical excursions of the electron operator and the impact they have on the validity
beam sweeping across the screen in response to of an ultrasonic test. If desired, a particular
the sweep generator. The recei ved signals are portion of the trace may be "gated" and the signal
often prore",,,, tn enhance interpretation within the gate sent to some external device. i.e ..
through the use of filters (rharlimir spurious an alarm or recording device, which registers the
hackground noise and smooth the appearance of presence (or absence) of echo signals that are
the pul",,), reetifiers (Ihn! chnne~ the oscilbtory heing sought (or for which their loss signifies a
radio-frequency [RFJ signals to uni-directional potential problem exists).
spike,,), and clipping circuits (that reject low-
level background signals). The final signals are Characteristics of the initial pulse (shape and
passed on to the vertical detlection plates of the frequency content) are carried forward through-
CRT and produce the time-delayed echo signals out the system, to the transducer, the test i(em,
interpreted hy th,. lTT operator. commonly back to the transducer, the receiver, the gate. and
refen'ed to as an A-scan (signal amplitude the CRT. In essence, the information content of
displayed as a function of time). the initial pulse is modified hy each of these
items and it is the result of this collective signal
All of these functiol1> are within the control processing that appears on the screen of the CRT.
of the operator and their collective settings
represent tht:' ··':;t:'tllr'· of thf': in"tnI111f"nL Tflhlf':
2.1 lists the variables under the control of the
16
The initial pulse may range from several
hundred to over 1000 volts and have a very short
•
risc-time. In other systems, the initial pulse may where a change of 20 dB, i.e .. N = 20, makes
•
represent a portion of a sinusoidal oscillation that
is tuned to correspond to the natural frequency of
the;,;: tlauSUw.,;I;;L Tht" ~jnLl:-,oiuul t;x(,;jlalivll i:s uflt:1I
used where longer duration pulses are needed to Thus 20 dB is equivalent to a ratio of 10: I.
penetrate highly attenuative materials such as
rubber and concrete. Signals may be displayed as RF waveforms,
representing a close replica of the acoustic wave
Signals from the receiving transducer (usu- as it was detected by the receiving transducer, or
ally in the millivolt range) are too small to be as video waveforms, (half or full-wave recti-
directly sent to the CRT. Both linear and loga- fied), used to double the effective viewing range
rithmic amplifiers are used to raise signal levels of the CRT screen (bottom to top rather than
needed to drive the CRT plates. These amplifi- centerline to toplbottom), but suppressing the
ers, located in the receiver sections of the A-scan phase information that is available in the RF
units, must be able to produce output signals that presentations.
are linearly related to the input signals and which
supply signal processing intended to assist the To enhance the ability to accurately identify
operator in interpreting the signals displayed on and assess the nature of the received ultrasonic
the CRT. pulses. panieularly when there exists an exces-
sive amount of background signals, various
Amplifiers may raise incoming signals to a means of signal processing are used. Both tuned
maximuTll level, followed by precision attenu- receivers (narrow-band instruments) and low
ators that decrease the signal strength to CRT- pass filters are used to selectively suppress
usable levels. i.e., capable of being positioned on portions of the received spectrum of signal
•
the CRT screen face. or they may be capable of frequencies which do not contain useful informa-
changing amplification ratios in direct response tion from the test material.
to the "Gain" control.
Linear systems, such as the ultrasonic instru-
Discrete attenuators (which have a loganth- ments receiver secllon (as well as each of the
mic response) are currently used due to their clements of the overall system), are character-
ease of precise construction and simple means ized by the manner in which they affect incom-
for altering signal levels which extend beyond ing signals. A common approach is to stali with
the viewing range of the CRT screen. Their the frequency content of the incoming signal
extensive use has made "decibel notation" a part (from the receiving transducer) and to describe
of the standard terminology used in describing how that spectrum of frequencies is altered as a
changes in signallcvcls. e.g., receiver gain and result of passing through the linear system.
material attenuation.
When both useful target information (which
Equation 2-1 (ratios to decibels) shows the may be predominantly contained in a narrow
relationship between the ratio of two pulse band of frequencies generated by the sending
amplitudes (A, and AI) and their equivalence transducer) and background noise (which may be
expressed in decibel notation IN dl ,). distributed randomly over a broad spectrum of
frequencies) are present in the signal entering the
receiver, selective passing of the frequencies of
interest emphasizes the signals of interest while
(Eq.2-1) suppressing the others which interfere with
interpretation of the CRT displAy
• Inversion of this equation results in the

useful expression
A:; f A 1 = 10";'° '
17
When an llllrasonic instrument is described
as being broad-banded, that means a verv wide
array of frequencies can be processed th~ough
•
Figure 2.2. Comparison of time domain and frequency domain representations of typical
signals found in ultrasonic testing.
I~~,"~ .
---8~
A
v t.VV hme
.
Recelver
l",./\f\!\/\
U OV'J'T\l:nc
[Input] [Output]
Band pass]
[_ ne:!lpo11.:!'Ie
Frequency Domain Frequency Response
A
A A
frequency
fo frequency
the instrument with a minimum of alteration, i.e ..

tlie 'igllal observed on the CRT screen is a close,
but amplified, representation of the electrical
Transducers and Coupling
A transducer. as applied to ultrasonic testing,
•
signal measured at the receiving transducer. is the means by which electrical energy is con-
Thus both useful signals and background noise vcrted into acoustic energy and back again. The
are prescnt and the signal-to-noise ratio (SIN) device, adapted for UT, has been called a probe,
may not be very good. The shape and ampli- a search unit, a crystal, and a transducer." A
tudes of the signals, however, tend to be an probe or search unit 111<1)' contain one or 1110rC
accurate representation of the received response transducers, plus facinglbacking materials and
from the transducer. connectors in order to meet a specific UT design
need.
A narrow-banded instrument, on the other
hand, suppresses that portion of the frequency A critical element of each search unit is the
contcnt of tbe incoming signal that is outside transducer's active matedal. COlnmonly used
(above or below) the "'pass" frequency band. materials generate stress waves when they are
With the high-frequency noise suppressed, the subjected to electrical stimuli, i.e .. piezoelectrics.
gain of the instrument can be increased, leading These materials are characterized by their COIl-
to an improved sensitivity. However, the shape version factors (electrical to/from mechanical),
and relative amplitudes of pulse frequency thermal/mechanical stability, and other physical!
components ure often altered. Figure 2.2 graphi- chemical features. Table 2.2 lists many of the
•
cally shows these effects for a typical ultrasonic
signal. 'The term transducer i:, gem:rh.: in that il applies to any device
that conve11~ one form of enen~Y into another, e.g .. light bulbs.
electric heater". ami ~olar collectors.
18
Table ~.~. Piezoelectric Material Characteristics
Material Efficiency Imped- Critical Displace- Electrical Density Note
ance Temp ment
T R TfR (Z) P
Qnartz 1 1 1 15.2 576 2.3 57 2.65 ( 1)

X-cut
PZT5 70 0.21 14.6 33 193·365 374·593 20·25 7.5 (2)

Lead Zirconate
Titunntc
BaTi 8.4 :1l.2 115·150 125-190 14·21 5.4 (2)

Barium Titanate
PMN 32 20.5 550 80-85 32·42 6.2 (2)

Lead Metaniobatc
LSH 6.9 -2.0 11.2 75 15·16 156·175 2.06 (3)

Lithium Sulfate
Hydrate
LN 2.8 0.54 1.51 34 6 23 4.64

Lithium Niobate
PVDF 6.9 1.35 9.3 4.1 165·180 14 140-210 1.76 (4)

Polylvinylidene
Fluoride)
•
Notes:
III ~cchanically and chemically stable; X~cut yields longitudinal wave motion while Y~cut
yields distortional transverse waveR.
(2) Ferroelectric ceramic requiring poling and subject to extensive cross~mode coupling,
(3) Soluble in water, R estimated at -2.
141 Flexible polymer.
Figure 2.3. Quality factor or "Q.' of a transducer.
Time-Domain Frequency Domain

a.
"f\J\/\fINL 1.0
~
fo 0.7
.. r Q=-
f2 • f,
f,
b.
1.0 ~.--~
I I
•
0.7 --I I
, I
19
materials used and some of their salient features. ducer can be separated into two zones or areas.
•
The critical temperature is the temperature above The Near (Fresnel) Field and the Far
which the material loses its piezoelectric charac- (Fraunhofcrl Field arc shown in Figure 2.4 with
teristic. It may be the depoling temperature of the shaded areas representing regions of rela-
the felToelectrics, the decomposition temperature tively high pressure.
for the lithium sulfate or the Curie Temperature
for the quartz. The near field is the region directly adjacent
to the transducer and characterized as a collec-
The quality factor. or "Q." of tuned circuits. tion of symmetrical high and low pressure
search units or individual transducer elements is regions caused by interfering wavefronts ema-
a perfollnance measure of their frequency selec- nating from a continuous, or near continuous.
tivity. It is the ratio of the search unit's funda- sound source. Huygcn's principle treats the
mental (resonance) frequency (f) to its band- transdLlcer face as a series of point sources of
width (I', - 1'1) at the 3 dB down points (0.707) sound. which interfere with each other's wave-
and shown in Figure 2.3. lets throughout the near field. Each point source
emits spherical wavefronts which start out in
The ratIo 01 the acoustic Impedance ot the phase at the transducer surface. At observation
transducer and its facing materials governs how points somewhat removed from the plane wave
well the sound from the transducer can be source (the transducer face), wavefronts from
coupled into the matenal andlor the backlllg vanous pomt sources (separated laterally from
material. From tbe table of piezoelectric mate- each other) interfere as a result of the differing
rial characteristics, it is apparent that none of the distances the waves had to travel in order to
materials is an idealmatcl1 for NDT. Thus dual reach the observation point. Both high and low
transducer search units are sometimes made such pressure zones result, depending on whether the
•
that the transmitter and receiver are made of superimposed aggregate of interfering waves are
different transducer marerials in order [0 rake COllSlfUCti vc (in phase) or destructi ve (180
advantage of their respective strengths and to degrees out of phase).
minimize their weaknesses.
As a spedaJ case. the variation in beam
As a result of diffraction effects. the sound pressure as a function of distance from a circular
beam emitted from search units tends to spread transducer face and along its major axis is gi yen
with increa~jHg Ji~tUlH':t' uway f1UI11 Lite ~UUIILl by E'lUUlioll 2-2.
source. The sound beam exiting from a trans-
Figure 2.4. Conceptual representation of the sound field

emitted by a circular plane-wave piezoelectric
trall5ducel'.
Fur
• :--';-cnr
(Fresnel) • (Fraunhoferl
20
•
y+=
D' - J}(2m + I)' hased directivity (beam sbape) factor. Maximum
; m = 0, ± I, ±2, ... ±m
•
n1
4A(2m + I) pressure amplitudes exist along the beam
(Eq. 2-2) centerline. Figure 2.5 shows a graphical repre-
sentation of a lypical distance-amplitude varia-
tion for a straight beam transducer.
where
Y+ is the position of maxima along central
The penetration, depth resolution, and sensi-
axis,
tivity of an ultrasonic system are strongly de-
D j:., lite uiauu;lcl v[ a \Cill,;ulal I auiittvl, allu
pendent upon the nature of the pulse emitted by
A is the wavelength of sound in the me- the transducer. High-frequency, short-duration
dium.
pulses exhibit better depth resolution but allow
less penetration into common engineering
Since A' is insignificant compared to D' for
materials. A short time-duration pulse of only a
most ultrasonic testing frequencies, particularly
few cycles is known as a broadband pulse be-
ill watel, at tit" 1",t maximu111, (111 = 0). Eyualivll
cause its frequency-domain equivalent band-
2-2 becomes:
widtb is large. Such pulses exhibit good depth
D' resolution.
Y!,= 4'f"
(Eq. 2-3) Most search units are constructed with a
backing material bonded to the rear face of the
This point defines the end of the near field and is transducer that provides strength and damping
the same expression as given in Equation 1-9. for the transducer element. This backing mate-
rial is usually an epoxy, preferentially filled with
At distances well removed from the sound tungsten or some other high-density powder that
•
source (the far field), the waves no longer inter- increases the effective densi ty of the epoxy to
fere with each other (since the difference in something approaching that of the transducer
travel path to the center and edge of the source element. Thus the tungsten assists in matching
are much less than a wavelength) and the sound the acoustic impedance of the transducer (which
field is reduced in strength in a monotonic is usually relatively high) to the backing mate-
manner. In the far field, the beam is diverging rial. When the backing is in intimate contact
and has a spherically shaped wave front as if with the transducer, the pulse duration is short-
radiating from a point source. The far field ened to a few oscillations and decreased in peak
sound field intensity decreases due to both the signal amplitude. The pulse energy is therefore
distance from the source and the diffraction- partitioned between the item being tested and the
backing material (which removes the rearward-
directed waves and absorbs them in the coarse-
surfaced epoxy).
Figure 2.5. Typical straight bcam
DAC curve.
Search units come in many types and styles
Near Field I Far Field depending upon their purpose. Most search units
usc an L-wavc-generating sound source. "Nor-
mal" or "straight" beam search units, the collo-
quial names gi ven to longitudinal wave transduc-
ers when used in contact testing. are so named
because the sound beam is directed into the
material in a perpendicular (normal) direction.
These units generate longitudinal waves in the
material and are used for thickness gaging and
• Mptl'll Travel Distance
21
Haw detection of laminar-type flaws. Both
contact and immersion search units are readily
available. To improve near-surface resolution
couple the acoustic wave to the item being
•
Figure 2.6. Introduction of shear waves tested. This liquid is the "couplant" often men-
through mode conversion. tioned in UT. When immersion testing is being
conducted. the part is immersed in water which
serves as the couplant. When contact testing is
d
being condUCTed, liquids with varying viscosities
are used in order to avoid unnecessary runoff,
particularly with materials with very rough
4.5 Dogroo Retro(1t~d
~ontact surfaces or when testing overhead O!
r Beam Shear wave
vertically.
-+--1-+-+-
Liquids transmit longitudinal sound waves
rather well, but because of their lack of any
significant shear moduli (except for highly
viscous materials), they no not trensmit ,h,,"r
waves. 5 Couplants should wet the surfaces of
both the search unit and the material under test in
order to exclude anv air that might become
and to decrease noise. standoff devices and dual entrapped in the gap( s) between the transducer
crystal units may be used. and the test piece. Couplants must be inert to
both the test material and the search unit.
Transverse (shear) waves are introduced into
test materials by inclining the incident L-wave Contact couplants must have many desirable
beyond the first critical angle. yet short of the properties including: wetubility (crystal, shoe,
•
second cntIcal angle. In Immersion testing, this and test materials), proper viSCOSIty, low cost,
is done by changing the angle of the search unit removability, non-corrosive and non-toxic
manipulator. In the case of cylindrical products, properties. low attenuation, and an acoustic
,h~'11 wav~s ,all b~ gCIl~I'alcd by u(,CseLLing lhe impedance lhat lllatdle, well with the Olher
transducer from the centerline of the pipe or materials. In selecting the couplant. the operator
round bar being inspected. Figure 2.6 shows a must consider all or most of these factors de-
typical testing configuration for solid round pending on the surfuce finish. type of material,
materials. For the case of a 45-degree refracted temperature, surface orientation, and availability.
beam, a rule of thumb for the displacement d is The couplant should be spread in a thin, uniform
1/6 the rod diameter. film hetween the transducer and the material
under test. Rough surfaces and vertical or
In contact testing, the so-called angle-beam overhead surfaces require a higher viscosity
search units came the beam to proceec\ through eouplant than smooth. hori20ntal surfaces.
the material in a plane that is normal to the Materials used in this application include various
surface and typically at angles of 45, 60. and 70 grades and viscosities of oil, Glycerine, paste
degrees. Transverse waves are introduced by couplants using cellulose gum (which tend to
precut wedges which. when in contact with evaporate leaving little or no residue), and
metals. generate shear waves through mode various miscible mixtures of these materials
conversion at the wedge-metal interface. (See using water as a thinner.
Figure 2.7).
Because stainless steels and other high-nickel
High-frequency (ultrasonic) sound waves alloys are susceptible to stress-related corrosion
!ravel poorly in air and not at all in a vacuum. In
order for the mechanical energy generated by a
•
5BcCdUSC the acoustic impedance of air is 51) much different than
transducer to be transmitted into the medium to that of the commonly llsed tran\jducer~ and test materials, its
presence retlf'ct.;; an ohjf'l,tinll<lhlf' fH'fHllmt nf ;w(ll1<;tir pnf'rgy <It
be examined, a liquid that bridges the gap be-
coupling interfw.:t:~" bm i~ the main reason ultru':ionic testing is
tween the transducer and the test piece is used to effective with air-filled crack" and similar critical discontinuities.
22
cracking in the presence of
•
sulphur and chlorine, the use Figure 2.7. Contact shear wave transducer design .
of couplants containing even
trace amounts of these mate-
rials is prohibited. Most
commercial couplant manu-
facturers provide certificates
of conformance regarding
absence of these elements,
upon req uest.
1n a few highly special

ized applications, dry
couplants, such as a sheet of s
elastomer, have been used.
Bonding the transducer to the
tcst item. usually in distributed materials charac- where
teri~ation studies, is an accepted practice. High R is the lens radius of curvature,
pressure and intermittent contact without a F is the focal length in water,
coupling medium, has also been used on high- n is the ratio of the acoustic L-wave veloci-
temperature steel ingots. Although these ap- ties,
proaehe& have been reported in the literature, n = V/V, where
they are not commonly used in production
applications. VI is the longitudinal velocity in epoxy,
•
V 2 is the velocity in water.
Water is the most widely used couplant for
immersion testing. It is inexpensive, plentiful, For example, to get a focal length of 2.5 in.
and relatively inert to the materials involved. It using a plexiglas'" lens and water, the radius of
is sometimes necessary to add wetting agents, curvature equation uses a velocity ratio of n 0=
anti-rust additives and anti-fouling agents to the 1.!'4 and the equation becomes
water to prevent corrosion. assure absence of air
bubbles on test part surfaces, and avoid the R = 2.5 (0.84/1.84) = 1.14 in.
growth of bacteria and algae. Rllhhles are
removed from both the transducer face and the Focusing has three principal advantages.
material under examination by regular wiping of First. the energy at the focal point is increased,
these surfaces or by water jet. which increases the sensitivity or signal ampli-
tude. Second, sensitivity to reflectors above and
Tn immersion testing. the sound heam can be below the focal point is decreased. which re-
focused u&ing plano-concave lenses, producing a duces the ·'noise." Third, the lateral resolution is
higher, more conceutrated beam that results in increased because the focal point is normally
hetter lateral (spatial) resolution in the vicinity of quite small. permitting increased definition of
the focal zone. This focusing moves the last the siLe and shape of the reneetoL
peak of the near field closer to the transducer
than that found with a tlat transducer. Lenses Focusing is useful in applications such as the
may be formed from epoxy or other plastic examination of a bondline between two materi-
materials, e.g., polystyrene. The focal length is als, e.g., a composite material bonded to an
determined using Equation 2-4. aluminum frame. When examined from the
composite side, there are many echoes from
(n-l) within the composite which interfere with the
Ro=F
n desired interface signal: however, focusing at the
(Eq.2-4) bondlinc redu.:es the interference and increases
23
system sensitivity and resolution at the bond line A-scan information represents the material
•
depth. condition through which the sound beam is
passing. The fundamental A-scan display.
Where a shape other than a simple round or although highly informative regarding material
square transducer is needed. particularly [or homogeneity, does not yield information regard-
larger-area sound field sources. transducer ing the spatial distribution of ultrasonic wave
elements can be assembled into mosaics and reflectors until it is connected with scanning
excited either as a single unit or in special timing mechanisms that can supply the physical loca-
sequences. Mosaic assemblies may he linear. tion of the transducer in conjunction with the
circular. or any combination of these geometries. reflector data obtained with the A-scan unit.
With properly timed sequences of exciting
pulses, these units can function as a linear array When cross-sectional information is recorded
(with steerable beam angles) or as transducers using a rectilinear B-scan system. it is the time
with a variable focus capability. Paint brush of arrival of a pulse (vertical direction) plotted as
transducers are usually a single element search- a function of the transducer position (horizontal
unit with a large length-to-width ratio and are direction) that is displayed. Circular ohjects are
used to sweep across large segments of material often displayed using a curvilinear coordinate
in a single pass. The sound beam is broad and system which displays time of pulse arrival in
the lateral resolution and flaw sensitivity is not the radial direction (measured from the trans-
as good as smaller transducers. ducer) and with transducer location followin,g
the surface contour of the test object.
When plan views of objects are needed. the

Special Equipment Features C-scan system is used and is particularly effec-
•
tive for flat materials including honeycomb
The basic electronic pulser/receiver display panels, rolled products. and adhesively bonded
units are augmented with special features in- or laminated composites. The C-scan is devel-
tended to assist operators in easing the burden of oped using a raster scan pattern (X vs. Y) over
maintaining a high level of alertness during the the tcst part surface. The presence of question-
often uninteresting process of conducting routine able conditions is detected by gating signals
inspections. particularly of regular shapes during falling within the thickness of the part (or moni-
original manufacture. as well as obtaining some toring loss of transmission) as a function of
type of permanent record of the resulls of the location. C-scanning systems use either storage
inspection.
Figure 2.8. Comparison of common display modes.
b.
....... Front Surfacf'
___ BOock Surface
c.
d.
-
- - - - - - - - Top of Plate
- - - - - - - - Bottom ofPlnte
~
'I.
24
,I
. I
. I
•
oscilloscopes or other recording devices, coupled on the pulses received after being reflected from
•
to automatic scanning systems which represent a a free boundary (at 1.4,2.5, 3.6, and 4.6 micro-
"plan," i.e., map, view of the part, similar to the seconds). This phase reversal can be used to
view produced in radiography. Figure 2.~ shows discriminate between "hard" boundaries (high
examples of these display options. impedance) and "soft,· boundaries (low imped-
ance such as air).
Accumulatioll of Lima fur Liisplay in tlIe forlll
of B- or C-scans is extracted using electronic The reject control, on the other hand, tends to
"gates." Gates are circuits which extract time discriminate against low-level signals, through
anLi amplitude infonnation of selected signals on use of n threshold, below which no information
the A-scan presentation and feed these as analog is made available to the operator. Early versions
data to other signal processing ur display circuits of the reject circuitry tended to alter the vertical
or devices. The start time and duration of the linearity of CRT systems; however, this condi-
gate are operator selectable. CRT representation has been corrected in several of the newer
tions of the gate are raised or depressed digital flaw detector instruments.
ha",linf". a horizontal har. or two ,-----------------------,
vertical lines. Available with Figure 2.9. RF display showing phase reversal
adjustable thresholds. gates can be upon reflection.
set to record signals which either
exceed or drop helow specified
threshold settings.
1
Details of received signals can
be seen and/or disregarded through
-
~
•
use of the RF display and the ]~
Reject controls, respectively. The .... IiA ....IL
iato 0 ---, ~ AI.
RF display shown in Figure 2.9 is
representative of the actual ultra- <
r r
sonic stress pulses received. Of
interest is the fact that in this mode.
the initial polarity of the stress ·1
I
pulse can be seen as the first oscil- 16 18 20 22 24 26
lation being displaced downward
Time
(as in the initial pulse at 0.4 micro- (microseconds)
.,~<,:uIlLi,), as uppu,,,Llto tit" iuitial
oscillation excursion being upward
• 25
• Q.2-1 Barium titanate is a piezoelectric m(\\e

rial which _ __
A. is naturally piezoelectric
D. is piezoelectric at temperatures above the
critical temperalllrc
C. has a high acoustic impedance
Q.2·6 A conco.ve l"n~ on a tmnc,ducer will result
in the near field in water being _ _ __
A. twice as long as with a Hat lens
B. three times uS long as with a flat lens
C. the same length as with a Hat lens
D. shorter than with a nat lens
D. is highly soluble in water
Q.2-7 A 10 MHz. 0.5 in. dia .• search unit is
Q.2-2 During an immersion test. numerous placed on steel and acrylic plastic in succession.
bubbles arc noted in the water attached to the The beam spread in these two materials is ap-
test item. These bubbles arc small relative to proximately _ _ __
the part size. What steps should the operator A. 3 and 1.5 degrees, respectively
take? B. 1.5 and 3 degrees, respectively
A. remove the bubbles by blowing them off C. equal in the two materials
with an air hose D. Jess than the beam spread of a 15 MHz
D. ignore the bubble, because they ure smlll! scurch unit of the sume dill.meter
and will not interfere with the test
C. remove the bubbles. with brush or other Q.2-8 Focused transducers are useful because
nlechanicaI means such a.., rubbing with thc _ _ __
the hand while the test is stopped A. smaller beam diameter increases the num"
D, count the bubbles and mark their echoes ber of scans required to examine an object
on the tcst record B, lateral resolution is improved
C. lateral resolution is unimportant
•
Q.2-3 A couplant is needed for a tcst on a hot D. focal point is located beyond the end of the
steel plate (250 OF). Which of the following ncar field length of a similar, unfocused
materials can be used? transducer
A. water
B, mercury Q.2-9 In spite of the fact that a long pulse has
C. tractor oil better depth penetration than a short pulse. the
D, none of the above usc of a long pulse is not recommended because
Q.2-4 A couplant is needed for a test on stain- A. the long ringing may interfere with nearby
less steel welds. Numerous couplants are pulses
available. Which should be chosen and why? D, the shorter pulse will provide better pen-
A. a couplant free of chlorine because this etration
element corrodes stainless steel C. a long pulse contains less energy than a
B. glycerine because it is nonflammable sholter pulse
C. oil because it is easily removed D. a long pulse is recommended
D. water because stainless steel does not
ClJl1.Ulh: ill wate) Q.2-IO Backing material 011 it transducel is u",d
to _ _ __
Q.2-5 A 5 MHz, 0.5 in. diameter. nat search A, damp the pulse and absorb the sound from
Ullil ill walel ltd' a IICat field length of approxi- the back of the transducer
mately _ _ _ . B. decrease the thickness oscillations
A. 7 in. C. increase the radial mode oscillations
B. 2 ill, D. i\\l:;rl;:a,~ lht pDwer of the transmitted J.'ub~
•
C. 3-1/3 in.
D. 5-112 in.
27
Q.2-11 Angle beam search units are used to_. only a narrow band of the material
•
A. inspect butt welds in thick-wall steel piping B. the broad band unit because the entire
B. produce shear waves through mode conver- volume is examined with a long pulse
SIon C. the broad band unit because the near
C. examine material volumes inaccessible to surface resolution is better
normal beams D. the broad band unit because the lateral
D. all of the above resolution is excellent
Q.2-12 An angle beam produces a 45-degree Q.2-16 In an immersion test of commercially

shear wave in steel. What is the approximate pure titanium plate (V L = 6.1 (10)' cmisec,
incident angle? (velocity in steel =0.125 in.! YT = 3.12 ([0)' cmisec), an echo pulse from an
micro-sec, velocity in plastic =0.105 in.lmicro- internal defect is observed 6.56 )lsec following
sec) the front surface echo. How deep is the reflector
A. 54.9 degrees below the front surface?
B. 19 degrees A. 2 em
C. 36.4 degrees B.4em
D. 45 degrees C. I em
D. 2 in
Q.2-13 In Figure 2.6, the aluminum rod being
examined is 6 in. in diameter. What is the offset Q.2-17 A change in echo amplitude from 20
distance needed for a 45-dcgree refracted shear percent of full screen height (FSH) to 40 percent
wave to be generated') (L-wave velocity in FSH is a change of_.
a\uminml1 = 6.3 (1 Qj' cmisec. T -wave velocity in A.20dB
=
aluminum 3.1 (10)' em/sec. velocity in waler = B. 6dB
•
1.5 (10)5 cmisec) C. 14 dB
A. 0.513 em D. 50 percent in signal amplitude
B. 1.026 in
C. 2.052 in Q.2-1 ~ In Figure 2.10, what is the rate of attenu-
D. 1.505 em ation. expressed in dB/in .. of the 5 MHz trans-
ducer as observed in the far field? The horizon-
Q.2- J 4 In Figure 2.6 and using the conditions of tal scale is 0.5 in. pCI' divisiun.
Q.2- J 3, what is the offset distance needed for a A. 1.00 dBlin.
45-degree refracted longitudinal wave to be B. 2.22
generated ') C. 2.55
A. 0.395 in D. 3.25
B. 0.450 em
C. 0.505 in
D. 1.026 em
Figure 2.10. Distance-amplitude response of two 3/4 in.
Q.2- J 5 It is desired to detect diameter search units.
flaws 1/4 in. or less from the
entry surface using angle 2.25 MHz
beam shear waves. The I-
search unit must be selected
wi th the choice between a
narrow band and a hroad ~~=+
~
Co i
band unit. Which should be
~ ~ ---t-
chosen and why"
+. . . . . . . ri-r- . . . . . . .
•
--~.... --t-
A. the narrow band unit
because it examines Metal Travel
28
Q.2-l9 In Figure 2.10, what is the rate of attenu- Q.2-23 When checked against a previous cali-
•
ation of the 2.25 MHz transducer using the bration level, a search unit which is classified as
conditions of Q.2-18 '! highly damped is considerably more sensitive.
A. 2.0 dBlin. A check of the RF waveform shows that the unit
B. 3.5 rings for at least three times the number of cycles
C. 4.0 previously achieved. What condition might
D. 8.0 explain this phenomena?
A. the search unit has been dropped and the
Q.2-20 What lens radius of curvature is needed facing material has been cracked
in order to have a 2 em dia., 5 MHz transducer B. the backing material has separated from the
focus in water at a distance of 4 cm from the lens crystal, thus decreasing the mechanical
face? (V H20 = 1.49 (10)5 em/sec, V L,", =2.67 damping
(10)' cm/sec) C. the housing has separated from the trans-
A 1.77 em ducer and thinks it is a bell
B. 3.50 em D. the coax connector is filled with water
C. 3.17 in
D. 2.23 in 0.2-24 The sound beam emanating from a
continuous wave sound source has two zones.
Q.2-2l Two signals were compared in ampli- These are called the _ __
tude to each other. The second was found to be A. Fresnel and Fraunhofer zones
14 dB less than the first. This change could have B. Fresnel and near fields
represented a change of _ __ C. Fraunhofer and far fields
A 70% FSH to 14% FSH D. focused and unfocused zones
B. 100% FSH to 50% FSH
•
C. 20% FSH to 100% FSH
D. 100% FSH to 25% FSH
Q.2-22 A change of 16 dB on the attenuator

corresponds to an amplitude ratio of _ __
A 6.3
B. 5.2
C. 7.4
D. 95
• 29
•
Chapter 3
Common Practices
•
• Chapter 3
Common Practices
Approaches to Testing Figure 3, I shows these three modes of pulse-
echo testing with typical inspection applications,
Most ultrasonic inspection is done using the
pulse-echo technique wherein an acoustic pulse, In the through-transmission technique, the
reflected from a local change in acoustic imped- sound beam travels through the test item and is
ance, is detected by the original sending sound received on the side opposite from the transmit-
source, Received signals indicate the presence ter. Two transducers, a transmitter and a re-
of discontinuities (intemal or extemal) and their ceiver, are necessary, The time represented on
distances from the pulse-echo transducer, which the screen is indicative of a single traverse
are directly proponionalto the time of echo- through the material, with coupling and align-
pulse arrivaL For this situation, access to only ment being critical to the technique's successful
one side of the test item is needed, which is a application.
tremendous advantage over through-transmission
in many applications, For maximum detection In some two-transducer pitch-catch tech-
niques, both transducers are located on the same
•
reliability, the sound wave should encounter a
reflector at normal incidence to its major surface, side of the materiaL The time between pulses
If the recei ving transducer is separated from the corresponds to a single traverse of the sound
sending transducer, the configuration is called a from the transmitter to the reflector and then to
pitch-catch, The interpretation of discontinuity the receiver. One approach lIses a "tandem"
location is determined using triangulation tech- pitch-catch arrangement, nsually for the central
niques, When the receiver is positioned along region of thick materials, In this technique, the
the propagation axis and across from the trans- transmitter sends an angle beam to the midwall
mitter, the technique is called the through- area of the material (often a double V weld rnot)
transmission approach to ultrasonic testing, and deflections from vertical planar surfaces are
Figure 3.1, Pulse-echo inspection configurations,
riz,,----TIR
3. Pulse Echo
~-...---
h. Pitcb~Catch
c. Through Transmission d. Delta
cinr---T
~R_
• R
33
received by one or more transducers located to great advantage in a limited number of appli-
•
behind the transmitter. Another pitch-catch cations that require an ability of the wave to
technique, found in immersion testing, uses a follow the contours of irregularly shaped sur-
focused receiver and a broad-beam transmitter, faces such as jet engine blades and vanes.
arranged in the shape of a triangle (delta tech- Rayleigh waves extend from the surface to a
nique). This technique relies on re-radiated depth of about one wavelength into the material
sound waves (mode conversion of shear energy and thus are only sensitive to surface or very
to longitudinal energy) from internal reflectors, near-surface flaws. They are very sensitive to
with background noise reduction through use of surface conditions including the presence of
the focused receiver. residual coupling compounds as well as fingcr
damping. Rayleigh waves are usually generated
When sound is introduced into thc material at by mode conversion using angle beam search
an angle to the surface. angle beam testing is units designed to produce shear waves just
being done. When this angle is reduced to zero beyond the second critical angle.
degrees, it is called "straight" or "normal" beam
examination and is used extensively on plate or Two major modes of coupling ultrasound
other flat material. Laminations in plate are into test parts are used in UT: contact and im-
readily detected and sized with the straight beam mersion. The manual contact technique is the
technique. Although it is possible to transmit most common for large items which are difficult
shear waves "straight" into materials, longitudi- to handle, e.g" plate materials, structures, and
nal waves are by far the most common wave pressure vessels. Both straight and angle beams
mode used in thesc applications. are used. Coupling for the manual contact
technique requires a medium with a higher
Sound beams can be refracted at the inter- viscosity than that of water and less than that of
faces of two dissimilar media. The angles can heavy greases. In mechanized (automated)
range from just greater than 0 degrees to 90
degrees (corresponding to their limiting critical
incident angle condition) if the second medium
has the higher acoustic wave velocity. Shear
wave angle beams are usually greater than 20
testing, the couplant is often water that is made
to tlow between the transducer and the test piece.
During manual tests, the operator provides the
couplant repetitively during the examination.
•
degrees (in order to avoid the presence of more Manual contact testing is very versatile since
than one mode being present within the material search units are easily exchanged as the needs
at the same time) and less than 80 degrees (in arise, and a high degree of flexibility exists for
order to avoid the spurious generation of surface angulation and changes in directions of inspec-
waves). tion. Test items of many different configurations
can be examined with little difficulty. One of
Angle beams (both shear and longitudinal) the prime advantages of contact testing is its
arc often used in the examination of welds since portability. UT instruments of briefcase size and
critical t1aws such as cracks, lack of fusion, weighing less than 20 pounds are readily avail-
inadequate penetration, and slag have dimen- able. With this type of instrument and contact
sions in the throughwall direction. Angle beams techniques. UT is performed almost anywhere
are used because they can achieve close-to- the inspector can go. Skilled operators can make
normal incidence for these retleetol's with gener- evaluations on the spot and with a high degree of
ally vertical surfaces. Other types of structures reliability.
and configurations are examined using angle
beams, particularly where access by straight Immersion testing uses a column of liquid as
beams is unsatisfactory, e.g., irregularly shaped an intermediate mediulII for conducting sound
forgings, castings. and assemblies. waves to and from test parts. Immersion testing
Surface (Rayleigh) waves are not as common

as the longitudinal and shear waves, but are used
can be performed with the test item immersed in
water (or some other appropriate liquid) or
through use of various devices (bubblers and
34
•
~quirters) that maintain a \.:ontimlous waler path carried on the bridge may include the ultrasonic
•
between the transducer(s) and the test item, instrunlent, a C -scan or other recorder, and
Most examinations are conducted using auto- signal processing equipment needed to extract
matic scanning systems. The immersion tech- information from the ultrasonic signals. Figure
nique has many advantages, Many sizes, shapes 3,2 shows an example of a typical tank confign-
and styles of search units are available including ration used for inspection of smaller items.
flat. focused. round. rectangular, painthrush, and
anays, Automated examination is easily accom- In scanning flal test ohjprls with a longitlldi-
modate. Surface finish is less troublesome since nal beam, the search unit manipUlator traverses
transducer wear does not take place, Various the test item in a raster-like pattern (traverse-
size and shape objects may be tested, Scanning ind"x-tr"v""p-inrlex--) The recorder,
can be faster and more tborough than manual "enabled" using the gating circuits. records the
scanning, Recording of position and tlaw data is data in synchronism with the position of the
straight fOfwunL Dat(l pr~ci,i()n 1\;, hlgher ,1nce search unit manipulator,
higher frequency (and more fragile) transducers
can be used, There are several types of manipulators used
for handling test parts, These manipulators shift
Disadvantages include long setup time. or rotate the test item under the bridge in such a
maintenance of coupling liquids, preset scan! manner that the search lmit IIIay scan the re-
"rticnhtion plans reduce llse of spontaneous quired specimen surface, Rotational axes may
positioning. high signal loss at test part-water be horizontal. vertical. or other desired angles.
interface, highly critical positioning/angulation Manipulator motion may be under the control of
prohlems. and system alignment in general. the operator or the automatic system. Control
centers may be programmed to perform very
•
Of all the advantages, perhaps the most basic scan patterns or. in the case of some com-
important is the ability to use different search puter-based systems. very complex operations.
unit sizes and shapes in an autoIIlatic inspection Most scans arc preprogral1ll11cd and thus are not
mode. Beam focusing is commonly used to changed readily.
improve spatial resolution and increase sensitiv-
ity; however, scan times increase dramatically. It is imperative that the search unit be in the
Automated testing has many advantages. includ- desired position at all times so that the sound
ing increased scanning speed. reduced operator beam is interrogating the intended test area. This
dependence. and adaptability to imaging and is accomplished hy a positioner attached to the
signal processing equipment. end of the search tube used to "point" the search
unit in the desired direction. Thus the search
Immersion tanks may be long and narrow unit has several degrees of positional freedom
(for pipe and tubing inspection) or short and (X, Y, z. e. <il),
deep (for bulky forgings). In general, tanks are
equipped with a means for filling. draining. and It is not always feasible to immerse a test
filtering the water The tank may contain test object in a tank for {JT testing, Limit, are
item manipulators (for spinning pipe and rotating imposed by the size and shape of the test object
samples) and a scanning bridge system (for as well as by the capacity of the tank. To
translating search units along rectilinear and/or circumvent these problems. scanning systems are
polar coordinates). Tank capacities range from often provided with squirters or water columns.
one or two cubic feet to a few thousand cubic While differing slightly in design. each of these
feet. Most tanks are equipped with one or more serves the same purposc---to establish a column
scanning bridges which travel on tracks the of water between the search unit and the test
length of the tank and are under the control of item through which the sound beam will pass.
• the operator or an automatic test system. The

bridge across the tank contains rails on which the
search unit manipulator rides. Other equipmenr
Squirters employ a nozzle which squirts a stream
of water at the test piece, The search unit,
located inside and coaxially with the nozzle.
35
•
Figure 3.2. Typical immersion ultrasonic scanning system.
emits a sound beam axially through the stream.

Figure 3.3 shows a conceptual drawing of an
ultra,onie water jet «quirter).
If the nozzle is designed properly and the

wheel. the search unit is mounted on a gimbal
manipulator inside the tire and the tire is filled
with a liquid - usually water. The search unit is
aimed through the tread (a thin elastomeric
membrane such as polyurethane). The gimbal
•
water flow parameters are set correctly. there are mounting permits the incident sound beam to be
no bubbles at the interface of the water and the oriented so that it produces either shear or
test piece and sound can be transmitted into the longitudinal waves (or other modes) in the test
piece. The sound beam impinging on a test part part as if immersion testing were taking place.
b restricted in cross-sectional size by the stream
of water which acts as a wave-guide and colli- Figure 3.3. Diagram of a water jet for
mator. Both the squirter and the bubbler (water ultrasonic tests.
column) can be used with pulse-echo or through
To Ultrasonic lnNtrument
transmission techniques and can take advantage
of beam focusing. If the free stream of the / r Water Couplont
squmcr IS long, the dellectlon due to gravity may
bave to be considered in the scanning plan.
It is often desirable LO keep a tesl item rela-

tively dry while performing ultrasonic examina-
tions. One way of doing this and yet maintain
many of the advantages of immersion testing is
to use wheel transducers. The wheels used for
UT testing are similar to automotive tires in that
they are largely hollow and there is a flexible
"tread" in contact with the test item. In the liT
36
•
Because the tire is flexible and conforms to impact that other parameters of the instrument
•
the surface, little external couplant is needed. At and the test configuration may have on the
times, however, a small spray of water or alcohol reliable interpretation of ultrasonic signal echoes.
is introduced just ahead of the wheel to exclude Gain settings are normally established by adjust-
the possibility of small amounts of air becoming ing the vertical height of an echo signal, as seen
trapped at the wheel's contact surface. This thin on the CRT, to a predetermined level. The level
layer of liquid evaporates rapidly without dam- may be required by specification and based on
age to the test item. Although wheels are some- echo responses from specific standard reflectors
what limited as to the shapes of materials they in material similar to that which will be tested.
can examine. they are useful on large, reasonably Sweep distance of the CRT is established in
t1at surfaces. More than one wheel can be used terms of equivalent "sound path," where the
at the same time. e.g., tandem configuratIOns are sound path is the distance 111 the material to be
possible. They are useful in high temperature tested from the sOllnd entry point to the reflector.
applications (where the liquid is continuously
cooled) and sets ot transducer, can be placed It IS Important to estabhsh these parameters.
within a single wheel. A major problem is the Gain is established so that comparisons of the
elimination of internal echoes from structural reference level can be made to an echo of interest
members wlthll1 the lIqUId chamber. These echo m order to deCIde whether the echo IS ot any
prohlems are usually eliminated hy careful consequence and, if so, then to aid in the determi-
design incorporating the empirical placement of nation of the size of the ret1ector 6 Sweep dis-
baffles and absorbers. tance is established so that the location of the
reflector can be determined.
In both manual and automatic scanning, the
pattern of scanning is important. If too many Horizontal linearity is a measure uf the
•
scan traverses are made the part will be uniformity of the sweep speed of the instrument.
overtested, with time and money being lost. On The instrument must be within the linear dy-
the other hand, if the coverage of the scans is namic ranges of the sweep amplifiers and associ-
insufficient, sections of the part will not be ated circuitry in order for electron heam position
examined and defects may be missed. There- to be directly proportional to the time elapsed
fore. time dedicmed to developing a scanning from the stan of the sweep. It may be checked
plan is seldom wasted. In developing the plan, using multiple back-echoes from a nat plate of a
which lays out the patterns of search unit ma- convenient thickness, i.e., I inch. With the
nipUlation, it is necessary to consider applicable sweep set to display multiple back-echoes, the
codes, standards, and specifications as well as spacing between pulses should be equal. The
making an engineering evaluation of the poten- instrument should be recalibrated if the sweep
tial lucatiuns, orientations, siLcs, and typcs of linearity is not within Ihe specified tolerance.
t1aws expected in the part. After these criteria Vertical linearity implies that the height of the
have been developed, sound beam modes. pulse displayed on the A-scan is directly propor-
angles. beam spread, amI altcnualiun mUSl all be [iunal [() [he acous[ic pulse received by the
considered to assure that all of the material is transducer. For example, if the echo increases by
interrogated in the desired direction(s). This SO percent, the indicated amplitude on the CRT
iuful1ualiull i~ ll~eu lu t~~tauli~h ~call lengths, shuuld alsu l'hallg~ by SO pen:enl. This variable
direction, overlap, index increments, and elec- may be checked by establishing an echo signal on
tronic gate settings. the screen, changing the vertical amplifier gain in
,,;t illln;Illellts, alll! Illeasuring the corresponding
changes in A-scan response. An alternate check
uses a pair of echoes with amplitudes in the ratio
Measuring System Performance
• UT calibration is the practice of adjusting the

gain, sweep. and range. and of assessing the
"Tt is impOJ1ant to recognize theit the lc:;e of amplitude to ~ile a
reflector is. s,ubject to large. ul1contwlled errors and must be
approa(lled with cuution.
37
of 2: I. Changes in gain should not affect the 2: I
•
ratio, regardless of the amplifier's settings. Figure 3.4. Spherical reflector measur-
ing sound field.
It is of note that when electronic DAC units
are used in an ultrasonic system, the vertical 3
amplifier's displayed output is purposefully

made to be nonlinear. The nature of the nonlin-
earity is adjusted to compensate tor the estimated
(or measured) variation in the test material! 4.
~ Ball Reflector
inspection system's aggregate decay in signal
Faced Point
strength as a function of distance (time) from the 21
sending transducer.
.. Focused Search Unit

Reference Reflectors
There are several retlector types commonly
used as a basis for establishing system perform- precise as to size and surface finish, and available
allce allu sellsitivity. IlIcluueu alllullg lhelll are in many sizes.
spheres and tlat·bottom holes (FBH), notches.
side-drilled holes (SOH). and other special Flat reflectors are used as calibration stan-
purpose or ucsigns. Table 3.1 sUl1lmariLcs these uarus in bOlh immersion and comact testing.
retlectors and their advantages and limitations. They are usually flat-bottom drilled holes of the
•
desired diameters and depths. All flat reflectors
Spherical reflectors arc uscu most often in llave the iuherelll weakness that they require
immersion testing for assessing transducer sound careful sound beam-retlector axis alignment.
fields as shown in Figure 3.4. Spheres provide Deviations of little more than a few degrees will
excellent repeatability because of their omni- lead to significantly reduceu tcltu", "JlU beclJllle
directional sound wave response. The effective unacceptable for calibration. However, for flaws
reflectance from a sphere is mueh smaller than of cross-section less than the beam width and
thut received from a flat reflector of the same with a pcrpcnuicular alignment. the signal ampli-
diameter due to its spherical directivity pattcrn. tude is proportional to the area of the rcnector as
Most of the reHeeted energy does not return to shown in Figure 3.5. Generally, if a flaw echo
the search unit. Spheres of any material can be amplitude is equallu lhe amplitude of the calibra~
used; however. steel ball bearings are the norm liun reflector. it is assumed that the tlaw is at
since these are reasonably priced. extremely least as large as the calibration renector.
Table 3.1. Refcrence Reflectors Used in mtrasonic Testing Notches are

frequently used to
Type Chaructcnstics Uses assess the uetectabil-
ity of surface-break~
Solid Sphere Omnidirectional Transducer sound field ing: tlaws sueh as
assessment cracks, as well as for
Notche::. Flat, COtner Simulates near-surface cracks instrument calibra-
tion. Notches of
Flat~Bottom Hole (FBHJ Disc reflector RefflrPll(,p g8in several sh'lpes "rc
llsed and can ei ther
•
Side-Drilled Hole (SDH) Cylindrical symmetry Distance DAC calibration
be of a rectangular or
"Vee~' cro!\s section.
3~t.:dal Cu~tull1l'L'nL'l..:llviL.y Sllllulau.;' lJatural naw COIHlitiOIlS
Notches may be
38
lalll:e-i:illlpliLWle L:uII't:i.:liulI L'urvt'~ awl fur
•
Figure 3.5. Area-amplitude relationship setting overall sensitivity of shear wave
forFBHs. testing schemes. After the sweep dis-
tance is set, signals from each reflector
100
are maximized (by maneuvering the
" search unit) and the rc'sults arc recorded

8164
8" •
~~ 7/64/
on the CRT ,creen using erusuble mark-
ers. The peak signals from each reflector
",-
.~ = 60
=..:....
~
6164,//
•
are then connected by a smooth line and
• 0
40 it is this line that is called the distance-
~;: 5/64/
•• 0 amplitUde correction (DAC) curve.
rtJ "
• 20 3/64;":/"\ Point ofStandard;,a"on
~ 2/64 •
~·~1/64
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Area Units
Calibration
The setting of basic instrument
controls is expedited by the use of several stan-
made with milling cutters (end mills). circular dard sets of blocks containing precision reflectors
saws, or straight saws. End-mill (or EOM) an-angeci to feature a specific characteristic of the
notches may be made with highly variable inspection systems. For example, area-amplitude
length and depth dimensions. Circular saw cuts blocks contain tlat-bottom holes of differing
are limited in length and depth by the saw diameters, all at the same distance from the
diameter and the configuration of the device sound entry surface, The block material is
•
holding the saw. Even though it is somewhat normally similar to that of the test material. In
more difficult to achieve a desired length to the ALCOA (Aluminum Company of America)
depth ratio with the circular saw. these notches "A" series of blocks, each hole is placed in a
are used frequently because of their resemblance separate cylinder 2 in. in diameter. Other blocks,
to fatigue cracks. e.g., shape and surface finish. intended for the same purpose of establishing the
Notches may be produced perpendicular to the correlation of signal amplitude with the area of
surface or at other angles as dictated by the test the ret1ector, may contain a number of holes in
configuration. On piping. they may be located the same block, usually a plate. Hole sizes
on the inside diameter and/or the outside diame- increase in sixty-fourths of an inch and are
ter and aligned either in the longitudinal or designated by that value. For example, a 1116 in.
transverse directions. (4/64 in.) hole is a #4 holc_ Area amplitude
blocks are used to establish the area/amplitude
Side-drilled holes are placed in calibration response curve and the sensitivity of the UT
blocks so that the axis of the hole is parallel to system. Maximum signals are obtaineLl from
the entry surface. The sound beam impinges on each of the holes of interest and the signal ampli-
the hole, normal to its major axis. Such a tude is recorded. These values may be compared
reflector provides very repeatable calibrations. to echoes from the same metal path and [eHeetor
may be placed at any de~ired distance from the sizes estimated for the test item. Figure 3.6
entry surface and may be used for both longitu- shows a cross-sectional diagram of a block
di[ml w'iV~' am! a lIlUlliluLl~ lJr ,hear wave <,:u[ll[losed or 4340 steel. wilh a FBH size of 5/64
angles. It is essential that the hole surface be in. (#5 hole) and a travel distance of L5 in.
smooth, thus reaming to the final diameter is
often the final step in preparing such holes. Distance-amplitude blocks (D blocks) differ
•
from area-amplitude blocks in that a single
Used in sets with differing distances [rom diameter. !lat-bottom hole is placed at incremen-
the surface and different diameters, side-drilled tally increasing depths from very ncar the entry
holes are frequently used for developing dis- surface to a desired maximum depth. Set, of
39
There arc numerous blocks
•
Figure 3.S. Schematic diagram of FBH calibration commercially available that are
block. used in calibrating VT instru-
Entry Surface
ments, both for sweep distance
(sound path) and for sensitivity
-'f--,
(gain) as well as depth resolu-
"',
-'.c - -
Material Alloy
------ - '"
.. ... ~~
--f.-.4340.5.0150 Metal Travel
tion, Included in this group are
the IIW (International Institute of
Welding), DSC (distance and
Hole Size (Diameter x: 1164 in,) / /
M~t81 Distun(~c (1.5 in,) ..... _ - - / sensitivity calibration), DC
(distance calihration hlock). Sf:
(sensitivity calibration block),
Flat Bottom Test Hole ~- and the A WS RC (Resolution
Calibration Block),
Plug
/ Other special blocks are
often required in response to
blocks are available in different materials and specification and Code requirements based on
with diameters ranging from Number 1 to the construction of the blocks, using materials of
Number 16 and larger. Distance-amplitude the same nature as those to be inspected. Tn-
blocks arc used to establish the distance/ampli- eluded are the ASME weld inspection blocks
tude response characteristic of the UT system in such as the SDH for angle beam calihration,
the test material; the measured response includes curved blocks for piping/nozzles simulation, and
the dIeets of attenuation due to beatn spread and nozzle drop-outs (circular blanks cut from vessel
•
scattering and/or absorption. With this curve plates) for custom nuclear in-service inspection
establ ished, the operator can compensate for the applications Finally. attempts are nnening tn
effects of attenuation with distance, Distance- develop schemes for making rcHectors which
amplitude blocks are useful in setting instrument directly behave as cracks and to generate actual
sensitivity (gain) and if present the electronic crncks, p~lrticlll;-]r1y intcrpnmlll;-]r strp"" cnrro<.;10n
distance-amplitude con'ection circuits, figure cracks, Table 3,2 summarize, many of these
3,7 shows a composite set of DAC and area- hlocks and their intended uses.
amplitude calibration curves taken from a block
containing three different hole sizes (I mm, 2 One of the best known calibration blocks is
mm, and 3,25 mm). measured at distances the IIW block shown in figure 3,8, This block is
ranging from 2,::; mm to .12 mm, I"erl primarily for l11e""lrin8 the rethcti'ri angle
Figure 3.7. Combined distance and area-amplitude response.
LEGEND
X 2 mm hole
• 3,25 mm hole
... 1 mm hole
Distance from Block Face to Hole

Millimeters (inches)
40
•
of angle beam search units, setting the metal placed on the I in. or 1/2 in. thick portion and
•
path, and establishing the sensitivity for weld the sweep distance adjusted. For angle beam
inspection. To measure the refracted angle, the calibration, the search unit is placed on the flat
sound beam exit point is determined on the 4 in. surface at the cemer of the cylindrical surfaces.
radius. The angle is then determined by maxi- Beam direction is in a plane normal to the
mizing the signal from the large side-drilled cylinder axis. When the beam is directed in
hole and reading the exit-point position on the such a Illanner, echoes should occur at 1,2, or 3
engraved scale. in. intervals, With a surface wave search unit at
the centerline, a surface wave may be calibrated
Various rctlcctor:-o; iUC provided in rnodified for distance by observing the echoes from the 1
IIW blocks to provide the capability to set the and 2 in. radii and adjusting the controls ac-
sweep distance. These include grooves and cordingly.
notches at various locations which yield echoes
at precisely known distances. The block may A miniature mUltipurpose block is shown in
also be used for setting distances for normal Figure 3.9. The block is 1 in, thick and has a
(straight heam) search units using the 1 in. 1116 in. diameter side-drilled hole for sensitivity
thickness of the block. Distance resolution may settings and angle determinations. For straight
also he checked on the notches adjacent to the 4 heam calibration, the block provides back
in. radius surface Because different manufac- rd1cction and Illultipliers of I in. For angle
turers provide variations in the configuration of beams, the search unit is placed on the flat
the block, other specific uses may be devised. surface with the beam directed toward either of
the cllfved surf"",,,. Tf (oword the. 1 in radills,
The distance calibration (DC) block is echoes will be received at I in.,4 in., and 7 in.
specifically designed for setting up the sweep intervals. If toward the 2 in. radius, the intervals
•
distance for both normal and angle beam testing will be 2 in., 5 in .. and 8 in. Refracted angles
for either longitudinal, shear, or surface waves. are measured by locating the exit point using
For straight beam calibration, the search unit is either of the curved surfaces. The response
from the side-drilled
hole is maximized
Table 3.2. Calibration Block Usage
and the angle read
from the engraved
Characteristic Hlock Uesignation
scales. Single point
1IW DSC ASME DC SC B A AWS
(SDH) (RC) (zone) sensitivity
can be established
Sweep Range XJO XJO XJO XJO 0 0 by maximizing the
signal from the
Sensitivity XJO XJO XJO X 0 0 SDH.
Exit Point X X X
Distance-ampli-
Exit Angle X X X tude correction
Cllrvcs cun be
DAr: XJO 0 developed for any
number of test part
Depth 0 02 X
Resolution thICknesses usmg
the SDH block
Curvature Xl shown in Figure
CompcnBation 3.10. By placing the
Legend:
•
angle beam trans-
x~ Shear Wave
0- Longitudinal Wave ducer on surfaces
1- Set of Curved Blocks Used which change the
2- Near Surface Only sound path distance,
41
•
Figure 3.8. IIW block for triln~duc" .. >lllli system calibratIOn.
'crd lf p.,
L2 ~
--~.
.~
2
3
c.
High R~!O'Qlution Low RC$olution
LJ.U LJt.
d • ..-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..,
/
Main Pul~(;
123 /
Moin Pulse
123
a series of peaked responses can be recorded and sacrificial samples into which are placed wave
plotted on the CRT screen in the form of a DAC reflectors sueh as FBHs. SDHs, and notches.
over the range of distances of interest to impec. (Sec Figure 3.12.)
tion.
Reference blocks based upon imbedded
An example of a special block designed to natural reflectors such as cracks by diffusion
compensate for convcx surface effects is shown bonding, although useful for the purposes or
in Figure 3.11. Included are the geometrical estahlishing a baseline for self-teaching adaptive
features with tolerances needed in the construc- learning networks and related technologies, are
•
tion of typical calibration blocks. very difficult to duplicate and suffer from an
inability of developing an exact correlation with
A more suitable. but expcnsive. approach to naturally occllrring fla\vs. Of concern is the
the testing of complex parts involves the use of inability to duplicate lest samples on a wide-
42
•
Figure 3.9. Miniature angle beam calibration block.
n
P-I P-2
r--'h
P-I
1--r----L~:f~~i I:~"r---~t
T,-+----"
0.25 in. II
I I If
. 1 in.
I
I I I;.
II ~
L-______~.~'______~.~'~_________J
,
<,
..... -'
P-2
• }'igurc 3.10. Calibration block for VAC development using angle beams.
2 in_ long to 1/4 in. rJillmpt.Pl' flAt. pnrl:

mill notches 2% T deep
1:dI
Through Clad
2 in.
-:r----~:...-.--;..I----------·':;~/
R / /
Thickness 2% T
Deep into the
Base Metal
3 in~~ /_/'-r'/ :"'/:_)~/7~ I_-

___ _____ -_-_-_-+/_/"'/7;'-::-<''- ~;-~:t Clad [Note (4)]
I ~ ,/ // ~ { ,/ /
----<)L-//~
"
_ _ _ _-<;""c,.',,// / ~:/
///
J4
// ,/ ,/
6 in. [Note (1)1
TI2 TI4 / -----~'-/
1·112 in. MinimumU I--~r-".:I_ TI2 [Note (1)]

Drilled and reamed holes
3 in. Dppp [Note (1))
• 43
Grain Flow 1[D
BCD L:!!
CCD
[~ ~ ~
l*l~ ~ ~ ~
h-lo; ~. .
, i3 i3 S
D
.. ~ ~
[0
r~? ,'"• I i3S

~ p;'.O
S ~
?'
-
~
5'
• 1Frl'" I h-1;;i3 ;:;

E '"
to
'" F
;:;
s·
i3
;; 0.025 mm (0.001 in.)
LEGEND
II) 90 degrees ±30 minutes typical
IV Tolerance: ±O.025 in.
ca:>Tolerance: ±O.Ol in.
II) 100 RHR maximllIll top surface
Figure 3.12. Use of reflectors in sacrificial (simulated) test parts.
Search Unit
Test Surface
•
" - Reference Notch 0.75 mm (0.03 in.) Deep
44
•
spread production basis; once destructive corre- dards highly questionable. In all cases, the block
• lations arc carried out, remaking the same con-

figuration is questionable. Even wh"n s11ch
reflectors can be duplicated to some extent, the
natural variability of flaws found in nature still
tends to m~k" this approach to reference stan-
materials used for calibration purposes must he
similar to the test materials to which the tech-
niques will be applied. The concept of transfer
functions has been used with limited success in
most critical calibration settings.
• 45
•
Q.3-1 Calibration is the term used to _ _ __ Q.3-5 A re±1ector signal was found to be 6 dB
A. describe the means to measure the diameter less than that from the calibration re±1ector at the
of a shaft same sound path. The calibration re±1ector was a
B. set up the test item for examination in No.8 FBH. What can be said about the un-
accordance with rules established by the known reflector?
NIST (formerly the NBS) A. it is 4/64 in. diameter
C. describe the means to establish the working B. it is R/64 in. diameter
characteristics of a search unit C. it is probably 8/64 in. diameter or larger
D. describe the process of establishing the D. it is an unknown size
gain level and the sweep distance of the UT
instrument Q.3-6 In Figure 3.7. the response from the 3.25
mm FBH at a depth of 25 mm, is above that
Q.3-2 An area-amplitude block has the designa- detected from the I mm FBH by _ _ __
tion 4340-4-0500. This indicates that it is _ _ . A. 24.0 dB
A. an aluminum block with a #3 hole at a B. IR.2 dB
depth of 5 in. C. 12.0 dB
B. a steel block with a 1116 in. hole at a depth D. 10.8 dB
of 5 in.
C. a steel block with a #5 hole at a depth of 4 Q.3-7 The half-angle beam spread of the re-
in. !leeted wave front from a #8 FBH in an alumi-
D. a Titanium block with a #4 hole at a depth num "A" block being immersion tested using a
of 5 in. 25 MHz transducer is . [V L = 1.5
(Water); V L " = 6.3; VT-Al = 3.1: ... all times (10)'
•
Q.3-3 The term "sweep distance" is used to em/sec J.
describe _ _ __ A. 1.30 degrees
A. how fast the sound is able pass through the B. S.47 degrees
material C. 22.77 degrees
B. the equivalent sound beam path displayed D. 48.50 degrees
on the CRT in terms of unit distances in the
test material Q.3-8 A DAC Curve is to be established using
c. the velocity with which the search unit is the SDHs in the block as shown in f'igurc 3.10.
moved across the material Three points have been established; 118.2/8, and
D. how electrical energy passes from the 3/8 nodes from 114, 112. 3/4 T SDHs. What
transducer to material being tested would be the next point?
A. 4/8 node
Q.3A A calibrated CRT screen is necessary for B. 5/8 node
C. 6/8 node
A. measurement of signal amplitudes to D. 8/8 node
determine distance to the retlectors
B, Ineusurenlent of electric currents generated Q.3-9 Which of the following is all advantage of
by the piezoelectric crystal side-drilled hole rcf1cctors for calibration?
C. measurement of distances from the begin- A. they can be placed at essentially any
ning to the end of the scan path distance from the entry surface
D. measurement of distance along the sound B. the surface of the hole is rough, providing a
path to establish thickness or re±1eetor strong, specular reflection
location C. the hole depth is lilllited tu 3 tiulI;:' lht:
•
diameter
D. the hole diameter can be used directly and
easily to measure tile ,iLe ur an unknown
retlector
47
Q.3-10 When measuring the angle on an angle B. that the transducers in through"transmission
•
beam search unit using an TTW block, two ,ignals are side-by-side, while in pitch-catch the
are noted. The firsl measures at an angle of 49 transducers arc facing each other
degrees and the second peaks at an angle that is C. that the transducers in through-transmission
estimated to be 25 degrees. Plastic longitlloinal are always angle beam
velocity = 2,76 mm/microsee; steel shear veloc- D. that in through-transmission the depth of the
ity = 3.23 1l1IIl/rnicroscc: longitudinal velocity = tlaw is easily determined
5.85 rnm/microsec. Identify the signals,
A. first is shear, second is longitudinal Q.3-15 In the tandem technique a signal is re-
B. first is longitudinal, second is surface ceived from the lest material. The retlector rnay
C. fiTc;t is longitudinal, second is 1.(We wave be located _ __
D. first is longitudinal, second is shear A. at the front surface
B. at the back surface
Q.3-1l When using a focused, straight beam C. somewhere near midwall
search unit for lamination scanning in an immer- D. by any of the above, depending on the
sinn test of a steel plate, a change in water path material thickness. the refnlcted angle, the
of 0.2 in. will result in tn" focal point moving in distance between search units, and the
the steel a distance of _ __ distance between transducer and the reflector
A. 0.2 in.
B.O.2mm 0.3-16 In a tandem 70 degree pitch-catch shear
C. 0.05 in. wave arrangement. the plate being inspected is 2
D. 0.8 in, in, thick and the region of interest is midway
between top and bottom surfaces. How far hehind
Q.3-12 A search unit with a focal length in water the transmitter should the receiving transducer be
•
of 4 in. is used. A steel plate, 8 in. thick, velocity located"
= 0.230 in./rnicm,,,c, i<; placed at a water path of A. 0.68 in.
2 in. trom the search unit. At what depth is the B. 1.88 in.
focal point in the steel? C. 4.00 in.
A. 1.0 in. D. 5.50 in.
B. 2.0 in.
C. 0.5 in. Q.3-17 Angle beam search units are frequently
D. 0.8 in used in weld testing. One reason for this is that
Q,3-13 During an examination. an indication of A. the angle beam is more sensitive to slag and
259c FSH is netecteu and maximized on the porosity
CRT. For better analysis the gain is increased by B. the angle beam is more sens! Ii ve to made-
12 dB and the indication increases to 88% FSH, quate penetration and cracks
Wh", value should have been reached and what C. the angle beam does not attenuate as it
is the apparent problem? traverses the material
A. 50% FSI! and the screen is nonlinear D. the angle beam provides multiple back-
R 7::'% FSH and there is no problem surface echoes for thickness testing
C. 100% FSH and the sweep speed is
nonlinear Q.3-1 g An automated examination of a large
D. 1000/c FSI! and the screen is nonlinear cylinder is to be performed using a focused search
unit (focal point = 0.0')0 in. diameter, t'ocallength
Q.3-14 The difference between through-trans- '" 2 in" and crystal diameter'" 0.500 in.), To
mission and pitch-catch techniques is _ __ insure I 0 percent overlap between scans. of the
A. that the transducers in through-transmission following. what increment should be used?
face each other, while in pitCh-catch the
transducers are often sidc-by-side in the
same housing
48
A. 0.005 in.
B. 0.495 in.
C. 0.040 in.
D. 0.0495 in. •
Q,3~ 19 Whil" pp,rforming R strRight~h"am, value~ for the coordinates
•
immersion test. an indication is noted lying B. determine the curve of the water stream due
midwall. What immediate action should the to the influence of gravity and adjust the
operator take 0 coordinate values to compensate for the
A. report it to hislher supervisor deflection
B. check to insure that the search unit to part C. overlay the test record on the part and mark
distance is correct the reneetor locations
C. replace the component within another D. precisdy measure from the index point on
identical one to see if the same indication the panel to the indicated location and
exists in the second unit mark the part
D. check to ensure the refracted angle is 45
degrees Q.3~23 An air~filled #3 FBR 0.5 in, into the
bottom of a 4.5 in. aluminum block. will retum
Q.3~20 The reflected pulse reaching the immcr~ to the 0.75 in. dia, sending immersion transducer
sion transduccr from the back surface of a 4.5- an echo signal equal to _ of the initial pulse.
in. aluminum plate standing in a tank of water is Assume no attenuation due to beam divergence
equal to _ _ of the energy pulse which was or other causes.
transmitted from the transducer. (Z" = 17, A. 2.20 percent
Z,po = 1.5) B, l.l 0 percent
A. 6.22 percent C. 0.036 percent
B, 70.2 percent D. 0,05 percent
C. 50.7 percent
D. 14.1 percent Q..l-24 In preparing a scanning plan (the set 01
directions describing the performance of an
Q.3-21 A test on a thick part will be performed ultrasonic examination), which of the following
• using a focused search unit with a 0.50 in. long

focal zone as determined by the 3 dB down
points. To insure complete coverage at uniform
sensitivity. the operator should take which of the
following actions')
A. set the focal zone midway in the part and
parameters should be considered. as a minimum?
A. sound beam diameter. refracted angle,
beam direction, gate settings, starting point
for lht! first s<.:an, nUIIlb~r of scam,
B. sound beam diameter, refracted angle,
operator's name, gate settings, starting
proceed with the exatnination point. nUlllbcr of scans
B. set the focal spot at the front surface such C. sound beam diameter, refracted angle,
that the divergent beam will attain maxi- beam direction. expected flaws. instrument
mlltn coverage ,erial number
C. set the focal zone at the back surface D. sound beam far field length. refracted
because that is the most critical area angle. beam direction, gate settings. start-
D. perform multiple examinations with the ing point. number of scans
water path decreased by no morc than 0.5
in. per examination Q.3-25 A 3 in. thick t1at plate of Polystyrene
during immersion testing exhibils an echo from
Q.3-22 A pair of squirters each with a 9 in, the back surface of the plate that is of
water stream are used in the examination of a that received from the front surface, (Both sides
IRrge panel in the thrrmghtran_mi"i()n mode lmmen:ed in wnter, ZpOIV = 2.7, ZW;Jtn = 1.5)
The search units are arranged in a horizontal A. 8.4 percent .
position. It is desired to locate discontinuities B. 84.00 percent
within 0.010 in. of their true position. The C. R.16 percent
analyst should take which of the following D, 6.88 percent
• actions?
A. assume that the coordinates given by the
scanning system are COITcct and use those
49
Q.3-26 A major problem in the use of search Q.3-28 In contact testing, the back surface
•
unit wheels is _ _ __ signal from a 2 in. plate was set at full screen
A. insufficient traction leading to skidding and height. Passing over a coarse grained area, the
bad wrecks back surface signal dropped to 10 pcrccnt of the
B. elimination of troublesome internal echoes full scale signal. What would be your estimate
C. installing adequate brakes of the change in attenuation in this local area?
D. seiecling a rigid lire male rial A. 20 dB/in.
B. 10 dBlin.
Q.3-27 A scanning plan is a _ _ __ C. 5 dBlin.
A. document which outlines the various steps D. 10 percentJin.
in preparing a procedure
B. document which defines the most efficient
way to analyze the data
C. document which gi ves the detailed steps
entailed in examining the test item
D. document which gives the complete history
of previous examinminns
50
•
•
Chapter 4
Practical Considerations
•
• Chapter 4
Practical Considerations
Many issues of a practical nature arise during Signal amplitudes are generally reliable for
both routine and specialized ultrasonic inspec- the resetting of instrumentation. based upon
tion activities. Issues of concern include inter- controlled calibration blocks and their reference
pretation of echo signals (as viewed on the A- retlectors. Hut the amplitude 01 the pulses re-
scan). equipment adjustment to expedite inter- ceived from naturally occurring retlectors has a
pretations. and set-up conditions for production high level of variability depending on the
inspections. ret1ector' s orientation and morphology. neither of
which arc known in most circumstances.
CUIlt:iatiuIlS uf sigllal alllpliluLles with spe-

Signal Interpretation cific reflectors are generally recognized as a valid
means of establishing the level of sensitivity of
The interpretation of ultrasonic pulses re- an ultrasonic system. Thus flat-bottom holes,
ceived from test part reflective surfaces can be with cross-sections smaller than thc sound beams
very complex. depending upon the geometry of incident upon them and oriented at normal inci-
•
the tcst piece und the wuve models can approach dence, do exhibit signal responses that are pro
being used. The most reliable measure available portional to the an:a of the rel1ector. But correla-
from an A-scan system is the time of arrival of tion with naturally occurring discontinuities of
acouRtic pulse~, due to its luck of UTllb1guity irregular shape and orientation has proven to be
when testing fine-grained. homogeneous materi- less than accurate, largely due to an inability to
als. In contact testing of materials with known satisfy the normal incidence requirement and to
and con~t.ant "nllnd W<lVP vt'locitlE''!', the lill1E' of the fact thar the reflecting surfaces are rarely nUl
arri val is directly proportional to the distaIKC and smooth. Where natural discontinuities
between the contact surface and the reflector. exhibit these conditions. as with srnaillamina-
The precise time of arrival is usually determined tions in plate materials. the area relationship has
by when the pulse initially departs from the validity. Although the degree of signal flaw
screen baseline. Systems using threshold de- correlation at a single transducer location is less
vices to trigger delay time monitors can be in than desired. observing changes in signal re-
error. depending upon the slope of the pulses rise sponse as the transducer is moved along. across.
time and the level to which the threshold device over. and around a suspect area can suggest if the
is set. reflector is round or nat (linear), rough or
smooth. parallel or vertical, and filled with
The signal peak is less reliable for this time materials which have a higher or lower density
measurement because pulses may spread follow- than that of the surrounding material. Table 4.1
ing passage through dispersive media. Estimat- lisls the techmques used in making these determi-
ing the actual time the envelope of the RF signal nations.
reaches a maximum is also a somewhat uncertain
approach. Depending upon which portion of the Finger damping is a technique whereby a
•
pulse is used for travel time measurements, the moistened finger. placed on the surfacc of a test
estimates of thickness and distance to retleetive piece at a location wbere sound waves are pres-
surfaCl:S ,all vary by UIll: or !lIore wavelengths. ellt, will affcct the "ave propagatioll anLl will
53
Table 4.1. Signal Interpretation Schemes
Characteristic
Orientation (Front Surface!
Vertical
Action
Rotate. Approach
Translate. Across
A·Scan Response
~Iaximizc signal
"Walking signal"
•
Flatness Rotate, Unidirectional
Spherical Rotate, Omnidirectional
Thickness Both (many) sides Thin if OnC side preciominfltes

Graphical plot
Length (Jarge I Translate in major direction Drop-off at ends
Depth/width ilarge! Tran:;late in minor direction Drop-off at edges

Graphical plot
Tip diffraction
Surface Texture
Srnooth Crisp, fast rise
Rough ,Jugged, wide -pulc;c
Multi-rei1ector Multi-echoes
Contents !U' phase reversal
often be detectable as slight changes in signal

amplitudes on the CRT. This technique is very
effective in separating collections of signals.
particularly when some of them are caused by
spurious reflections from corners, weld crowns,
is often indicative of the relative sirc of many
common reflectors and is vital for being able to
establish an instrument' s settings with respect to
a calibration ret1ector or for re-estahlishing
settings from one inspection to the next.
•
or other surfaces which arc readily accessible to
the inspector. Ideally, an ultrasonic system should be
capable of detecting renectors throughout the
region from the sound entry surface throughout
the test item's entire volume. Howe.ver, the
Causes of Variability length of the incident sound pulse (due in part to
transducer element ringing) represents a distance
There are many instrument variahles which within which echoes. particulnrly weak one,.
can have a significant bearing on the outcomc of cannot be distinguished from the reflection
a test and the interpretation of data. Horizontal caused by the entry surface itself. If short
swcep extent and accuracy affect estimates of duration pulses are used. i.e., if high-frp'lll<:ney_
time duration from initial pulse to signilkam well-damped transducers are used. the near
echoes. These are used as measures of thickness surface resolution is significantly improved over
("straight beam" testing) and slant distance systems IJsing long ciuratinn pl1lses;.
("angle beam" testing) and should cxtend over
the entire range of interest. In contact testing, the ability to detect reflec-
tors just under the near surface is further aggra-
Although amplitude is not a reliable indicator vated by the "dead zone" that exists immediately
of a natural discontinuity's actual size. due to
vari::ltions in shape, aspect angles, tranr.;;mi,slnn
properties of base materials, and other factors, it
S4
after the initial electrical pulse. The dead zone is
camer! hy an inahility of <;2tllrated elprtrical
components to respond linearly to incoming •
sigllah as a l"SUit of their having been over- of interest. The important factors affecting
• driven by the initial pulse. The "ncar-surface sensitivity are listed in Table 4.2.
resolution"/dead zone problem can be solved by
testing parts from opposite surfaces rather than The search unit is the most itnportant compo-
from only one side. nent in the UT system. This device determines,
to a high degree, the characteristics of the sound
Some codes and specifications have reject beam including shape, near-field length, focal
criteria based on the size of the flaw. Where two point (if appropriate), and refracted angle, The
reflectors exist in approximately the same plane transdllcer (with its mounting and hacking
and are in close proximity to each other, it is members) also determines the pulse shape,
important to be able to differentiate one from the frequency, and length in conjunction with the
other. Systems with very nan'ow beams arc electrical exciting pulse and the instrument load
capable of satisfying this requirement and are imp,,,pd on th~. crystal.
said to have good lateral resolution. Lateral
resolution is principally a function of the search Because of these factors, it is important that
IInit', beam width. This factor is very important the proper search unit be chosen, and each search
in imaging systems where clear delineation of unit characteristic be checked against the desired
small and individual flaws is desired. values on the UT instrument to be used in the
examination. Manufacturers often provide
Sensitivity is a measure of the ability to certificates with the measured values deemed
detect small reflectors. Systems with high important by the manufacturer. These include.
levels of amplification (high gain) arc usually but arc not limited to, photographs of the RF
systems with a high sensitivity. However. when waveform, the frequency spectrum content, and
the ultrasonic system is considered in its entirety, a distance/amplitude characteristic curve mea-
•
several factors can alter the sensitivity that might sured on a test block. Usually a value for the
be expected for a given combination of instru- damping factor is calculated. Since this factor is
ment, transducer, test material, or discontinuity not defined the same universally, it may be
Table 4,2, System Factors Affecting Detection Sensitivity
Factor I'ffect l:omment
Gain
'Trnn"nl](,pr c,nnvRrs.ion nffic.iency Coupling Coef -d 33. g33
Field concentrators Lenses, beam pattern
Amplifier Electronic amplific.:ation High linear gain::;: High sensitivity
Pulse Length Masks nearby reflectors Depth resolution, better penetration
Wavelength Reflectance, directivity Smaller L better sensitjvity,

resolution, higher noise (poly mtls)
Signal processing Gain ~, bandwidth:::::: constant Smoothing, filtering, reject reduce

sensitivity
Noise sources
Random Electrical (outside, inside) Lights, welders, cranes plus circuit
c;ro:!i~~talk, in~tClbility
• Coherent Transducer construction

Material surface
Material homogeneity,
isotropy, and geometry
55
Cross·coupling, damping
Coupling
Uncertainty oi'velocity, scatter
Geometrical reference surfaces
desirable to dete!lTline the definitions used in the Irregularly-shaped parts are often beyond the
•
calculation. For example. definitions may be capability of conventional automated scanning
based on the number of cycles or half cycles systems and are better left to manual examina-
meeting a certain parameter, e.g., the number of tions. With the advent of computerized scanners
negati ve half cycles in a pulse greater than the with leaming modes. the nperatnr Icaris the
amplitude of the first negative cycle, Each of system through one examination and the com-
these definitions serves the same purpose in puter then automatically repeats the examinalion.
different ways. i.e .. to describe the pulse length
and shape. The presence of irrelevant signals from
gcomelric r"atnres is a major inspection consid-
Test item surface condition is an important eration. The most common of these is the back
variable, especially when performing contact surface echoes from plate material (where
tests. A rough surface affects the examination in multiple echoes are frequently present). Fortu-
many ways. including causing difficulty in nately, these are easily recogni7eci Tn other
moving the search unit across the part; causing cases, however, irrelevant echoes such as from
local variations in the entry angle resulting in the root of a weld, may not be easily differenti-
scattering the beam: causing reverherations of Meo from flc:tllfll flAW lnrli('~lion~. In these cases,
the sound in the pockets on the surface, resulting careful analysis is required incorporating consid-
in a wide front surface echo with a reSUlting eration of beam spread and mode conversion as
increase in the dead zone; using excess couplant well as Ihe nmm"l i"IIPs of transit time,
and making coupling difficult; possibly causing Changes in beam direction and velocity due to
portions of the examination volume to be material conditions must be factored into these
misscd: and causing rapid wear of contact search :1n::.I1y'p'~ Reflf'cti()f1, from internal strtK'tl.1ral
units. features must also he recognized and considered.
In some cases, it may he nec",~sary to ,"nri or

grind the scanning surface prior to the examina-
tion in order to accomplish the test. Rough sand
castings, some forgines. and welried slIrfac",
typically require rework prior to the UT test.
Special Issues
•
The largest application of UT is for flaw
Extremely smooth surface" may hI' nifficlllt det~ction. It is: u~cd in receiving inspection of
to test using the contact te,'hnique because the raw materials, for in-process inspection of items
couplant may not wet the surface. This can lead under construction, and for in-service inspec-
to air heing trapped hetween the search IInit anri tions (as part of ongoing maintenance programs).
the part. This phenomenon is readily observed Although rnost applications involve metallic
when using transparent angle beam wedges. materials, UT is also found in the inspection of
plastics. composites. concrete, lumber products,
Part configuration (geometry) plays an and affiliated specialty materials.
important role in defining each examination's
operational parameters and practict"" Geonlctry WeId I nspectioll
and access often decide the choice between Ultrasonics is a primary method of weld
contact and immersion testing: however, there inspection, particularly when major constmction
ar" no nil", which relate the complexity of shape projects are involved, Welds, including their
lo making the choice. Technique selection is heat affected zones, are examined because the
governed by many things such as equipment probability of failure is higher in these areas than
availahility, part critic:llity, configuration. in most base materials. Although weld metal is
•
operator experience. and knowledge: a number normally stronger than the base metal, stress
of highly symmetrical parts, e.g" plates, pipe. risers may occur due to wcld contour, process-
"on~', 'phe,res, and cylinrlpr~, lend themselves to ing, or the presence of defects. The weld process
both immersion and contact automated tcsting. itself creates residual stresses which, when added
56
•
Figure 4.1. Angle beam geometry used in weld inspection.
... ----- ...

T
iI Sp cos rj
I•
Skip Distance = 2T tan S ·1
to applied stresses, may cause cracking due to tional trigonometry to solve for equivalent
fatigue or stress corrosion. surface distances. e.g .. skip distance. or depths
below or above the base material surface. For
Examination of butt welds in materials from example, for the I in. plate shown in the figure
about 114 to 15 in. thick are normally performed and using a 70 degree angle, the skip distance
using an angle-beam. shear wave technique (distance from transducer exit point to location at
because the sound can be oriented at near-normal which center of sound beam reaches the top
incidence to the critical flaws, i.e .. cracking. surface after reflection) is given by
inadequate penetration. and fusion. The bodies
of the welds can be inspected without removing 2T tan 13 = 2 tan 70 degree = 5.5 in.
•
the weld crown. When part geometry allows, the
exam should be conducted from each side of the For this same case, the sound path is given by
weld. Refracted angles are chosen according to
the fusion line angle. material thickness, or other 2T /eos B=2/eos 70 degree 5.85 in.
expected defect orientations.
Common problems found during weld
Figure 4.1 shows the basic geometry used for examination involve rough surfaces (including
defining the angles and paths followed by sound weld spatter), irregular part geometry (including
beams when doing shear wave (angle beam) hidden conditions such as counter-bores in
testing. As shown, the sound. introduced at an piping systems). and physical inaccessibility
angle which complements the geometry being Idue to insulation and being embedded in rein-
examined, follows a sound path that often re- forcing structures). During production and under
tlects from the opposite surface, particularly for some in-service inspections, examinations IlIay
plate-like product forms. The V -shaped path be done at elevated temperatures which can alter
pennits inspection looking "down" into the weld the effecti ve sound velocity of the material.
in the first leg of the Vee while the second leg is transducer performance (particularly refracted
the region used to look "up" into the weld. By angles or critical temperature limits). and opera-
scanning the transducer toward and away from tor's performance. All of these factors must be
the weld. the sound can be made to interrogate addressed and considered in the procedure.
the entire volume from two or more sets of Where ilTegular inner surface conditions exist.
angles. interpretation ofretlector signals is often very
difficult. For example, the presence of a backing
Analysis of signals observed on the A-Scan bar (placed at the root of the weld in order to
•
display requires converting the information assure adequate penetration and fusion) tends to
found along the sound path (along the Vee path) entrap the incident sound waves which reverber-
into positional data related to the hase material ate around the bar and eventually exit alone the
and weld centerline. This is done using conven- sallie path by which they entered the backing
57
•
Figure 4.2. Reference standard for weld inspection using notches,
.,--
t
U n 1l'2
I
L 4X I
MinimunL.i-MinilllWll-4
A
4X
21 J LEGEND
L Angled nutch
2, Undercut notch length per welding ~pecificat,ion
f-LJ~
"
"
,I
14 3. Separation two times transducer width or 2 in.
3~, f-
maximum
4. Crack, LF and LP notch length two times trans-
duccl' w'idth D\" 2. In. mn'Xlmum
u 5, Hule size maximum allowable
6. Hole size minimum allowable
aI t-<:;.-
--t--
( 8
7. Notch depth tl10 maximum
8. Hol{l depth t/2 maximum
" [6
'-'
strip, Thus, stmng echo signals are returned to

the sending transducer at an apparent depth of
slightly more than the thickness of the base
material. The interpretation might be that a large
structural steel to serve as a mock-Up for the
weld inspector to accurately locate where on the
CRT echo signals can be expected to appear.
•
defect exists just beyond the root area of the Welds such as fillet welds and dissimilar
weld on the opposite sIde ot the weld. metal welds may require the application of
different techniques in order to examine all
Another troublesome welding configuration portions of these welds and their heat-affected
is llltroduced by the presence of a counter-bore zones. Due to the geometry of many tillet welds,
"ledge", machined or gmund into the inner particularly those in which incomplete penetra-
radius of a pair of fitted pipes, so placed in order tion is permitted, ultrasonic testing is usually not
that their initial fit-up (gap and alignment) is recommended. In other cases. such as stalllless
generally uniform. Such a geometry can give sleel piping. ultrasonic inspection may be suc-
rise to strong geometrical reflector signals in the cessful in the base material (a wrought product)
irnrnediate vicinity of the weld root. an area well but not in the weld zone (a cast product).
known foJ' the initiation of stress corrosion
cracks in stainless steel piping systems. If the Immersion Testing
angles of impcction and counter-bore arc such Th~immersioll melhud uf coupling ulLra-
that the reflected wave is below the first critical sound to test parts permits a wide variety of test
angle, internal mode conversion can take place conditions to be used without the need for
with u longitudinal wave tl'Uveling in a direction cu,lom-JesiglleJ transduce! d"c!llbli"" aUlI wilh
other than that of the reflected shear wave.
•
consistent coupling characteristics, allowing for
imaging of test parts with regular shapes, i.e.,
Figure 4.2 shows the use of notches intro- plate, rod, cylinder, pip.;;, and simple forgings,
duced into a separate sample of the weldcd and assemblies sLlch as honeycomb panels.
58
The flexihility of immersion testing is hoth a The gain used in immersion testing is rather
•
blessing and a bane in that it permits the use of a high, due to the large amount of sound energy
single set of test equipment (transducers, mostly) lost at the water-test part interfaces which are
to be Llsed for a large variety of inspection often ve.ry diffe.rent in ~cnll,tic imp.,d"nr.."
protocols (inspection angles, modified beam When the transducer is relatively close to an
patterns, regulated scanning patterns, and high item with parallel surfaces, the CRT often
sensitivity transdl1('~"), hilt it invnlv~s relatively displays an array of multiple reverberations from
expensive systems and significantly extends the within the item, as well as from the water mul-
setup time for each inspection. tiples. In this case, the water multiples are
readily identified by displacing the transducer
Alignment of sound beams to test part along its longitudinal axis toward the test item.
surfaces is expedited by the use nf the multiple As the transducer move·s, the water multiples
reflections which occur as a result of sound will tend to gather closer together as the trans-
being reflected from the water-test part interface ducer approaches the test part, tending to "walk
back to the transducer face. and re-reflected back through" the test part multiples, and eventually
and forth between the transducer and the test piling up at the first interface signal.
part,. By monitoring these multiple reverbera-
tions while angulating the transducer manipula- Immersion testing is used in the pulse-echo
tor, the presence of the largest array of multiples mode as well as through-transmission. A vari-
assures that the sound beam is aligned perpen- ation on the through-transmission approach uses
dicular to the test pan's front surface and thus a fixed beam reflector placed beyond the test
the sound beam is normal to the surface. In panel and adjusted so that its echo can be de-
immersion testing, because of tbe large differ- tected by the sending transducer in the pulse-
ence between the velocities of sound in water echo manner. This delayed reflector-plate signal
•
and metallic parts, this alignmcnt is critical is indicative of the strength of the sound beam
because slightly off-axis beams are refracted by after passing through the panel two times. A
a leverage factor of approximately 4: 1. Figure weak reflector-plate signal (if properly aligned)
4.3 shows the presence of water multiples as usually signifies a material with a high level uf
well as the multiple echoes developed within the attenuation due to its composition, or the pres-
tlat steel plate. ence of highly attenuating voids or scatterers
Figure 4.3. Multiple echoes found in immersion testing.
Initial Pulse
Interface Echo
Second
Interface
Echo
1
Backwall
Transducer Echoes
2
Multiple
Echom;
] w.~ '.,'off 3
• Steel
59
•
Figure 4.4. Shear waves induced in tubular materials.
Focused Longitudinal Source Beam
LEGEND
Q> = Angle of incident sound beam
9 - ~I\.ngle of refruded oound beam
VLW = Longitudinal velocity in water
VSM = Shear velocity in metal
VLM Longitudinal velocity in metal
d = distanoc of transducer centerline offBet
from normal to cylinder outside diameter
•
HW = Beam width .
sin ~ = (VLWNM) sin e
which may not result in a discrete back scattered ducers. Figure 4.5 shows the effect of contour
echo of their own. correction on the A-scan display obtained with
and without correction heing used. By matching
Angle beam, shear wave testing is often the curvature of the sound beam to the curvature
achieved by rotating (swiveling or angulating) of the tube. a set of well spaced multiple rever-
the transducer with respect to the sound entry berations from within the tube wall is clearly
surface. For cylindrical items, it can also be evident.
clont> by off,ctting the transducer to the point
where the curvature of the test part yields a When using transducers equipped with
refracted shear wave as shown in Figure 4.4. focusing lenses for the purpose of increasing
The curvature of the test surface results in the t1aw sensitivity or larcl'o.l resolution, the intro-
refraction of the sound beam in a manner that duction of flat surfaces associated with test parts
tends to spread the sound with the water-item also distorts the beam pattern, tending to fore-
interface functioning as a cylindricallen~, shorten the focal length due to the refraction of
diverging the beam. Areas with concave sur- the wavefronts entering the higher velocity
faces, such as inner radiused forgings, are some- metallic parts. The focal distance is usually
times difficult to inspect because they focus the reduced in length equivalent to one-fourth of
sound beam into a narrow region, making com- what it would have been in the water without the
plete, uniform coverage quite difficult. presence of the metallic test part. The factor of
one fourth arises from the ratio of the longitudi-
•
It is possible to compensate for some of these nal wave acoustic velocities within the water and
contoured surfaces through the use of specially metallic. respectively. Figure 4.6 conceptually
designed transducers or the introduction of demonstrates this effect. .
contour-correcting lenses applied to t1at trans-
60
•
Filnlre 4.5. Contour correction through focused transducers.
U
'I I'
Flat Transducer UcontourCd Transducer
\ I I I
i I I I \ !
_+-+- Tubing . ._++_. Tubing
• The automation of immersion inspections

relies on the use of special circuits (gates) that
send control signals to recorders. alarms,
transporters, and marking devices in response
to the presence (or ahsence) of special ultra-
sonic echo response pulses. By using time
anti-foulants, wetting agents) and the outgassing
of test parts during testing. The outgassing is
most troublesome due to the formation of
huhhles on the surfaces of materials upon their
introduction in the water tanks. Although wip-
ing them off removes much of the problem, the
delay circuits. initiated by either the initial bubbles tend to continue forming even after
excitation pulse of the pulscr/rcccivcr units or being submerged for relatively long period, of
by reflections from the front surface of the test time. Upon test part removal, care must be taken
part, the time of arrival of ultrasonic echoes to thoroughly dry and protect the items since
with respect to benchmark echoes (received they will be prone to suffer corrosive attack. A,
from front surfaces, back surfaces or other with any heavy-duty mechanical positioning
strategic reflecting surfaces) indicates when system. wear and hacklash in drive trains tend to
uiSculltilluilies we pleselll withill the lest pall. inllUUUce" Illechanical hy'leresis wili<.:h can
The use of front surface gating is a very effec- affect the results expected from C-scan recorders
tive way of having the gate follow a slightly and other image generating devices.
CUl vlug ~Ulfm::c\ Iclicving the need fOI ident.ical
tracking of mechanical positioners and rigid Production Testing
test part surfaces. The reliable triggering of Immersion testing is the preferred approach
recorders and alarm systems relieves the opera- to dulolildteu testing uue to the ab,ellc!;; or
tor of continual monitoring and permits other contact coupling prohlems, minimum deteriora-
acti vities to take place while immersion testing tion of performance due to use, and ability to use
j~ plugle~~illg. I.igli f'''lju,,"~y 'y,lell" withuut ~Oll~"rn for
•
fragile transducer fracture.
Problems found in autumatic immersion
testing include the cUlltillual JIlaintcn(1JIce uf the As wilh lllallY illuustrial prOl:ess~s, UT
condition of the water (corrosion inhibitors, testing is reali:t:ing the benefits of computer
61
information available to the analyst. Through
•
Figure 4.6. Second lens effect of color or gray scale coding. amplitude and depth
metallic test parts when information can be integrated into the displays to
using focussed transduc- enhance the qualitative interpretation of the data.
ers. Quantitative information is also available. but as
Focused in the case of virtually all nondestructi ve inspec-
Transducer tion methods, it is correlated to material per-
formance only through inference and not through
direct measurement. The prime advantage to the
analyst is the simultaneolls display of large
amounts of both signal response and positional
data.
In-service Inspection
In-service inspection and maintenance flaw
detection are used primarily to locate service-
induced !laws such as fatigue and other load-
Metal induced cracks. In-service inspection is per-
New Point---Ji·"j formed on equipment used to produce the prod-
of Focus
In
.,"\
Metal."" \ f
t- ....•.(/ Divergence
Rp.ynnd "Focus IIct rather than on the product itself. and is IIsed
\ f extensively in the nuclear power and petro-
~ chemical industry. This service is often per-
~'ocal Distance formed under poor working conditions. reqllirine
if in Water highly qualified personnel and appropriate
•
techniques.
Field testing is a conglomerate of applica-

integration in test applications and the interpretations and techniqlles used in a variety of indus-
tion of results. This phenomenon has opcned tries for a variety of reasons. Numerolls testing
many previonsly inaccessible arcas of testing. laboratories provide field testing services and
Computer integration is providing examination can provide quick response with qualified
of complex shapes. real-time analysis of data personnel. I Tltresonic fit'ld testine is Itsed on
wilh accepUreject decisions. different data pipelines. building construction, maintenance.
displays. signal analysis and pattern recognition. and failure analysis. Field testing techniques are
a high degree of operator independence. 8nri m"ny "nri v"rieri, "nd ch"ne" from d"y to n"y.
high speed calibration. Computer integration is depending upon the particular job at hand;
an expensive and time-consuming activity hence the requircmcnt for qualified personnel.
reqllirill£ con~iclerahle eneineerine ::mcl rI~vplnp
ment effort. Field techniques include straight (normal)
beam, angle beam, and surface waves. In con-
Computer integration into imaging proceS'i:e,:, struction, thesE' are u~ed to detect f:1hrication
offers advanced data analysis capabilities be- defects in maintenance; service induced defects
cause of its ability to visualize the size, shape, and corrosion are the usual culprits. Most of this
and 10cMion of rdle.ctors Tm"ges can be rotated work is manual because the applications are so
and otherwise manipulated to maximize the varied and job site inspection is required.
62
•
• Q.4-1 In a through-transmission, immersion

examination of an adhesively bonded lap joint,
the signal is noted to decrease in amplitude in a
small area of less than I 116th in. diameter as
recorded on a C-scan. What condition might
cause this indication 'J
C. increase, because air in the unbonded area
will reflect more sound energy than the
aluminum
D. increase, because the composite will resonate
Q.4-5 Three major sources of noise which inter-

A. a bubble on the surface of the joint or an fere with the signals on the CRT are _ _ __
unbonded spot in the joint A. front surface roughness, hydraulic motors,
B. the joint is tightly bonded in this area and enlarged grain structure
C. there is nothing that could cause this B. back surface rougbness, electric motors, and
condition-it is an anomaly decreased grain structure
D. the adhesive has melted in this area causing C. depth, size and location of defect
an increase in sound tranSlllissivity D. front surface roughness, arc welding opera-
tions, and enlarged grain structure
Q.4-2 Advantages of computer controlled
ultrasonic testing include _ _ __ Q.4-6 A single Vee, butl weld in " 3 in. plate is
A. lower capital equipment costs being examined using a 60-degree shear wave. An
B. high dependence of the test results on the indication on the CRT appears at a sound path
capability of the operator distance of 9 in .. At the same time the exit point
C. real-time analysis of test results of the transducer is 7.8 in. from the centerline of
D. no need for instrument calibration even the weld. This suggests the reflector could be
though such action is required by the
specification A. a crack in the ncar side HAZ
• Q.4-3 During the test of a fiberglass-epoxy

composite, numerous echoes are recorded in the
pulse-echo mode. What action should be taken~
A. the part should be rejected because all
echoes are from flaws
B. lack of fusion at the weld/base material
interface
C. a slag inclusion in the center of the weld
D. an undercut condition on the far side of the
weld
B. the paI1 should be rejected hecause the Q.4-7 Under the conditions above, but with tbe
supervisor was not there to give advice indication at a 6 in. sound path distance and with
C. the paI1 should be accepted because all the exit point 5.2 in. from the weld centerline,
composites will have numerous echoes another strong indication is received indicating a
D. the procedure :;hould bc eon:;ulted to probable ret1ector in the the wcld.
determine the analysis technique and the A. root area of
accept/reject criteria 13. crown area of
c. midsection of
Q.4-4 An immersion, pulse-echo test is per- D. base metal adjacent to
formed on a thin adhesively bonded joint be-
tween a composite material and an aluminum Q.4-H Under the conditions above, but with the
substrate. The sound beam enters the joint indication at a sound path distance of 9 in. and
normally and from the composite side. The with the exit point 8.1 in. from the weld centerline,
umplitude gutei:i ~ict on the interface between the the reflector lies in a plane that i~ 111.
composite and the aluminum. If the joint is from the center of the weld.
unbonded, the signal should ____ . A. 0.1 (on the far side)
A. decrease, because water has a lower veloc- B. 0.3 (on the ncar side)
•
ity than the aluminum C. 0.3 (on the far side)
B. decrease. because water in the unbond will D. 0.5 (on the ncar side)
conduct sound better than air
63
Q.4-9 Under th~ ronditions above. the reneetor QA-13 During production testing, a rod is
is at a depth of
•
(measured from the passing under a transducer in a stuffing box
transducer side J. (immersion testing). What is the expression that
A. 1.5 in. relates pulse repetition rates (of the UT instru-
B. 1.0 in. ment, i.e., PRR) with the longitudinal speed of
C. 2.0 in. travel (Vp) of the test part. given a transducer of
D. 2.25 in. width D'?
A. 0 = VpfPRR
QA-IO In a thick-walled piping weld inspection, B. PRR == D*Vp
the counter-bore on the ID retleets the incident C. Vp = D/PRR
4S-degree shear wave so that it strikes the top D. none of the above
surface (outer diameter) at normal incidence. In
order for this to happen, the taper on the counter- QA-14 An inspection specification calls for
bore must be (",e Figure 4.7) three hits of an echo in order for the Oaw to be
A. 30 degrees considered valid and for the alarm to sound. The
B. 45 degrees maximum axial speed of test part movement is
C. 11.25 degrees therefore fUI a I in. diameter trans-
D. 22.5 degrees ducer (assume no beam spread) and a PRR of
600 pulses per sec (PPS).
A. 1800 in/sec
Figure 4.7. B. 600 in/sec
C. 300 in/sec
D. 200 irllscc
Q.4-15 A 1.5 in. butt weld is to be examined
Q.4-11 Under the above conditions, an I.-wave

trom both sides using a 70-degree shear wave.
The scan program calls for heing able to inspect
3 legs (l.5 Vee paths). Weld access forcomplet-
ing this pattern will require ± rIllS the
physical dimensions of the transducer assembly.
A. 4.50 in.
•
i, internally mode converted at an angle with the B. 8.24 in.
sin ~ given by _ _ __ C. 12.36 in.
A. sin ~ (VIN s) sin (incident angle) D. 24.73 in.
D. sin ~ = (V LIV 5) sin ·15 degrees
C. sin ~ == (V sIV L) sin 90 degrees QA-16 The sound path sweep setting on the 10
D. sin ~ == 4 sin (incident angle) Division CRT for the above case should be __ .
A. 1.35 in.ldiv.
QA-12 A pipe being examined automatically B. 1.00 in.ldiv.
using immersion techniques (with mode conver- C 1.25 in.ldiv.
sion to a 45-tkgree shear wave at the pipe wall- D. 0.50 ill.ldiv.
water interface) is experiencing a wobbling
displacement (transverse to the pipe axis) of + 10 QA-17 A 0 degree axial test is being performed
perce'nt of its nominal otTset value. The pipe is on a steel railroad axle 8 feet long and 6 in. in
steel (Vs = 3.2; Vw == 1.5). The corresponding diameter. A strong but unsteady signal is seen
change in inspection angle would be _ _ __ ncar the center of the CRT screen. A similar
A. 11-14 percent signal is seen from the other end of the axle.
B. 13-12 percent The following conditions are given:
C. 10- \0 percent
D. 14-10 percent
64
Screen Distance: 10 feet (12 in.lDiv), Damping:
Minimum, Gam: 85 dB, Pulse Repetition Rate:
•
2000 PPS, Frequency: 2 MHz. Range: 50 in .. Q.4-18 A 1O-foot long turbine shaft is to be
•
Reject: Off, Filter: Off, Sweep Speed: As inspected from one end with 0 degree, longitudi-
Required. Sweep Delay: As Required nal wave for radial. circumferential fatigue
What action should the operator take? cracks in an area between 90 and 110 in. from
A. record the indication and notify supervisor the inspection end. The available instrument
B. change the PRR to 1000 and observe the screen can display a maximum of 80 in. How
effect should the operator proceed?
C. compare the signal to the reference stan- A. give up
dard and reject the axle if the reference B. set up 20 in. screen and delay the start to 90
level is exceeded in.
D. determine if the signal responds to finger C. set up an 80 in. screen and delay the start to
damping hy touching the opposite end 30 in.
D. assume there are no cracks and tum in a
report
• 65
•
Chapter 5
Codes and Standards
•
• Chapter 5
Codes and Standards
Every ultrasonic examination should be tion acti vities are to be conducted, but leaves the
governed by one or more procedures that are issue of acceptance criteria to be decided be-
structured to comply with the rules and criteria tween buyer and service organization. In this
of applicable codes, standards, and/or specifica- way, the actual procedures to be followed are left
tions, Simple maintenance tasks such as thick- up to the senior technical personnel who IIlust
ness measurement for corrosion detection may agree upon an appropriate set of acceptance
not be governed by any regulation, but a specific criteria and related operational issues.
procedure should still be followed m order to
assure the gathering of valid and accurate data, In the ASME Code. one section of the Code
(Section V) serves the same purpose as the
ASTM standards and even uses some of them as
the technical basis for ultrasonic activities.
Because the Code addresses several levels of
Typical Approaches component criticality, however, acceptance
criteria, requirements for personnel certification.
• Ultrasonic examinations in a critical or well-

regulated industry are often covered by multiple
documents, For example, the nuclear power
generation industry uses procedures written in
accordance with the American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers (AS ME) Code, The Code, in
and dct'inition at' what will be inspected are
reserved for other sections, namely the product-
specific referencing sections, For example.
Se~tiom III (ful "ew Nuclear construction), VIII
(for new Pressure Vessels constlUction) and XI
(for Nuclear In-service Inspection) define the
tum, is supported by published applicable acceptance criteria and personnel certification
American Society of Testing and Materials issues completely separate from Section V,
(ASTM) Standards, Sometimes these are aug- Nondestructive Examination. In order to ad-
mented by company, cmtomer. or Nuclear equately address the ultrasonic inspection re-
Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regulatory (juirements in this case. all applicable sections of
Guides, i.e" supplemental detailed specific a- the Code, including the supplemental Code
t10tl" In nrr1c~r to mf"{~t the', intc:tlt ()f thc',(' t1()('11~ Cases that clarify spE'rific is<;.ue-<;., must be con-
ments as well as their obvious stated require- sidered when operating procedures are being
ments. the Level III must be able to understand prepared to meet this well-known code.
the point of view that led to the statements
within the documents and be able to assure an In the above cases, a fair amount of latitude
employer that ultrasonic inspection activities, is given the user of thc eodes and standards in
documented in straightforward procedures. are in regard to the details of assessing whether an item
compliance with the entire spectrum of appli- is acceptable or not. The American Welding
cable codes and standards. Society (A WS) Structural Welding Code (used
in building. bridge, and oil rig inspection) is far
The manner in which requirements are stated more prescriptive in the manner by which trans-
• in codes and standards varies from document to

document. Some. such as the ASTM standards.
tend to emphasize the manner by which inspec-
ducers shall be selected. in which regions of
specific welds they are to be used, what compen-
sation for attenuation and beam spread arc to be
69
Table 5.1. Typical Code and Standard Requirements
Issue
Transducer selection
Approaches
Ranges (size and angle)

Prescribed angles
Angles for each case
Examples
... transducers between 40 & 80 degrees

... transducers Of 4/'5, 60, 70 degrees
.. .45:) in mid-section, 70° near surface
•
Scan techniques General coverage ... scan in two orthogonal direction
Intervals ... use .9-inch centers for grid
Overlap ... overlap each pass by 100/(; of active area
Scanning levels ""scan sensitivity to be 6 db above ref.
RaLl:'b .,.IIlUliIflUllL I)CWL luil! u(O il/eh!;!;:; j.)1;!l"I)I;!I..',
Calibration Instrument .,.vertical, horizontal linearity

Transducers ".beam location (IIW), depth resolution,
response from SDH, FBH. notch
Distance correction schedule ... set DAC at SOCk FSH, electronic settings
,,,recalibrate at start, shift, changes
Special problems Component curvature Use fig xx to correct for curued items
Transfer Use dual transducers to set transfer
Reporting Yormatt;/furm~ Form xyz to be used in recording dala

Analysis Classification of refZector found by .
Authorizations All reports signed by Level II & III
Acceptance criteria General types Reject all cracks and lack of fusion
Dimensions Reject "lag over 314" in 2" plate
Personnel certification
Collections
Per undefined procedure

Per SNT· TC·IA
Per MIL-STD-410
or 250-1500
Reject pore spacing oj';] within 2"
Supplier to have certification program

Written practice to SNT-l'C-1A, 1988
Procedure per ...
•
Records of examination List of documentation Final documentation shall intlude ""
used in analyzing inspection results. and how be carried out. For example. an ultrasonic
welds shall be laid out and marked. procedure, as cited in some requirements must
address the following items: (I) instrument
In a similar vein. many military standards. (selection. operating ranges). (2) calibration
because of their highly restricted applications standard (tie-in to test materials). (3) search unit
to certain components and configurations, tend type. size. frequency (wave geometry), (4)
to establish more structured approaches to screen settings (metal path). (5) arca to be
specific configurations of test parts and require scanned (coverage intensity). (6) scanning
inspection personnel to use these customized techni(jue (manual/coupling/automatic). (7)
approaches in conducting ultrasonic inspec- indications to be recorded (minimum sensitiv-
tions. ity), (8) data record format (forms to be fol-
lowed). (9) accept/reject criteria (basis or specifi-
Table 5,1 lists several of the typical items cation reference). and (10) personnel (jualifica-
included in codes and standards which need to tions (certifications), The degree to which these
b~ addressed as elements of the manner in
which ultrasonic inspection procedures are to
70
and other items arc controlled is usually depen-
dent upon the criticality of the application,
•
Summaries of Requirements
• Excerpts of contemporary specifications,

taken from both commercial and military prac-
tice, are displayed on the following pages in
order to gain an overview of their typical con-
tents and to be used as source materials for
questions listed at the end of this section, They
are not complete in their coverage and should
not be considered a sUlTogate for the original
Issues ot these documents,
• 71
•
ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials)
ASTM standards arc largely structured to Longitudinal Beam Ultrosonic Inspection of

define the basic operations which are to be done Carbon and Low-alloy Steel Castings." It has
in conducting nondestructive inspections in an defined a system of reference blocks using t1at-
orderly and technically sound manner and often bottom holes, which can be used as the basis for
with regard to specific materials. However, developing distance-amplitude corrections and
because they are intended to be used in many establishing a reference sensitivity for straight
different situations, the details of operational beam inspection systems to be used on cast
practices are often left to supplemental contrac- steel components. It further defines conditions
tual agreements between buyer and scller of the under which inspections are to take place
inspection services. Thus, some of the require- (material conditions, scan rates, DAC rARLJ
ments of these standards tend to serve as recom- development, reporting requirements), but it
mendations for specific actions or candidates for docs not give specific information regarding
• requirements: if not, alternates are agreed to by

the buymg and selling participants.
On the following page is an excerpt from

ASTM A 60'1, "Standard Specification for
recalibration intervals, quality levels, or person-
nel certification. These are, in large part, left up
to the buyer to include as supplemental require-
ments.
• 73
(Excerpts Taken from ASTM A 609*)
Standard Specification for Longitudinal Beam Ultrasonic Inspection
1. Scope
of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Castings
1.1 This specification covers the standards and proce-

dures for the pulse-echo ultrasonic Inspection of heat·
treated carbon and low·alloy steel casting by the longitudi.
inspection. Signals may be increased for visibility but
returned to base level for signal evaluation. Calibra·
tion rechecked periodically using transfer block as
basic reflector.
•
nal·beam technique. 7.5 ... Reoions havina parallel walls and exhibitino loss of
back reflection shall be rechecked and treated as
2. Basis of Purchase questionable until the cause(s) is resolved using
21 When this specification is to be applied to an inquiry, other techniques.
contract. or order. the purchaser shall furnish the followino
information: 8. Data Reporting
2.1.1 Quality levels for the entire casting or portions 8.1 ... Total number, location, amplitude and area of all
thereof. Indications equal to or greater than 100 percent ARL,
2.1.2 Sections of castings requiring inspection. and questionable areas (7.5). testing parameters ann
2.1.3 Any additional requirements to the provisions of sketch showing uninspected areas and location and
this specification. sizes of reportable indications.
3. Equipment 9, Acceptance Standards

3.1 Electronic Apparatus: 9,1 ... Criteria for indiVidual castings shouln be based on a
... Pulse·echo, 1-5 MHz. linear ± 5% for 75% of realistic appraisal of service requirements and the
screen height. quality that can normally be obtained in production of
:i.' TrRn~dIJCAr:::;' the particular type of casting
... L·wave, 1·11/8 dia, 1 inch square; prefer 1 9.2 Acceptance quality levels shall be established
MHz beyond 2 Inch depth. between purchaser and manufacturer on the basis of one
3.3 Reference Blocks: or more of the follOWing critena,
... FBH, #16, DAC - I-to inch. cast materials that 9.2.1 No indication equal to or greater than that
have a metallurgical structure Similar to the specified in one of the quality levels listed In Table XI, or
castings being inspected. Other blocks may be 922 No questionable areas from paragraph 7.5,
used provided they are proven to be acoustically
r,R~t ~tP.P.1. The hole hottom sh;:}11
AtllJivR.IAnt tn thA
be cleaned and plugged. Each block identified.
Block specifications: 32 rms, flaVparaliel to within
0.001 inch, hole diameter 1/4 ± 0.002 inch,
I"lArrAnrhr.IJI;)r within ,qo min
unless proven acceptable by other means,
9.3 Other mARns may hE'! lJRAd to ARtHnlish thA voI'llidity of
a rejection based on ultrasonic inspection.
Table XI Rejection Level

•
4. Personnet Requirements Quality Area
4,1 The seller shall be responsible for assigning qualified
personnel ,:::t ql.l~ljflr.l"Itinn rF~r.nrrl "hRIl hI" I"Ivl'lilRhl"" IlrOn
Level inch2
request.
1 0.8
5. Casting Conditions 2 1.5
5.1 Hl?at tr~at bl;'lforf!':.'! UT 3 3
5.2 Surfaces shall be free of interference. 4 5
5 8
6. Test Conditions
6.1 Each pass of transducer to overlap.
6 12
6.2 Rate less than 6 inch/second. 7 16
7. Procedure
7.1 Adjust sweep to put back wall at least halfway across
the CRT. Notes:
7.2 ,.. Mark the FBH Indication height for each of the Table XI applies to Signals above the 100% ARL line.
applicable blocks on the CRT screen. Draw line
through indicRtion m8rks S8t p88k 8.t 3/4 .sr:-r8I"'In Thp. ~rA<'l.c:. mfpr to r.<'l.c:.tina .c:.IJrff'lr.P. ~HA<'l nvpr
height. This is the amplitude reference line (ARL). which a continuous indication exceeding ARL
7.3 ... Use transfer mechanism to compensate for surface exists,
roughness differences. Use back wall reflection from 2. Beam spread and curvature must be considered
block and casting in sa.mE! thicknG'ss, conditions. whpn? IemO rli.c:.t,qnr./?r;;: 8nd curved castings are
7.4 ... Attenuator only control that can be changed during involved.
*Extracted. with permission, from the Annual Book of ASTM Standards, copyright American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street. Philadelphia. PA 19103,
74
•
ASME
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
ASME has structured its nondestructive Section V, "Nondestructive Examination," as

testing requirements as part of the Boiler and well as ye;:ry brief examples of how the referenc-
Pressure Vessel Code. This comprehensive set ing sections of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel
of rules defines the allowable design practices, Code are used for the introduction of specific
materials, construction practices, examination reqUIrements. An example of ultrasonic testing
approaches, and documentation needed to assure of fcrritic cast materials was chosen to compare
consistent construction of new boilers. pressure the ASTM specification and the modified set of
vessels. and anciIJary components including requirements of Sections lIT and V.
piping systems, containment systems, and
support systems. The Code is subdivided into The important area of weld inspectinn is
sections devoted to specific classes of compo- included to highlight the use of special purpose
nents (pressure vessels. boilers. piping) and calibration blocks (as opposed to commercially
•
snpporting t"rhnoingirs (welding, non- available standard calibration bloch., i.e., the
destructive examination. materials). Thus items UW block) and to describe methods of verifying
"constructed in accordance with the Code" often instrument linearity and accommodating test part
must satisfy a multitude of requirements. The curvuturc::;,
following pages include brief excerpts from
• 75
(Excerpts Taken from ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code*)
T-510 SCOPE
Section V (Nondestructive Examination)
Article 5 - Ultrasonic Examination Methodsfor Materials and Fabrication
This Article describes or references requirements which reference.

S-Wave - per Figure plus other holse, notchOD for
•
are to be used in selecting and developing ultrasonic Method - Straight Beam per SA-609 exclusive of
examination procedures for welds, parts, components, paragraph 7.3 (transfer method).
materials and thickness determinations. This Article - Angle Beam 80% peak, SDH DAC curve from
contains all of the basic technical and methodological block
requirements for ultrasonic examination. When examina~
tion to any part of this Article is a requirements of a T-541.4.3 Examination.
referencing Code Section, the referencing Code Section per SA-609 plus ..
shall be consulted for specific requirements for the follow-
ing. (a) A supplementary angle beam examination shall be
pertormed on castings or areas of castings where a back
Personnel Qualification/Certifications reflection cannot be maintained during the straight beam
procedure Requirements and/or Techniques examination, or where the angle between the front and
Examination System Characteristics back surtaces of the castings exceeds 15 deg.
Retention and Control of Calibration Blocks
Acceptance Standards for Evaluation (b) The requirements for extent of examination and
Extent and Retention of Records at;[J~~ti:lf1C;~ wilHrII:f ~hGlIl t)e as required by the referencing
Report Requirements Code Section.
Extent of Examination and/or Volume to be Scanned
T-522 Writton Procoduro Roquiromcntc NB-2574 Ultrasonic ExaminatiOn of Ferrittc

Ultrasonic examination shall be pertormed in accor-
dance with a written procedure. Each procedure shall
Steel Castings
include at least the following Information, as applicable.
•
(e) (h). (0). (I). (m). (n). (n)
Ultrasonic examination shall be pertormed in
T-523.1 Examination Coverage accordance with T-541.4 of Article 5 of Section V.
10% overlap of piezoelectric element
Rate 56 in/sec unless calibrated elsewise
NB-2574.1 Acceptance Stds.
T-530 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES (a) The Quality Levels of SA-609 shall apply per
Frequency - (1-5 MHz) (1) Level 1, T<2 in.
Screen Linearity - ± 5 %, in 20-80% range (2) Level 3. 2~T~~ in.
Control Linearity - ± 20% amplitude ratio
Check Calib. at beglOOIng, end, personnel change, (3) Level 4, 1>4 in.
suspected maltuncflon (b) Supplemental ReqUirements
Linearity methodology prescribed. (1) Length VS. Level
Level 1, 1.5 in.
T-540 APPLICATIONS
Level 2, 2.0 in.
T-541 Material Product Forms
Plate, Forgings-Bars, Tubular Products Level 3, 3.0 in.
Level 4, 3.0 in.
T-541.4 Castings. When ultrasonic examination of ferritic (2) Q Level 1 applies to first inch of any volume
castings is required by the referencing Code Section, all of material.
sections, regardless of thickness, shall examined in
accordance with SA-609; supplementod by T~610, T 620, (3) Measured chenqe in depth UP to lesser of
as well as T-541.4.1. T-541.4.2 and T-541.4.3 one-half wall or 1 in.
(4) Two or more indications in the same plane,
T-541.4.1 Equipment. Transducer=1-11/8dia, 1 in'1 separation<longest dimension, within (b)(1).
MHz, others allowed it ~Ansitivjty o.k
(5) Twu UI II lUi " ifllJi~<:Itiu",; greater than next
T-541.4.2 Calibration higher Q-Ievel permits.
Blocks same material specification. grade, product
form, heat treatment, and thickness ± 25%. Surface Excerpts from Section III (Nuclear Construction), a
representative. sample ot a referenCing Code section.
•
L-Wave - per SA-609
*Extracted, with pennission, from the AS}'1E Boiler and PrCR~UrG Vessel Cod~, (:opyright American SOI::it;ty
of Mechanical Engineers. 345 East 47th Street. New York. NY iOO 17.
76
T·541.5 Bolting Material T-5S0 EVALUATION
•
With OAC, any reflector which causes an indication in
T~542 Welds eXCQSS of ~O% of DAC to be investigated to criteria of
Requirements for UT of full penetration welds in referencing Code,
wrought and cast materials including detection, location,
and evaluation of reflectors within the weld, heat affected T·590 REPORTS AND RECORDS
zone, end adjacent material. Cover:; ferrltic producto and A roport cha.1I bo made indicating welds exa.mined,
pipe, Austenitic and high nickel alloy welds covered in T· locations of recorded reflectors with operator 10, Records
54285 of calibrations (instrument, system, cal block 10) shall also
be included,
T-542.2 Calibration
Basic Calibration Block
Material· Same product form and material specification
or equivalent P·Number grouping, P·Nos, 1, 3, 4, and 5
are con5idered equivalent for UT. Te3t with Straight
Beam, UW-53 TECHNIQUE FOR ULTRASONIC
Clad· Same welding procedure as the production part, EXAMINATION OF WELDED JOINTS
Suriace representative,
Ileat Treatment" At least minimum tempering treatment UllratjurJi(.; f:;;lXctrrlirH:tliull ur Wt:lIUf::HJ juil1l~ wtlf:::!fl
of material spec for the type and grade and postweld HT required or permitted by other paragraphs of this
of at least 2 hr, Division shall be performed in accordance with
Geometry ~ see Figure 5,1
Curvature" ;...20 in. die, considered flat
Appendix 12",
- <20 in. dia, see Figure 5.1
System Calibration Appendix 12 ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF
Angle Beam (Ref: Article 4, Appendix B) WELDED JOINTS
(a) sweep range - 10"10 or S'}O full sweep
(b) distance~amplitude correction ~ 20%/2dB 12-1 SCOPE
(c) position This Appendix describes methods which shall
(d) echo from surtace notch be employed when UT of welds is specified in this
Division, Article 5 of Section V shall be applied
Straight Beam (Ref: Article 4, Appendix C)
for detailed requirements, A certified written
•
(a) sweep range ~ 10% or 5% full sweep
(b) distance'amplitude correction ~ 20%/2dB procedure is required,
Frequency 12·2 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION-

(a) change of system component SNT~TC~1A
(b) before, end of examination (series), each 4 hrs, and
at per~ollllel cha.nge, 12·3 ACCEPTANCE-REJECTION STANDARDS
All indications over 20% DAC shall be investi-
T-542,6 Welds in Cast Ferritic Products." gated to determine shape, identity, and location,
Nominal frequency is 2.25 MHz, unless material Rejection criteria:
requires the use of other frequencies. Angle selected as (a) interpretations of crack, lack of fusion or
appropriate for configuration, OAC not required In first one- incomplete penetration, regardless of
half vee path in material less than 1 in, thick,
length,
T·542.7 Examination of Welds (b) liner type reflectors exceeding the refer-
Base Metal . Free of surtace irregularities. ence level and the length exceeds
~ Scan with L~wave for laminations at 2X (1) 1/4 in, forT<3/4 in,
senSitivity, (2) T/3 in, for 3/4<;T<;2 1/4 in,
Longitudinal Reflectors· Manipulate, rotate, perpendicu· (3) 3/4 in. for T>2 1/4 in,
lar to weld axis at 2X sensitivity over reference level. If the weld joins two members having different
Transverse Reflectors· Manipulate along weld at 2X thicknesses at the weld, T is the thinner of these
from both directions, two thicknesses.
T-S42,7,2.5 Evaluation
An indication in excess of 20°;0 DAC shall be investigated 12-4 REPORT OF EXAMINATION
to the extent that it can be evaluated in terms of the Retain report for 5 years, Include required
acceptance standards of the referencing Code Section, entries from Section V plUS a record of repaired
areas and a record of all reflections from uncor·
T·542,8,5 Austenitic and High Nickel Alloy Welds rected areas having responses that exceed 50%
Ultrasonic examination is more difficult than in ferntlc of the reference level including location, response
materials due to variations in acoustic properties of level, dimensions, depth below surface and
•
austenitic and high nickel alloy welds, even those in alloys classification,
of the same composition, product form, and heat treatment
It may, therefore, be necessary to modify andlor supple·
ment the provisions of this Article in accordance with T- (Cxcerpts from Section VIfI (Pressure Vessels)
110(c) when examining such welds,
77
•
Fil!Ure 5.1. Basie calibration block. 2 in. long to 114 in. didl11d~T flat cud,
mill notches 2(;10 T deep
Clad [Note (4)]
;/
6 in. [Note (I)J
T!2 [Note (I)]

Drilled and teamed holes
3 in. Deep [Note (1)]
Basic Calibratiun Hole

Weld Thid\[lIt~} It! !:I1,)t'k Thkknf'b !T! Diameter ["otf! 311
O\~r ~ In. Ihrou~h ~ In _~ Ill. nr I -,/161[1
Oler -+ In. through 6 In ''In. or 1 1/-1 H\
O,n 6 Ill. through 8 In 7 ][1 PI t 5ilb in
O'er 8 Ill. Il1lOugh 10][1 <Jm.prt ~/~ HL
Oler I() "'-th,-ough I: Lll 11 LTi. or I 7/1(, HJ

Oler l~ In. through J..1- Ln IJ LTi. or I 1/2 Ln
(her 1..J In (:\()\C 1211 ['\Qk \21]
Notes:
•
(1) :\1inimum Di!lle!l~inn ...
(2) For each increase in thicknes~ of 2 in. or fraction thereof, the hole diameter ~hdll il1crea~e l!l6 in.
13 J The IOlCral1t:e~ fOr Ihc hule (jiamlcr~ ~hall De :1:1/32. In.: wleranccs on norch depTh ~hall be + JO ano -':::O~ji: (Oiefunce or hole locatlon through
the Lhickm::-,~ ~klll be ± 1/g; perpenuicular [ukranct;' on not<:h n:Jle,:ting ,urfuce ~hall be ±2 deg.
(4i Clud shall not be included in T.
T·593 Examination Records

(a), (b), (c), ... (k), (I), (m) lists information to be included
such as procedures, equipment, personnel. and map of
indications.
Figure 5.2. Ratio limits for curved sur·
Appendix I • Screen Height Linearity
Get dual signal on screen with amplitude ratio of 2:1, faces.
willl 11'8 larye, sel at 80% FSH. Adjust yaill tu SUCC8S-
sively set the larger indication from 100% to 20%, in 10%
increments (2dB steps) and read smaller indication at each 20
setting. Reading must be 50% of the larger, within 5%
FSH.
Appendix It - Amplitude Control linearity

Get single signal on screen and change gain settings in
jLj~I---"i 13.3
accordance with table The indication must fall within the
specified limits. Settings and readings are to be estimated
to the nearest 1% of full screen.
Original Limits Change in Gain

•
Indication
Setting Control 4,8
(0/, FSHl (dB) (%FSH»
2.9
1.7
•
800/< -6 dB 32-4S'7c I
~--~----~----~--~
80';(- -12 dB 16-24<1< 5 10 15 20
409c +6 dB 64-96%
2WiC +12 dB 64-9W/r}
Examination Surface Diameter. In.
78
Military Standards
Military standards tend to use highly specIfic or rolled shapes, and parts made from them. It
instructions as part of their requirements, includ- does not address non-metals, welds, castings or
ing the design and use of calibration blocks, sandwich structures.
methods of system performance analysis, and
other operating instructions, Included below are It addresses both immersion (type I) and
excerpts from MIL-STD-2l54 which is intended contact (type II) methods of inspection of
to standardize the process for applying ultrasonic wrought aluminum (7075-T6, 2024), magnesium
inspection in the evaluation of wrought metals (ZK60A), titanium (Ti-6AI-4V annealed) and
and their products greater than 0.25 in. thick. [t low alloy steel products (41."10, 4330, 4340),
is applicable to the inspection of forgings, rolled using five classes of acceptance.
billets or plate, extruded or rolled bars, extruded
• 79
(Excerpts Taken from MIL-STD-2154)
1, SCOPE
Inspection. lJilru,wmic Wrollyht Metals.
Detection of flaws in wrought metals having cross

Pmcessfor
cUlyle trClrl3uu<..:er 23'" ±4
degrees in aluminum, steel and Ti. Set primary
tu yet S~w1ive from 45~70
•
section thickness equal to 0.25 In. or greater. reference response at 80% FSH, Set scan index at
between 50 and 80% of the half-amplitude response
4. GeNeRAL nEQUInEMENTS dintancc from reference ctandard, Eoto.blioh for oaoh
Orders shall specify type of inspection and quality class transducer used. Establish transfer factor using 4
in drawings including identification of directions of maxI- points from different locations based on back surface
mum stresses. reflections or notches, but only if the response is more
Personnel shall be Level II or better, MIL~STD·410. Level or less than the comparable <;.ignal from the reference
I Special permitted per 410. standard, allowable range between 60 and 160
Delalled procedure to be prepared for each part and type percent or ± 4 dB.
of inspection. It shall cover all of the specific information
mqlJimd to "At-up and pertorm the test. i.e .. (a). (b), (c) ... Acceptance Criteria
(0), (p), (q). Discontinuities are evaluated With gain set for 80% FSH
on a test block with hole diameter equal to the smallest
5, DETAIL REQUIREMENTS acceptable for the applicable class and with a metal travel
5.1 Matenals. distance equal to the reflector depth within - ± 10%,
Couplants
- Immersion (Type I), free of visible air bubbles, use Acceptance Criteria Matrix
preapproved additives ie. inhibitors, wetting agents
- Contact (Type II), viscosity and surtaca wetting
sufficient to maintain good energy transmission.
Standard Test Block Matenals listed alloys or from the Quality
same alloy as the par1, free from spurious indications. To Class Single Multiple u...r
be tested to class AA using Immersion, L-wave, I#FBHI 1# FBIIl' Ilncb)
•
5.2 EquipmerlL
Frequency: 2.25 -10 MHz, Ref: ASTM E317 AAA #J
#1 10%01 118
Gain: ± 5% FSH over full range AA #.1 #2 III
Alarm: Front surface synchronization A #5 #3
T ran5ducers B #8 j/j
- L-wave, 318 - 314 in. dia. C #8 ··~....~· ..··~·NIA········-····-·
- S-wave, 1/4 - 1 in, dia, or length
Manipulators
~ Angul~H adjustment - ± 1 degree "'Tv.o or mure JCii~ umn lln~h apill(.
~ Linear accuracy ~ ± 0.1 in.
5,3 Reference standards,
Flat surface - #2,3,5,8 FBH per E-127 For L-wave inspections, loss of back reflection exceeding
Curved surface - R < 4 in .. special block 50 percent shall be cause for rejection unless due to non-
Angle Beam· IIW, for transducer exiUangle parallelism or surtaco roughness.
SDH blOCK, rectangular beam hollow Linear discontinuity length IS measured using the 50%
cylinder block, pipes drop method,
Verification - drawlngslradiographs, com-
parison amplitude plots, linearity plots, surface 5.5 Quality assurance provisions.
finish, material certs, Syslem pertormance to be checked prior to, at 2 hour
5,4 Inspection procedures. intervals during continuous testing, at instrument setting
Scan parallel to grain flow up to speeds that found changes Or modules, and after tesling. DAC setups are to
reflectors In base matenals and at reterence ampll~ Oe cheCKed dally for the tllir...:knLJ~~ rClnge of rnateriallJHing
tude, angulate to maximize, check high stress regions inspected.
Near surface resolution limit for 2:1 SIN Data records shall be kept on file in accordance with
- 1/8 in. for 1 in. range thru contract/order. Location and general shape (size) of
1/2 HI. for 15 in. rcHlye rejectable indication.5 are to be recorded. Indications in
failure test from both sides excess of acceptance criteria are permitted if they will be
Immersion - subsequently removed by machining. A C-scan shall be
Water path ± 1/4 in, of standardization, maximize made that shows the location and size (by discontinuity
water metal interfaoe oignal, develop DI\C if needed, grade) with respect to the. matGrial being scanned.
so
•
•
Building Codes
Nondestructive testing requirements are severity class is determined by the degree to

often melded into the detailed requirements which the flaw indication exceeds the reference
associated with the construction of welded level, as modified by sound path attenuation, and
structures stressed with static loads (buildings), the weld thickness and search unit angle. The
dynamic loads (bridges), or tubular structures. classes and reject criteria arc as following:
Different sets of acceptance criteria are used Class A (large) - All arc rejectable
based on the intended purpose of the structure. Class B (medium) - Reject if longcr than
The base metals involved arc mostly carbon and 3/4 in.
low alloy steels, commonly found in the fabrica- Class C (small) - Reject if longer than
tion of steel structures. 2 in.
Class D (minor) - All are acceptable
The wording and approaches included on the
•
next pages use typical criteria based upon static The presence of more than one class in close
loads. Included arc those for scanning levels proximity arc addressed in special notes, as are
(which change with sound path) and bases for the treatment of primary temile stress welds and
rejection depending upon flaw class. The flaw e lectroslag welds.
• 81
(Excerpts Taken from a
Representative Building Code)
1. INSPECTION
Personnel Qualification
Personnel performing nondestructive testing other than

visual shall be qualilied in accordance with the current
Transducers
L-wave, 1/2::;:Areaz1
2-2,5 MHz
resolve 3-llule
S-wave, (5/8-1) x (5/8-13/16)
rallo:1.2:1
In~
•
edition of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing angle: ± 2 degrees (70, 60, 45)
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA. Only individuals t:1E::!arl::lnce: 1 ir].
qualified for NDT Level I and working under the NDT Level Reference Standards
liar individuals qualified for NDT Level II may perform IIW Block + portables
nondestructive testing. Resolution Block
Quallflcatlun Frequency
Extent of Testing Honz lin - 40 hrs,
Information furnished to the bidders shall clearly identify Gain - two months
the extent of nondestructive testing (types, categories, or Probe Noise - 40 hrs,
location) of weldS to be tested, Shoes & Angles - 8 hrs,
6.18 Calibration for Testing

ULTRASONIC TESTING OF GROOVE WELDS Sensitivity/Sweep
Prior to test at location
General 30 Minute intervals
The procedures and standards described below are to Changes in personnel, equipment or electncal
be used In the ultrasonic testing of groove welds and heat- disturbances
attected zOnes between the thicKnesses at oil bin. (8,U Zero ReTerence Level
mm) and 8 in, (203 mrn) inclUSive, when such testing is Gain setting @ 80% FSH frorn 0,06 in, SDH
required. These procedures and standards are not to be
used lor testing tUbe-to-tube connections. iesting Procedures
POsitional Layout X, Y
Variation in testing procedure, equipment, and accep~ Surtace condition clear
•
tance standards may be used upon agreement with the Larnlnation check- L-wave
Engineer,
All butt joint welds shall De tested from each side of the
Ultrasonic Equipment weld axis .... It IS intended that as a minimum. all welds be
1-0 MHz. Pulse-Echo tested by passing sound through the entire volume of the
Horizontal Linearity- 2%) weld and the heat-affected zone in two crossing directions,
Stability - ±1 dB tor 15% voltage change wherever practical.
Gain - 60 dB, +1 dB
'fable B-1 Ultrasonic Acceptance-Rejection Criteria

Weld Thickness'" in in, (mm) and Search Unit Angle
~
.- - - ~~
Discontinuity 6/16(8) >3/4

Severity thru thru >1-1/2thru 2,1121641 >2,112 thru 4i 100 I >4 thru 812001
CIM:S 3/41191 ),1I2i:1R!
70r iO" 70~ 60' 4S c 70" 60' 4j' 70' 60' 45'
Class A +5 & +2 & ·2 & +1 & +:1 & ·5 & ·2 & 0& -7 & ,4 & 1&
lower lower lower lower lower lower lower ]o\\'er lov/er lower lower
- ·1 +1
----- - ----------- ~
Class B +6 +3 ·1 +2 +4 ·4 ·6 ·3 0
0 +3 +5 ·3 0 +2 ·f; ·2 +1
Claus C ,7 ,·4 +1 +4 )6 2 to ,1 ,9 1 tD t to ,2
+2 +5 +7 +2 +2 +4 +2 +2 +~
Class j) +K &
up
+5 &
"P
+8 &
up
+6 &
up
+8 &
up
82
+8 &
up
+3 &
up
+5 &
up
+3 &
up
+a &
up
+4&
up
•
Evaluation· Set signal from indication at 80% FSH. Notes:
Difference between "Indication Level" setting and "Zero 1. Where possible, all examinations shall be made in Leg I
•
Reference Level" setting is measure of severity. For sound unless othenwise specified. Examinations in Leg II or III
paths over 1 in. attenuation compensation (2 dR/in. over 1 shall be made only to satisfy provisions of this table or
in.) is used. when necessary to test weld areas made inaccessible by
an unground weld surface, or interference with other
"Indication Rating" portions of the weldment.
Indication Level· Zero Reference Level· Attenuation 2. Whenever indications occur at the weld metal/base
metal interiace. they shall be further evaluated with 45. 60,
Each weld discontinuity shall be accepted or rejected on or 70 degree transducers. whichever sound path is nearest
thA hHSis of its indic;ltion rating and its length to being perpendicular to thA suspected fusion SIJr'f,qCA
3. B IS the material surtace opposite to the surface from
which the initial scanning is done.
Table B·2 Scanning Levels

Sound path" in in. (mm) Above Zero Reference,
dB
through 2·1/2 (64mm) 14
>2-1/2 through 5 (64-127 mm) 19
>5 through 101127·254 mm! 29
>10 through 151254-381 mm) 29
'''''This column refen-; to sound path diHLance: NOT material thickness
Table B·3 Procedure Legend
• Material
Thickness
(inches)
5/16 to 1·3/4
]·314 to 2·1/2
Top
Quarter
70-
60'
Middle
Half
70-
70'
Bottom
Quarter
70-
70"
Procedure
Number
!I 1
# 4
2·1/2 to 3·112 45' 70' 70' # 5
3·1/2 to 4-1/2 60'B 70° 60' # 7
4·112 to 5 60'B 60' 60' #10
5 to 6-112 45'B 70' 45' #11
6-1/2t07 45'8 45' 45' #13
• 83
• Q.5-1 A governing specification calls for shear

wave. angle beam examination of the compo-
nent. What angle should be used')
A. 45 degrees when inspecting a thick. 45-
degree preparation weldment
B. 60 degrees when inspecting a I in. thick
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.200 in. long
2 mm long by 3 111111 wide
a flaw that will grow during service
a tlaw which may cause failure during
serVIce
weldment Q.5-4 A set of curves of amplitude versus area

C. both A and B were developed for examination of a steel
D. the angle(s) permitted by procedure qualifi- forging. A reflector was found which was
cation determined to be larger in extent than the sound
beam diameter. Which criterion, of those given
Q.5-2 Accept/reject criteria may be specified in below. should be used to size the retlector?
a code, specification. or the procedure. Upon A. dircctly compare the amplitudes and select
what should these accept/reject levels be based? the size giving the same amplitude
A. accept/reject criteria should be based upon B. multiply the ret1ector amplitude by 1.36
the experience of the operator and select the equivalent size from the
B. upon the item's end use and the critical curves
flaw size C. move the search unit in orthogonal direc-
C. minimum size that can be detected tions unti I the amplitude drops to 50
D. upon the largest size that can be detected percent of maximum to establish the
boundanes ot the reriector
Q.5-3 What is the critical tlaw size in a forging D. multiply the sound beam diameter by 1.36
to be used in an aircraft landing gear? to yield the retlector size
• The Following Questions Apply to

ASTMA609
Q.S-S Reference standards are to be constructed C. at depths covering the range from 1-8 in.
from materials that _ __ D. none of the above
A. come from the same heat as the test parts
B. represent the alloy and heat treatment of Q.5-8 Scanning practices caB for transducer
each part position, to _ _ __
C. have been L-wave tested to assure freedom A. be from two orthogonal directions
[rom major flaws B. overlap each other by 10 percent
D. have a similar metallurgical structure C. change at rates at least equal to 6 in.lscc
D. none of the above
Q.5-6 Personnel conducting ur shall he certi-
fied in accordance with _ _ __ Q.5-9 The ARL is to be set on the screen such
A. SNT-TC-IA that _ __
B. the manufacturer's written practice (proce- A. the peak signal amplitude equals 3/4 FSH
dure) B. surface eflects are reflected as a revI sed
C. the buyer's written practice (procedure) ARL
D. nothing. they do not have to be certified C. the backwall echo is in the middle third of
tbe sweep
Q.5-7 Reference blocks are to be made using D. scanning can be done at 6 dB over refer-
• FBHs _ __
A. rnnging in size from 3/64 8/64 in.
B. of a single size equal to 114 in.
85
ence level
Q.5-10 The work order has designated the B. every 8 hours per union contract
•
inspection to be done to a quality level of "4" C. if system performance suggests problems
throughout a disc-shaped casting, 12 in. in arc prescnt, the battery light starts to
diameter and 4 in. thick. Which of the observed tlash
discontinuities are rejectable'? D. periodically, using the transfer block as a
A. signal 50 percent above ARL 2 in. long by basic reflector
2 in. wide
B. signal 20 percent above ARL, 2.6 in. in Q.5~12 A region with loss of back reflection
diameter (below SO percent) has been found: the next step
C. signal 100 percent ARL, 1.5 in. wide by 3 isto _ _ __
in. long A. inspect the region using another means
D. signal 90 percent ARL area of 6.2 in.' such as radiography
B. inspect the region using angle beams from
Q.5-ll The instrument recalibration schedule two directions
calls for the system to be checked (during test- C. recheck to assure operational errors were
ing! _ __ not at fault
A. prior to, every 4 hours. at personnel D. list as "questionable area" in final report
changes and at testing end
The Following Questions Apply to

ASME Section V, Article 5
Q.5~ 13 Reference standards (calibration blocks) C. never scan at rates in excess of 6 inJsec
•
are to be constructed from materials that _ __ D. none of the above
A. came from the same heat as the test parts
B. have a similar metallurgical structures as Q.5~ 17 A 3.5 in. thick casting, intended for a
the te,t parts nuclear application, is being inspected to T-
C. are the same material specification. grade, ~41 4 Thp 'lll"lity Ipvpl is to hE' """igned _ _ .
and heat treatment as parts A. in cooperation with the buyer as per Par. 2
D. are of the same thickness as the test parts of SA 609
note: SA 609 is identical to ASTM A 609
Q.5-14 Personnel conducting ur shall be B. as level 3. since the thickness is between 2
certified in accordance with _ _ __ and 4 in.
A. SNT TC-IA C "s level!. for near surfaces and level 3 for
B. the referencing Code section middle 1.5 in.
C. the vendor's written practice D. following a formal NRC review for ap-
D. the Code of Ethics for ASME prnv;:l1
Q.5~15 The calibration blocks for L~wave Q.5~ 18 For a 3.5 in. nuclear grade casting, which
testing of castings shall use SDHs as shown in of the following indications i, (are) considered
rejectable?
A. IIW block A. l20'k ARL, Depth =0.75 in, Area = 1.3
B. Figure 5. I in :., Length;;;.; 1.0 in
C. SA-609 g. 11O'k ARL, Depth = 1.25 in. Area = 1.8
D. none of the above in.', Length = 2.75 in
C. 100'k ARL. Depth 2.0 in, Area 3. I in.',
Q.5~ 16 Scanning practices call for transducer Length = 2.0 in
positions to _ _ __
A. he from two orthogonal riirectiom
B. overlap each other by 10 percent
86
D. all of the above
•
Q.5-l9 Compensation for differences between Q.5-20 Several screen height linearity checks
•
calihration hlocks and cast test parts is _ _ __ yielded the half amplitude results listed helow
A. made by adjusting the reference gain in for initial settings of 100, 80, 60, 40, and 20
accordance with backwall rct1cctions percent FSH. Which set of readings (%FSH) is
R. rn;.\de by adjllstine the reference eain llsin~ cnnsidererl nut of calihration?
pairs of matched transducers A. 54,42.27, 19. 9
C. not allowed B. 50,36,26,20. II
n not nrlrlr""Ni r. 4R.17, 12. 21,10
D. 45.44. 33. 18. 9
The Following Questions Apply to

Ihe Repre.\enlul;ve Building C()de
Q.5-21 A check of transducer performance Q.5-23 How long would the indication have to
using the lIW block indicated the following hi' in orrl .. r In he. ('onsid"red rpjP.<'ted for the
angles were being used. Which set( s) is not in above question?
compliance with the requirements of the Repre- A. longer than 2 in.
sentative Building Code" B. longer than 3/4 in.
A. 68, 72, 44. 62 C. any length
B. 46,69,63,59 D. it would be acceptable regardless of length
C. 45.71,59,62
D. 43,62,72,68 Q.5- 24 The transducer in the above problem
•
was being used in accordance with Procedure
Q.5-22 The signal from a weld discontinuity. set Number
at 80 percent FSH, results in the gain being set at A. #4
50 dB. The reference reflector required a gain B. #5
setting of only 44 dB. The travel path was less c. #7
than I in .. The weld thickness is 2.5 in. and a D. all of the above
45-degrec angle beam transducer was used.
What is the flaw severity class?
AA
B. B
c.c
D. D
• 87
•
Chapter 6
Special Topics
• ........•
~~ ~
•
• Chapter 6
Special Topics
This section discusses a few items which difference hetween harmonic frequencies is
represent technologies which are not in the equal to the fundamental frequency, it does not
mainstream of UT but are of importance in that matter which harmonics are excited.
they reptescnt former application areas of
interest andlor emerging issues which will Resonance testing was commonly used,
become part of the way UT is performed in the especially in the basic material industries such as
fUlure. the sleel producers" as a qllality control mCaSllr<'
for both thickness and laminar defects. Im-
proved electronic circuits have been used to
create pulse-echo devices which are more accu-
Resonance Testing rate and easier to LIse and interpret. As a result,
resonance testing is no longer in common use
The f"'On"nc,, techniquE' is. perhaps. the except for some primary materials characteriza-
oldest acoustic/ultrasonic nondestructive testing tions.
techniyue other than the visual method. Metal
•
slructures. especially castings and forgings, will
audibly ring when struck a sharp blow. An
experienced listener could often tell by the Flaw Sizing Techniques
ringing tone whether the part was tlawed or not.
A structure such as a bell when severely Hawed Flaw detection with ultrasonics is at an
sounds wrong to most anyone, experienced or advanced state of the art. Significant tlaws in
not; however, the accuracy of this technique left most structures can he detected. When a UT
much to be desired. With the advent of equip- indication is identified as a Oaw, nonnally some
ment capable of operating at ultrasonic frequen- estimate of its size is required. Below is a list of
cies, resonance was one of the first techniques variables which affect these measurements. This
used for thickness measurement; although some list includes. but is not limited to, !law type, flaw
Haw detection. such as for laminations. was also shape, location, multiple tlaws in same location,
performed. When a piezoelectric crystal is geometric retlectors in same location, grain size
excited with a voltage varying at the resonant 3nli oncntatJOn, flaw orientation, part configura-
frequency, the mechanical energy produced is tion, search unit characteristics, and sound beam
greatly increased. This frequency is achieved characteristics. Each of these variables can
when the wavelength in the material is twice the affect the measurement to a degree which is not
thickness or a multiple thereof the same from naw to naw.
In general use, a transducer is excited by a In general, there are two t1aw size ~alegurks
time-varying frequency designed to sweep the which are usually treated differently, those with
crystal through the fundamental and several naws larger than the beam diameter and those
hannonic freljuencies. When a rt!SOllaIll condi- ,mailer than the beam diameter. As a result of
•
tion is achieved. it is sensed as an increased these factors, no one technique provides accurate
loading on the transducer hy the electronics and naw sizing on all Haws; however. numerous
uisjJlaycu 011 the lCiluuUt uevicc. Since the techniques have been devised fur t1aw sizing.
91
Most of these are based on some consideration diagram. Flaw amplitudes are then used to
•
of signal amplitude. assign a t1aw size where the equivalent tlaw size
is a circular disc.
Flaws can generally be described by three
dimensions, length, width, and height, where the Large flaws are measured by scanning or by
length and height are in a plane nonnal to the rime-difference measurements, and. of course,
direction of maximum stress and the width is in these may be combined. In laminar f1aw meas-
the direction of the stress. In most situations urement, the search unit is moved back and forth
little emphasis is placed on the determination of until the amplitude of the Haw 'igual UIUI" 10 a
width since it has little effect on the stress predetermined level. Using this technique, the
pattern. Length is measured nonnal to the stress flaw perimeter can he determined. This tech-
and parallel to the test item surface, while height nique is usually quite satic,factory.
is measured norn1al to both the stress and the
surface. Of these two, length can ordinarily be This method is not the same for angle beam
measured successfully with the desired aCCllr"cy meaSllfement, whieh or" ll'llOlIy uscd in weld
Height, on the other hand, is much more difficult examination. Measurement of the throughwall
to measure. dimension (height) is much more difficult.
Several techniques have been developed in
For laminar-type flaws, the length and width relationship to thick-wall weld examination and
refer to the dimensions in a plane parallel to the a few of these will be discussed.
entry surface. Orientations of these dimensions
is a matter of procedure or choice. One of the most common techniques is the so
called "dB drop" technique. In this technique,
Small flaws may be classified into two the maximum amplitude signal is located and the
•
categories, t1aws smaller than the wavelength sound path and locatIOn recorded. The search
and t1aws larger than the wavelength. A circular unit is then moved toward the reflector until the
dise flaw much smaller than the wave length will signal drops by a preselected amount. usually
reflect a spherical wave with PIC"UIC ptupUI- 6 LIB. Al lltb puiut. lhe suund path and location
tional to the third power of the flaw diameter and are recurded. This step is repeated with move-
inversely proportional to the wavelength. Very ment away from the reflector. Plots of the data
small flaws reflect very little energy and urc u:;ing the known refracted angle provide 1\
difficult to detect. measure of the height of the ret1ector.
Flaw, ierw'r than thp w"v",iength and less A similar but slightly different technique is
than the beam diameter ret1eet sound proportion- the leading-lagging ray approach. In this, the
ally monotonically with flaw ,ize. That is, as the search unit is maneuvered across a side-drilled
flaws get larger, the amplitude increases, al- hole reflector in a calibration block as in the dB
though not in a linear fashion. Two approaches drop technique on a reflector. These data are
commonly used include area-amplitude blocks used to establish the leading and lagging beam
and the Krautkramer DGS (distance-gain-size) edge angles. In the examination, the locations of
diagram. In the first, specimens arc prepared the search unit are established as in the dB drop
with different size reflectors. The amplitude technique but the plots are made on the basis of
from the tlaw is compared directly with the the pre-established beam edge angles.
amplitude from a known retkctor. When a
match is achieved, the flaw is assigned the In the dynamic time of flight technique, a
reflector sileo focused. longitudinal wave, angle beam search
uni L moul1led on a mechanical scanner passes the
In the DGS diagram, a series of curves with search unit across 11 cruck. The sound path
flaw size as the parameter are plotted on an
amplitudcvcrsus-sound-path-diagram. llacksur-
face eebo amplitude is plotted on the same
ret1ection from the crack is recorded with the
,can:h unit position. The di'\dllCt Lu lite lip uf
the crack is determined by triangulation and the
92
•
minimum sound path. This technique shows surement of the t1aw height. This technique has
•
promise of good accuracy in some applica- heen successfully applied to measure intergranu-
tions. lar stress corrosion cracks in the nuclear electric
power industry.
Several techniques rely on the detection of
diffracted waves emanating from the tips of a Original examination with tip-diffraction
crack. These very low amplitude waves, if used through-transmission techniques. This
netectcn ami inentitled. can he used to measure technique is still used in selected applications.
the flaw height. In the satellite pulse technique In this technique, angle beam search units are
the screen is calibrated in throughwall dimen- placed on each side of a crack on the entry
sion rather than in melal palh In the rct1cctor. surface. These are manipulated until the peak is
The distance from the tip-diffracted pulse maximized and the crack tip is then located by
(satellite) to the corner echo is a direct mea- triangulation.
• 93
•
Appendices
•
•
Appendix A
A Represent~tive Procedure for Ultrasonic Weld Inspection
1.0 SCOPE:
1" 1 Thi~ pror.:edure i5 to be used for detecting. locoting path and range of otraight bO:;lm coverage.
and evaluating indications within the weld and heat reqUired.
affected zone of carbon steel and low alloy welds 5,1,3 Using Table C of Scan Levels shown in Section
using the contact inspection technique, g,O, identify the scan levels to be used for each
segment of the weld.
2.0 PERSONNEL: 5,1,4 Using Reference Table D, identify the indicating
2,1 Personnel pertorming this examination shall be rating levels which correspond to Classes I
qualified In accordance With PQ-l which is In through IV and enter them on Form A,
accordance with the guidelines of SNT-TC·1A 5,1,5 Enter any other special requirements for a
(\988), Onl~ Level II Or III personnel shall evaluate specific configuration Or iob in the comments
and report test results, section of Form A.
3.0 REFERENCE: 5,2 Prepare all applicable surfaces for UT Inspection:

3,1 NE·l "Nondestructive Testing Equipment", Rev, 0, 5,2,1 Clean contact surfaces of weld spatter, dirt, rust,
grease and any roughness that will interfere
4.0 EQUIPMENT: with the free movement of the search unit or
•
4,1 Pulse·echo Instruments and Transducers shall be would prevent the transmiSSion of ultrasonic
selected only trom tne equipment inventory which vibratlons.
has been qualified and calibrated to meet the 5,2,2 Smooth weld surfaces adequately to prevent
requirements of NE-1, "Nondestructive Testing interierence with the interpretatIon of the
Equipment." examination, Weld surfaces shall merge
smoothly Into the surtaces of rhe adjacent base
4,2 The calibration block to be used for production metal.
Inspection shall be the DSC (Distance/Sensitivity)
block, 5,3 Verify all equipment qualilication and system
caliUlctliurl (Jtl~c...:k~ fjriul lu It::sliIIY.
4,3 Couplants may include cellulose gum (mixed with 5,3,1 Verify that all equipment to be used has been
water) or glycerine, qualified irl accordance with NE·l and the
schedule requirements of Table B.
5.0 PROCEDURE:
5.1 Review each lest item's inspection requirements to 5,4 Conduct and Maintain System Calibration Checks:
be aware of contract stipulations for each weld joint 5.4.1 Conduct the Inspection system calibration in
configuration prior to conducting production weld accordance with NE·j, being sure that the
inspection. Seloct an cotClblichod Tochniquo Sheet reject control is turned off and remains off
for the weld joint configuration or create a new One throughout the inspection process,
that identifies the Inspection parameters of trans· 5.4.2 Calibrate the inspection "system" (instrument,
ducer angles, applicable segments of the weld(s) to cable and transducer) before first use and
be examined. maximum bQarn path and comp:::tnion A FVAry 5>ixty minlltes,
longitudinal wave scan region, scan levels, and b, At the completion of each examination or
acceptance criteria In accordance with Form A, series of similar examinations,
shown in SecllOn 10,0 of this procedure, If a new c, When examination personnel change, and
Technique Sheet is prepared by other than tho d, When electncal Circuitry is disturbed in any
Level III Individual, the Technique Sheet shall be way, e.g., changes in transducer, battery,
reviewed and approved by the Level III prior to use electrical outlet, co·axial cable or power
during production Inspections. outage,
5,1,1 Using Reference Table B shown in Section g,O 5.4,3 Straioht Beam Calibration
of this procedure, identify the transducer a, Using a location on Ihe base metal free of
•
ao\)le(8) required 10 lo\all~ Inspect the material any indIcations, set sweep range to clearly
thlckness(es) and joint design(s) being consid· display both the first and second back
ered. surtace reflections,
5,1,2 Using the selected angles and material b, Set the pulse reflected from the first back
thlckness(es), calculate the expected beam surtaco to a height of 80% FSH,
97
Table A. Schedule of Equipment Qualification
Herorc
Check
~'lrst Use
Transducers"
Angle
l{esolutlOn
Dimensions
Approach Distribution
Instrument
HOrIzontal lIneanty
Vertical Linearity
•
Inrl8x Point
Sound Path Angle
Internal Reflection
After 4 huurs uf use Imlex PuinL

Sound Path Augle
After 80 hours use Internal Reflection Horizontal Linearity

Vertical
8 Straight Beam Transducers are to be checked for resolution
before first use.
5.4.4 Angle Beam Calibration 6,0 WELD AND HAZ EXAMINATION USING ANGLE
a. Using the DSC block, adjust the instrument BEAM TRANSDUCERS:
to represent the actual sound path distance 6.1 USing the 2.25 MHz angle beam transducer
using either the 5 in. or 10 in. range on the identified in the technique sheet and operating at a
CRT screen. scanning level about the 0.06 in. SDH reference
b. Using the DSC block, adjust the maximum level in accordance with the technique sheet, scan
attainable signal trom the 0.06 In. ::JLJH to the entire volume at tile weld and HAL (8) uSing a
50% of FSH and record the "Reference 30% overlapping pattern, (b) while continuously
•
Level" reading of the gain control, on Form rotating the transducer a few degrees alternately to
B, "Ultrasonic Inspection Results." each side and (c) at a speed not to exceed 6 in. per
second. Enter all applicable information onto
5.5 Base Material Examination: "Ultrasonic Inspection Results," Form B, as each
5.5.1 Using a calibrated 225 MHz longitudinal item in the form is identified. For butt welds. repeat
transducer over the area identified In the the scan from the oppOSite side of the weld.
Technique Sheet, Scan the base material 6.1.1 Repeat 6.1 for all reqUired examination angles
through which angle beam testing will take as identified in the technique sheet.
place using a 20% overlapping pattern and at a 6.1.2 If part of the weld is inaccessible for examina·
speed not to exceed 6 in. per second. This tion due to base material laminar can tent or
initial base material examination is for the restrictive geometric conditions, full weld
purpose of assuring a predictable environment coverage s~lall be attained using one or more of
for the angle beam testing that is to follow and the following alternatives.
is not to be used as an acceptance/rejection a. Grind the weld surtace(s) flush and scan on
examination. the weld sunace.
5.5.2 If any area of the inspected base metal exhibits b. Scan from other accessible surfaces.
10tal loss of back reflection or any Indication c. Use other search unit angles such as 45°,
equal to or greater than the original back· 60", or 70".
reflection height. Its size, location and depth
shall be reported on the Form S, shown in 6.2 Evaluation of Discontinuities
Section 10.0 6.2.1 When an indication of a discontinuity appears
a. Size is to be determined using the 50% on the screen, use the gain control (or attenua·
amplitude loss (6 dB) method for tor) to adjust the maximum attainable indication
discontinuities larger than the transducer. to 50% of the CRT's FSH. Record the gain
b, Size is to be determined uSlOg the trans- control reading (dB) on Form S, "Ultrasonic
ducer edge approach method for Inspection Results" shown in Section 10.0, in
discontinuities smaller than the transducer. the "Indication Level" column.
c, Unsatisfactory regions are to be identified 6,2,2 Estimate the effect of sound attenuation by
using the shaded areas in Form Band subtracting 2 in. from the sound path distance
columns X, Y, Depth, Length, and Com· to the indication and multiply the remainder by 3
ment. (i,e., triple the remainder). Record this value
•
d. Satisfactory base metal lests results are to (dB) in the "Indication Factor" column of Form
be indicated for each weld by placing a B.
check mark in the column identified "L· 6.2.3 Determine the "Indicating Rating" by subtracting
wave" in Form B. the sum of the "Indication Level" and the
98
"Indication Factor' from the "Reference Level" 7,0 DOCUMENTATION:
settino and record the result in the "Indicatino 7.1 Record the detailed test results of all inspections on
•
Rating" column of Form B. Form B, "Ultrasonic Inspection Results," as shown
6.2.4 Evaluate the length of each discontinuity by in the attachments.
measuring the distance between the center line 7.2 Mark locations of unacceptable indications directly
of the transducer's 50% drop locations. over the discontinuity and rIote the depth and class
6.2.5 Classlly (I, II, III, IV) each diSCOntinuity In 01 each diSCOntinuity on nearby base metal.
accordance with the criteria listed in the
Technique Sheet and establish its accept/reject 8.0 REPAIRS:
status based on each indication's class, length, 8.1 After weld repairs have been made, re-examine
and separation from nearby surfaces and repaired areas in accordance with thi:s procedure
adjacent Indications. and enter results on the interlaced lines of Form B.
6.2.6 For each weld that is inspected, the results of
that inspection shall be recorded using Form B, 9.0 REFERENCE TABLES: (See Tables B, C, and D)
howo?\//?r r"'Inly thp w>?ld In I -W::\\lo? ('h<?('k,
acceptance status and comments (if any) need 10.0 ATTACHMENTS AND SAMPLE FORMS: (See
be noted for those welds free of any measur- Forms A and B)
able ultrasonic indications.
Table B. Testing Angle Selection

Material Thickness
(inches) Angles of Inspection
Top Middle Bottom
0.30 - 1.50 70 70 70
>1.50-1.75 70 70 70
>1.75-2.50 60 70 70
>2.503.50 15 70 70
•
>3.50-4.50 60 70 60
>4.50-5.00 60 60 60
>5.00-6.50 45 70 45
>d.50-7.00 45 45 45
Generul N ULWH:
1. The "Top" of the weld extends one-quarter through the
thit'knp"" of t.hp h9l~~ mHh'rl}ll Hnnl" t.hp rpgion (·In''PRt to
the surface from which the angle~b€'am scanning t.akes
place. The "Bottom" of the weld is the quarter-thickness
region opposite from the scan surface. The "Middle" zone
is the central region of the weld and is equal to one-half
of the thickness of the base material.
2. Inspections should be made in first leg of beam path.
3. Legs II and III can be used when access is lirnited.
4. All fusion-line indications shall be further evaluated with
t.ransducers which exhibit beam paths nearest to being
perpendicular to the suspected fusion surface.
• 99
Table C. Ultrasonic Scanning Levels
Sound Path (in.)
thru 2·112
>2·1/2 to 5
>5 to 10
>101015
Above Zero Reference dB
12
19
29
39
•
Table D. Ultrasonic Accept-Reject Criteria
Weld
Thickness
(inches) Class Angle
1* II
O.30~O" 75 +5 +6 +7 +8 70 Q
>0.75-1.50 +2 +3 +4 +5 70'
>1.50-2.50 +1 +2 & +:1 +4 & +0 +6 60'

-2 -1 & 0 +1 & +2 +3 70~
•
>2.50-4.00 0 +1 & +2 +3 &+ 4 +5 45'
-2 -1 & 0 +1 & +2 +3 60'
'0 ·4 & -0 -~ to +~ +:1 '/0'
>4.00·8.00 ·1 0&+1 +2 & +3 +4 45"

·4 ·3 &·2 ~ 1 to +2 +:i BII'
·7 -6 &-5 -4 to +2 +3 70'
,. and below
** and above
General Notes:
1. Class II and III indications shall be separated by at least 2L, L being the
length of the longer flaw
2, Class II and III indications shall not begin at a distance less than 2L
from wp!d ends carrying primary tensile stress, L being the indication
length
3. Weld thickness shall be defined as the nominal thicknegs of the thinner
of the two parts being joined.
4. Hejectable are all Class I indication~, Class II indications in excess of
0,60 in" and Class III indications over 1.25 in. All Class IV indications
are considered acceptable
100
•
Form A. Ultrasonic Testing Technique Sheet
• Applicable
Joint(s)
REF NUMBER: ---<T....S--'-W,,---_ __
DATE: _ _ _ _ _ _ __
APPROVED: _ _ _ _ __
Level III
Thickness: _ _ _ __
Transducer Angles:
TOP: _ _ _ _ __
MID: _ _ _ _ __
BOT: _ _ _ _ __
L-wave Range: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Scan Level: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
• Rating/Class/Reject Criteria:
_ _ db I II All Sketch of Inspection Scheme
_ _ db I II I L>O.60 inch
_ _ db I III I L> I .25 inch (M)
_ _ db I IV I Accept
COMMMENTS: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Prepared By: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Level I II III
• FORM: UI-IS!, 8/89
101
":j
~
~
~
ANGLE REFl£YEli dB SOUND £ATH ([H~ LE~1 I.EG II
LINE WELD L-WAVE INDICATION Location fIJ

ID STATUS o
NO.
SOUND ACCIREJ
COMMENT ='-.
~
NO. LEVEL PATH FACTOR RATING CLASS LENGTH X Y DEPT
H
g
...-.
1 (D
~
~
2
~
fIJ
..... E.
....
C
N '"
i
3
fi
• • •
Review Questions for a Representative Procedure for
• Ultrasonic Weld Inspection

Q-A 1 With scanning being done from the top
surface of a 1-1/4 in. thick weldment, the scan-
ning level for inspection of the root area would
should be identified as _ __
A. acceptable, based on proximity to the next
nearest indication
be, with respect to the reference level, _ _ __ B. acceptable. based on indication-length-to-
A. 12 dB weld-thickness ratio
B. 14 dB C. rejectable, hased on proximity to the end of
C. 19 dB the weld
D. 29 dB D. rejectable, based on proximity to the next
nearest indication
Q-A2 The reference level recorded using the
DSC block was 32 dB. An indication detected Q-A5 A Class III indication found at a fusion
near the root of the weld was 34 dB when cor- interface in a weld that is in a region which is
rected for attenuation. Thus the indication is to carrying a primary tensile stress is 1 in. from the
be designated as being _ _ __ end of the 0 75 in. thick weld and within 0.5 in.
A. Class I of another indication that has been determined to
B. Class II be 0.2 in. long. The class III indication has been
C. Class III determined to be 0.5 in. long. The status of the
D. Class IV weld should be identified as _ _ __
A. acceptable, based on proximity to the next
Q-A3 The weld joint being inspected has a nearest indication
•
backing bar near the 1/4 in. root with a 45- B. acceptable, based on the indication being at
degree groove angle and un ground weld crown. a fusion interface but less than 1.25 in.
Having found an indication at a depth equal to C. rejectable, based on proximity to the next
1/2 the thickness of the base material and in the nearest indication
vicinity ot'the interIace between the base metal D. reJectable, based on proxlll1ity to the end oj
and the weld metal, further investigations should the weld
be conducted using _ _ __
A. an L-wave transducer to assure the base Q-Ab An IndIcatIOn In the top quarter ot a 3 tn.
material is free of laminations or any other thick weld has been examined using three differ-
sound reflecting conditions ent angle beam transducers (45, 60, and 70
B. the same angle beam transducer that de- degree), each of which has resulted in a rating
tected the indication, only scanning from equivalent to the initial reference level. The
the opposite side of the weld indication should be identified as _ _ __
C. a 45-degree angle beam transducer and a A. Class I
beam path within the first leg of the Vee B. Class II
path C. Class III
D. a 4S-degree angle b<;;am transdu~er ami a D. Class IV
beam path within the second leg of the Vee
path Q-A 7 The procedure calls for compensating for
attenuation effects tlnuugh the u,,' uf cUllectiun
Q-A4 A Class II indication in a weld that is in a factors which, upon examination, appear to be
region which is carrying a primary tensile stress based upon _ __
has been found to be 0.45 in. hom the end of the A. an effective ncar field that dues not exceed
•
0.75 in. thick weld and within 0.35 in. of another 7'
~In.
indication that has been determined to be 0.25 in. B. an effective beam spread and/or scatter that
long. The Class II indication has been deter- is at a rate of 3 dB per in. beyond the near
mined to be 0.15 in. long. The status of the weld field
103
C. botb A and B Q-A 12 In preparing for the angle heam inspec-
•
D. the changes in ultrasonic wave energy tion, a longitudinal wave scan of the hase metal
scatter caused by changes in allowable is conducted tbroughout a region extending at
operating frequencies least to either side of the weld center
line whcn a I in. welded platc is to be inspected.
Q-A8 A transition butt weld is to be examined A. 1 in.
in accordance with the procedure. The weld is to B. 1.71 in.
be a smooth transition from a 3.75 in. thick base C. 2.25 in.
material to a 3.25 in. thick material. The proce- D. 2.75 in.
dure calls for the weld to be examined using
Q-AI3 Sound path angle and index (exit) point
A. d 70-uegree transducer both sides
f10lll need to be checked every _ __
B. a 4S-degree transducer from both sides A. 4 hours of use
C. a 60-degree transducer from botb sides B. 60 minutes
D. all of the above C. when examination personnel changc
D. at the completion of each series of similar
Q-A9 Inspections conducted in accordance with examinations
thp prn""rlnr" arf' haserl on contact testing using
____ as a couplant. Q-A14 Longitudinal wave testing conducted for
A. water bubblers and similar water-based the purpose of accepting base materials prior to
scanning devices angle beam testing for weld discontinuities,
B. water and cellulose gum mixmres adjusted requires an overlap scan pattern of at least
for surface conditions
C. industrial grade oils and greases adjusted A. 10 percent
•
[or surface conditions B. 15 percent
D. commercial mixtures of proprietary fluids C. 20 percent
designed to reduce residues prone to cause D. none of the above
corrosion in carbon steel
Q-A 15 Laminar types of discontinuities are to
Q-A I 0 When using a 70-degree transducer to he recorded on Form B (the "Ultrasonic Inspec-
exulllille the lllUl alea ur a sillgie Vee weld, the liulJ R",ult," ,heel) !,lUviueu they exhibit a !,ube
scanning level must be increased by 7 dB over height equal to or greater than _ _ __
the thin materials scanning level (12 dB) for base A. 50% FSH
metals with thicknesses between _ __ B. 75% FSH
A. 0.50 and 1.00 in. C. 80% FSH
B. 0.75 and 1.53 in. D. 90% FSH
C. 0.85 and 1.71 in.
D. 0.95 and 2.25 in. Q-A 16 Angle beam testing conducted for the
purpose of detecting discontinuities within welds
Q-All The scanning level for use with a 60- and their adjacent heat-affected zones requires
degree transducer is set for 29 dB above tbe an overlap scan pattern of at least _ _ __
reference level established during the system A. 10 percent
calibration. This scanning level is thus appli- B. 15 percent
cable to material tbicknesses in the range from C. 20 percent
D. 30 percent
A. 2.50 - 5.00 in.
13. S.OO - lO.OO m. V-A 1"I It part ot the weld IS maccesslble tor
C. 3.54 - 7.08 in.
•
examination due to base material laminar content
D. 4.00 - 8.00 in. or restrictive geometric conditions, the best
allernative and permiltcd approach 10 testing a
weld is to _ _ __
104
A. scan the weld using search unit angles data are recorded for a reflector found at the
•
other than that initially selected, such as 55 same location and depth in the same weld. The
or 65 degrees second set of data is recorded on the line directly
B. examine the weld from other accessible below the first set of data. Both sets indicate an
surfaces using the magnetic particle unacceptable condition. It is evident that _ _ .
method and using the yoke or prod tech- A. a repair has been completed and the repair
niques has been judged to be unacceptable
C. grind the weld surface(s) flush and scan on B. the inspector misread the data taken during
the weld surface using the longitudinal the inspection
wave technique C. a repair is in process and the data will be
O. none of the above changed pending tbe inspection of the
repaired region
Q-AI8 An indication is found at a sound path O. none of the above
distance of 5.6 in. Thus the effecl of sound
attenuation to be entered into Form B is esti- Q-A22 An indication in a 3 in. weldment yields
mated to be _ _ __ an indication \evel of +I dB for the 45-degree
A.8dB transducer and -2 dB for the 70-degree trans-
B. 9 dB ducer. Tbe indication should be identified as
C. iO dB
0.11 dB A. Class I
B. Class II
Q-A 19 A series of welds arc examined and C. Class III
found to be free of any objectionable indications. O. Class IV
Thus. _ __
•
A. Form B need not be filled out in its entirety Q-A23 An indication in the middle of a 5 in.
B. tbe status of each weld needs to be marked weldment has been identified Class IT! with a
as acceptable 6 dB down length of 1.1 in. This indication, in
C. tbe indication of satisfactory L-wave accordance with the procedure, is _ _ __
inspection needs to be marked with a check A. considered accept"hl"
mark B. considered rejectable
O. all of the above C. to be considered for further examination
by otber NOT means
Q-A20 A series of welds are examined and O. none of the above
found to contain several objectionable indica-
tions. Thus, _ _ __ Q-A24 An inrlication 1 7<, in long and in the
A. each objectionable weld needs to be vicinity of tbe base-metal to weld-metal fusion
marked with a check mark at the end of line of a 5 in. weldment has been tcntatively
each weld loaded in tension ic1entifierl as ria" IV '''ing a single angle beam
B. each objectionable indication location transducer. This indication, in accordance witb
needs to be marked directly over the the procedure, is _ __
discontinuity A cOllsiri"rp.ri acceptable since all Class IV
C. location and depth/class of each discontinu- indications arc considered acceptable
ity need to be marked directly over the B. considered rejectable since it exceeds the
discontinuity and nearby on the base 1.2, in. limit for fllsion type flaws
material, respectively C. to be considered for further examination by
O. Form B, completed in compliance with the transducers with angles closest to being
procedure, is the full documentation re- perpenriirlll"r to the fllsion line
quired for each indication D. To be subjected to X-ray examination in
• Q-A21 In reviewing a completed Form B, it is

found that two complete sets of discontinuity
105
order to obtain a second "technical" opin-
lon,
•
AppendixB
List of Materials, Velocities, and Impedances
Longitudinal
A.coustic
Material Velocity 1 Impedance 2 Wavelength 3 Density 4
VI Vr
Metals
Aluminum 2S0 6.35 3.10 17.2 0.635 2.71
Aluminum 17ST 6.25 3.10 17.5 0.625 2.80
Beryllium 12.80 8.71 23.3 1.28 1.82
Brass (naval) 4.43 2.12 36.1 0.443 8.1
Bronze. phosphor (So/c) }.5) 2.23 31.2 0.353 8.86
Copper 4.66 2,26 41.8 0.466 8.9
Lead, pure 2.16 0.70 24.6 0.216 11.4
Lead. Antimony (6 ck) 2.16 0.81 23.6 0.216 10.90
Magnesium 5.79 3.10 10.1 0.579 1.74
•
Mercury 1,42 18.5 (J.142 13.00
Molyhdenum 6.29 3.35 63.5 (J.629 10.09
Nickel 5.63 2.96 49.5 0.563 8.8
Im'onel ® (wrought) 7.82 3.02 64.5 0.782 8.25
Monel (Iii (wroughIJ 6.02 2.72 53.1 0.602 8.83
Silver ~ickel (lS'!c) 4.62 2.32 40.3 0.462 8.75
Steel 5.85 3.23 45.6 0.585 7.8
Sl:1inlf'~" Stp.r:l 1()2 .1.M 3.12 455 0.566 8.03
Stainle" Steel 41 () 7.39 2.99 56.7 0.739 7.67
Titanium ITi 150A) 6. II) 3.12 27.7 0.610 4.54
Tungsten 5.18 2.87 99.8 0.518 19.25
Nonmetals
Aery lie resin 2.67 1.12 3.2 0.264 1.18
Air 0.33 0.00033 0.033 0.001
Fu:~cd quartz 5.93 3.75 13.0 0.593 2.20
lee 3.98 1.99 4.0 0.398
Oil (transformer) 1.38 1.27 0.138 0.92
Plate glass 5.77 3.43 14.5 0.577 2.51
Pyrex @ 5.57 3.44 12.4 0.557 2.23
Quartz (natural) ).7?> 15.2 0.573 2.65
Water 1.49 1.49 0.149 1.00
1. l\'1eters per second x 10';
2. Kilograms per square meter-sc('ond x 10 6
3. Millimeters for longitudinal wave at 10 MHz
~
• 107
•
AppendixC
Answer Key to Chapter Review Questions
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Appendix A

I.D I.C I.D l.A I.D AI. A
2.e 2.e 2.B 2. e 2.B A2. A
3. B 3.0 3. B 3.0 3. e A3.0
4. A 4.A 4.0 4.(.: 4.(.: A4.l)
5. e 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 AS. e
6. e 6.0 6.0 6.C 6.0 A6. A
7. C 7. A 7. B 7.A 7. B A7. C
8.0 8. B 8 B 8. B 8.0 AS.O
9.B 9,A 9,A 9 A 9, A A9 R
10. B 10. A 10.0 10. D 10. B AIO. C
• 11. A
12. B
13.0
14.B
IS. A
16. D
11. D
12. C
]3. B
14.C
15. e
16. A
11. C
12. C
]3. D
14. A
15. D
16. D
11. A
12.D
13. A
14.0
IS. e
16. A
I!. D
12. C
13. e
14. B
15. D
All. A
A12. D
A13. A
A14. C
A15. C
A16.0
16. B
17. A 17. B 17. B 17.B 17. C Al7.0
18. A 18. B 18. C 18. B 18. D AIS. D
19. C 19. C 19. B 19. C A19. D
20. A 20. A 20. A 20.B A20. e
21. B 21. A 21. 0 21. B A21. A
22.B 22. A 22.B 22.C A22. B
23. D 23. B 23. C 23. A A23. A
24.0 24. A 24. A 24. B A24. C
25. B
26.B
27. C
28.C
• 109
•
AppendixD
References
I. Bray, D.E. and R.K. Stanley. (1989) 4. Krautkramer. 1. and H. Krautkramer.

Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool For (1977). Ultrasonic Testing of Materials,
Design. Manlljclcturing and Service. New 2nd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag, Inc.
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
5. McMaster, R. c., editor. (1959). Nonde-
2. Metals Handbook, ninth edition, Volume structive Testing Handbook, Vol. I-II.
17, "Nondestructive Evaluation and Qual- New York: The Ronald Press Co.
ity Control." (1989). Metals Park, Ohio:
ASM International. 6. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Second
EditlOll. Volume Seven: Ultrasonic Testing.
3. Silk, M.G. (1984). Ultrasonic Transducers ( 1991). Columbus, Ohio: The American
for Nondestructive Testing. Bristol, En- Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
•
glallll: Aualll Hilger Llu.
• 111

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•

• The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Published by The American Society for

Copyright © 1992 by The American Society for

Printed in the United States of America

Chapter 3 - Common Prllctices

Chapter 4 - Practical Considerations

Chapter 5 . Codes and Standards

107 Appendix B "List of Materials. Velocities. and Impedances

109 Appendix C " Answer Key to Chapter Review Questions

111 Appendix [) " References

Table 1.1. Common Wave Mode Characteristics

Mode Notable Characteristics Velocity Alternate Names

Longitudinal Bulk wave in all media VI. PreA8ure Wave

Transverse Bulk wave in solids Shear

Surface (Guided) Boundary wave in solids VR - 0.9 Vr Rayleigh Wave

Plate (Guided) Twin-boundary wave - solids F(f,T,mJ Lamb Wave

R= (Z,-Z/ face. the refracted shear wave angle is related to

Figure 1.2. Reflection and transmission

u. Point Reflector b. Edge Reflector

c. Squ3l'e Apel."ature d. Round Aperature

Table 1.3. Attenuation Values for Common Materials

Nature of Mater,al Attenuation' Principal

NQt'rnali,ed Steel 70 Scatter

Stainles~ SteeL 110 ScatterlRedirection

Plastic (clear acrylic) :180 Absorption

• Q.I-I Sound wave, continue to tmvel _ _ __

Q.1-2 Wavelength may be defined as _ _ __ Q. I -8 Plate thickness = 25.4 mm, pulse-echo,

• Q.I-4 The wavelt:uglh or a 5 MHL suunu wave in

Figure 2.1, Block diagram of basic pulse-echo ultrasonic instrument.

Pulse Lene,>th (Damping I

If short, improves depth resolution;

Ifhigh. improves scnsitivitv. higher backg-round noise

Smoothing Suppresses detailed pulse structure

Output (Ahn'm, Record.'

Sets output denditivity

• Inversion of this equation results in the

the instrument with a minimum of alteration, i.e ..

Qnartz 1 1 1 15.2 576 2.3 57 2.65 ( 1)

PZT5 70 0.21 14.6 33 193·365 374·593 20·25 7.5 (2)

BaTi 8.4 :1l.2 115·150 125-190 14·21 5.4 (2)

PMN 32 20.5 550 80-85 32·42 6.2 (2)

LSH 6.9 -2.0 11.2 75 15·16 156·175 2.06 (3)

LN 2.8 0.54 1.51 34 6 23 4.64

PVDF 6.9 1.35 9.3 4.1 165·180 14 140-210 1.76 (4)

Figure 2.3. Quality factor or "Q.' of a transducer.

Time-Domain Frequency Domain

Figure 2.4. Conceptual representation of the sound field

• Mptl'll Travel Distance

1n a few highly special

When plan views of objects are needed. the

Figure 2.8. Comparison of common display modes.

___ BOock Surface

• Q.2-1 Barium titanate is a piezoelectric m(\\e

Q.2-12 An angle beam produces a 45-degree Q.2-16 In an immersion test of commercially

Q.2-22 A change of 16 dB on the attenuator

Figure 3.1, Pulse-echo inspection configurations,

c. Through Transmission d. Delta

Surface (Rayleigh) waves are not as common