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Control Systems

The document contains study notes for the subject Control Systems for 4th semester students of Electronics and Communication Engineering. It covers topics related to time response of first and second order systems including unit step response, time response specifications, steady state errors and error constants. It also provides an introduction to PID controllers and includes sample problems, solved examples and assignments for students. The notes are compiled by Assistant Professor Prashanth N and provide references to textbooks and previous year question papers for additional study material.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

197 views537 pages

Control Systems

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Downloaded from VTUSOLUTION.

IN NOTES | INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE Like us on FB for regular updates

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Govt. of Karnataka)
Rajanukunte, Doddaballapur Road, Bangalore-560064
Tel: 080-2846 8196, Fax: 2846 8193 / 98, Web: www.svit.co.in

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DEPARTMENT
OF

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ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES (15EC43)

(As per Choice based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme)
IVTH SEMESTER
lu MODULE-2

Syllabus: Time Response of feedback control systems: Standard test

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signals, Unit step response of First and Second order Systems. Time
response specifications, Time response specifications of second order
systems, steady state errors and error constants. Introduction to PI, PD
and PID Controllers (excluding design).

Study Material Referred:

 Modern Control engineering-K Ogata.

 Control Systems Engineering- J.Nagarath and M.Gopal.
 Automatic Control Systems-Benjamin C. Kuo.
VT

 Linear Control Systems –B S Manke.

 Control Systems- Anand Kumar.
 VTU Previous year Question papers (2010-2016).
 Problems and solution of controls systems -AK Jairath.

Compiled By:
Prashanth N
Assistant professor
Department of ECE
Mail : [email protected]
Phone: +91-9538766317
Online Chat Support Projects | Technical Seminar Guidance & Support Download our app or visit website
Downloaded from VTUSOLUTION.IN NOTES | INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE Like us on FB for regular updates

CONTENTS
SL.NO TOPICS PAGE NO

1 Time Response of feedback control systems 1

2 Standard test signals 2

3 Unit step response of First order Systems. 5

4 Unit step response of Second order Systems. 8

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5 Time response specifications of second order systems, 14

6 Steady state errors and error constants. 26

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7 Problems to be solves in class on Time Response. 46

8 Solved Problems on Time Response. 52

9 Practice Problems on Time Response. 116

11
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Assignment Problems on Time Response.

Introduction to PI, PD and PID Controller.

To be submitted before 2ND Module Test
122

126
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12 Theory Questions. 128

Note: 1) Assignment Carries 05 Marks (To be submitted before 2ND Module test).

2) Quiz will be conducted after each Module test for 05 Marks.

3) Average of both will be taken as final marks for 05 Marks.

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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Govt. of Karnataka)
Rajanukunte, Doddaballapur Road, Bangalore-560064
Tel: 080-2846 8196, Fax: 2846 8193 / 98, Web: www.svit.co.in

n
DEPARTMENT
OF
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tio
CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES (15EC43)
(As per Choice based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme)
IVTH SEMESTER
lu MODULE-3

Syllabus: Stability analysis: Concepts of stability, Necessary

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conditions for Stability, Routh stability criterion, Relative stability
analysis: more on the Routh stability criterion, Introduction to Root-
Locus Techniques, The root locus concepts, Construction of root loci.

Study Material Referred:

Modern Control engineering-K Ogata.


 Control Systems Engineering- J.Nagarath and M.Gopal.
 Automatic Control Systems-Benjamin C. Kuo.
 Linear Control Systems –B S Manke.
VT

 Control Systems- Anand Kumar.

 VTU Previous year Question papers (2010-2016).
 Problems and solution of controls systems -AK Jairath.

Compiled By:
Prashanth N
Assistant professor
Dept. of ECE
Mail : [email protected]
Phone: +91-9538766317

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Prashanth N, Chat
Online AsstSupport
Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
Sai Viclya Institute
| Technical of Guidance
Seminar & Support
Technology, Download Bangulore
our app or visit website
Rajunukunte,
Downloaded from VTUSOLUTION.IN NOTES | INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE Like us on FB for regular updates
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Prushanth N, Asst Prof, Dept of EEE, Sai Vidyo Institute of Technology, Rajunukunte, Bangalore
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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Govt. of Karnataka)
Rajanukunte, Doddaballapur Road, Bangalore-560064
Tel: 080-2846 8196, Fax: 2846 8193 / 98, Web: www.svit.co.in

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DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

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CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES (15EC43)
(As per Choice based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme)
IVTH SEMESTER
lu MODULE-3

Syllabus: Stability analysis: Concepts of stability, Necessary

Study Material Referred:

Modern Control engineering-K Ogata.


 Control Systems Engineering- J.Nagarath and M.Gopal.
 Automatic Control Systems-Benjamin C. Kuo.
 Linear Control Systems –B S Manke.
VT

 Control Systems- Anand Kumar.

 VTU Previous year Question papers (2010-2016).
 Problems and solution of controls systems -AK Jairath.

Compiled By:
Prashanth N
Assistant professor
Dept. of ECE
Mail : [email protected]
Phone: +91-9538766317

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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Govt. of Karnataka)
Rajanukunte, Doddaballapur Road, Bangalore-560064
Tel: 080-2846 8196, Fax: 2846 8193 / 98, Web: www.svit.co.in

n
DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

tio
CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES (15EC43)
(As per Choice based Credit System (CBCS) Scheme)
IVTH SEMESTER

lu MODULE-4

Syllabus: Frequency domain analysis and stability: Correlation

between time and frequency response, Bode Plots, Experimental
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determination of transfer function. Introduction to Polar Plots,
(Inverse Polar Plots excluded) Mathematical preliminaries, Nyquist
Stability criterion, (Systems with transportation lag excluded)
Introduction to lead, lag and lead-lag compensating networks
(excluding design).

Study Material Referred:

 Modern Control engineering-K Ogata.

 Control Systems Engineering- J.Nagarath and M.Gopal.
 Automatic Control Systems-Benjamin C. Kuo.
VT

 Linear Control Systems –B S Manke.

 Control Systems- Anand Kumar.
 VTU Previous year Question papers (2010-2016).
 Control Systems- BAKSHI.
Compiled By:
Prashanth N
Assistant professor
Dept. of ECE
Mail : [email protected]
Phone: +91-9538766317

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| Technical of Guidance
Seminar & Support
Technology, Download Bangalore
Rojonuhunte, our app or visit website

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Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport Sai Vidyo Irtstitute
| Technical ofGuidance
Seminar Rujanukunte,
& Support
Technotogy, Bnngolore
Download our app or visit website

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Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport Sai Virtya Institute
| Technical Seminar
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Technotogy, Download Bangulore
Rujunukunte, our app or visit website
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Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport Sui Virtyo Institute
| Technical Seminar
of Guidance & Support
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Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
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Prasltanth N, Chat
Online Pro.f, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport Sai Vittya Institute
| Technical ofGuidance
Seminar Technologt, Rojonukunte,
& Support Download Bangnlore
our app or visit website

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l'{aq--,'tud.€- *c-v;9 l-
l- --+@
v-4--*-*- */\-
R trr^o)l @
Phq.e- \/,\.-A
\i^.^J*
Le.:.r-t
jr - tan-t -zQtr d
t- Ft2- = | -*@
Prasltuntlt N,Chat
Online Asst Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
Support Sai Vidya Institute
| Technical ofGuidance
Seminar Technology, Rujanukunte,
& Support Bangulore
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Controls Systems Notes (15EC43) http s : //p e c e s v it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

The.- ,stoetg - abal-e- BSut { the- LfrT fo. a_ -eir:teaoida-1.

iopt ? $ tr.u? rna3oituae Ond !q"ri^f'le- f-e1*o.1116 trJ)r'Fr3fven
bs.
I r- -r r L€,tLJ
Ctt)=:
- s;o[-t'rt-ton' :::
r-'LL/
Jo-*r* c'qq)- L l-*:J I

e,e'oo to.s fn -t112- {xn + Cu)=1! )fn(wt +3)

ahe a-bouz
+J phi."

n
mya'+uAz
Lerr> | etfi

tio
* frq) Q,'ot|n t @ ond' @ uoe !ln',''o *t''ot
i+ r,-,=o N=t o-n& + =oo
tt=t M=J-
- ze, ancl +='1oo

{r The rn7ni*urle Ond

c[=@ l''l=o
yL"zr.*z Aflb
lu O'ncl + ='Tf
Ltnat*-tett'61-t^cSb +*
So
Ce-k Po votrrl-- Q t"k *;-,otory 9.z- trr^e.- -ftb*-. betouo '

+
a'+o:t)
o
"[9t o

+
U

d(la
o
-t c- jo
d
s I

e d I
VT

.S
t" g
I

t
I
t
s. I
I
o I
s-l 8o
Qa
= atl,rs,., d;t Normorr';d {rnn*Z (c,g
?
*' -T[re- *rryrc:y at t.sb.e-lac Mo ["o,t rt)o,x-l'rr:rrrrt vculu{- l,+ F,ootclt>
o*5 ye../sorr.ot €-qwen% ' (rJr'.
tr-r= g
uJo
c-)bere- t).1 = nor,nxrltle& teaor:nnt tr:e1n"*rr4"
Prashanth N, Chat
Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport Sai Virtya Instilute
| Technical of Guidance
Seminar Rujanukunte,
& Support
Technology, Download Bangalore
our app or visit website

i
Downloaded from VTUSOLUTION.IN NOTES | INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE Like us on FB for regular updates
ta
controls sjstems Notes (I5EC43) http s : //p e c e svit. b I o g sp o t. i n/

* Bj cL'&5c"enh.a:!55 \,'ah'vn @ ulilrr **yer* lo tL and ptrbtr=

aod |auo+e to $e-t-o
.

{Yrl :o'
s. l..=..-
ie#ffi=o

n
*- 8.1,^tion @ ia< [r: *rre 4t-tll - I Cqo be usrritterr-
J;4F

tio
ob Ld+ *f/-
-3/"
t?
tr'/- -t_ (ot-r u)
* Diglere6trbh'orr $ Lo-'+ J_

d-t'1 | =-+F,-€)**o,-tlfk('-*)'ea9+ "d=o

* Theze*'e. 6-1..=*, r lu +qd + 8'"E1 = "
So
HI = -*[t,-u")? L",v)f;Lu-'
t[1=[l,z

-
Cor? Ete
b(L tr:"r-ibtqr a'9
Y ftbove 8.1t^o'h"r4

sl =-+#
cLtr I
9+ eu-q
il1-Caeu")'
-_o
U

ti= (tz.

i"e., Lt qr - Etrrqt-h *"3: o

tsJ h*f::thtrJ Corrrrnotr-

r+ur('-af -t^* ) =o
t.e t-tr Cr - a Fr-- ura) =o
.!
t-BQ - (l'u-: 6
2-

fr tj+to.< (la-=o 66
(r)e c U^,at (Ir- = Ldv
*- Koot 6-

Prusltunth
Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport
N,Chat Sai Vittyu Institute
| Technical Seminar
ofGuidance & Support
Technology, Download our
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-
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Controls Systems Notes ( l5EC43) https : //p ec e sv it. b I og sp ot. i n/

&dt (-oo.si&r ttz,e- *etrrt

t-?qLu| =o
,ti^2-= I - Pq
r.Q , Iuv=J
'c:-':-:,--i
r-aq- ,i

u3e 6oot-rl +t-'o-t

n
t Jrt
-?q-

tio
uJ(?
j,

: _:ffi -::t
f* givert 0+i
:

t
t
lu pho;'e.- te-r:rrt
;i
I
So
E-TOIT)
I
fu.ro.+-t'rttr @

+.:
P.rf

'I{ A
ffiI-EE-
U

dIy- - Lon-l ?'q

*"€
6=
lY
ts,r-l
E

huve rn 49r, i tude te-rrn

Fvorn 81uolfo., @ l(ne-
I
I

Mr= HCi,,r) | =
II tJ =U-f,

Pqf (lz-

Pruslranth
OnlineN, Asst
Chat Prof, Dept of EEE,
Support Projects | Technical
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Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) http s : //p e c e sv il. b I o g spo t. i n/

Mrr :
r{ (rfrq-=)'q-

-1

n
tio
J h q--.t q\

lu l- q*
So
lnr =
I

eE l-tr" -2@
-ffre furu**icrvz- +tu Ye*omc.nt ?eLF- t'k Trev
en
v
aa It-

eEJJ-E-
U

oj q' o77$-"*
{( F'oro tl"alio n> @ ^at'd @. iL 6i.s Aeet> thot
VT

t
s3erro, a? oyy@ torr' o..'d
o l'1tt o-ppro-..;es ioff.t"Lg '
o-Lt'rsaX's hag
.:r For o < ?f a tl{€, *tre- re'sona'nt €-"X*?
Flog o-
a- Va!^o- lea tho'n'Lgrt' Ond E>e feronanL P".a*
Va-tu-o- t#aD l.
E-"tj.t

Prusltunth N,Chat
Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport | Technical
Sai Vidya Seminar
Institute ofGuidance & Support
Technology, Download Bangalore
Rajanukunte, our app or visit website
-l

t5
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Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) http s : //p e c e sv it. b I o g sp o t. i n/

* -TIre b*rlwtdfl'L t'& alao d:r1efrled dA L?'e- :r-aq3e- "1r

o ..$ gver cDh,'.hslY o f* &L,. ul 9r ffrattet ti€.rL
Jrquer)cle
'ftT -
* F<orn Sa.rafi.rn @ u9a- hnanthof l'o
,t''l -- -i )
Bqndc^tf&h^d

n
li lr
* Let ub = r.l-rrqqecr bondtrei{th = then u)6' (o

tio
T*

lu
t+trf, -"&t + q q*ufr - a
So
6T
*bh - ?-Lf+,rqouf -t =o
66 ubq -a,fQ-aE*)-t =o

P,rf (abt=r oJe- $tt

t zL Cr-aq")-l =o ->@
VT

, -- I t-' La-c
LJL-e6e T =

f) 6 ^.\- - fri\ cli nltt c''9e- F,rtot^c tt-at

Bs ornporrrri3
c &1,ro'tr'crz- @ ^'r.fr- @
Q= t, b---ecl-eqt) , C=-l',
Prashnnth N, Chat
Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
AsstSupport Sui Vidyu Institute
| Technical ofGuidance
Seminar & Support
Technology, Download our
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Bangulore
t6
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Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) https ://pec e sv it. b I o gspot.i n/

1.2, I. -ea0 -2e,")) 1

=
P, CI)

+? Cr-RE")!

ecr - eq') 3

n
B
at-ae,') t

tio
R,Cr- aE-) f {f

lu
So
x= C-eq,") t
u9. 16. b e-= ub2-
Bg C-roo,side-?-q- P"<t"Fv5 P":
.'. = I -eq- -F J ? -qEt+q qtt
U

";:
t.e b= Ne"rtn l/'A.A
e- h Q?q qr
VT

loa.rd.*lidth.

But Lb = tCt
uJq

.'. ub = % Uh = Jencru-rno-ftreel bc.nd c.grdth.

Qb= Uln r-eq'+ffi

Prashontlt N,Chat
Online Asst Prof, Depl of EEE,Projects
Support Itrstitute
| Technical
Sui Vitlyu ofGuidance
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Controls Systems Notes (l5EC43) h tt ps : //p e c e sv i t. b I o g sp ot. i n/

t'/r Ztt o'bJ

tY Ea.yvz"'*i.-r- +t" Te,l*rro-rrL -f-""1,*e%
(r)5 = tr)n 1r - aQa)
(,rz-o:?v .-fert
at, aT>e- phc.aa on5)e- ++ tjtr) cut L+'e- M

n
@ f'k
&nreril-V (I7 I bt-aPrte-'\ {--.,t %.*h'.-

tio
Viv e.r>-
la

3, Er-V-o-++ior:-- -f-"t
i r--
l1o =
lu
Lhe- r,-e.a,rton! Y*u
i:* Sivenlt7
So
e E J | -E'

uorclLh llr en b3
\, Ex-Pq-eraitt'r- D orroo.t-rq eel Fao",cf 3iv
t_
U

b-5
5, Ez-yooo+iorl- -fcrr Ae-nsrn.-f.!er-l [ac.-..'dtorel Fn fA.;fven
VT

db = Ldpl I - e q"iF,. q'+q q'{

P.I.O

Prashuntlr
Online lssrSupport
N,Chat Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
Sai Vidya Institute
| Technical ofGuidance
Seminar Technology, Rajunukunte,
& Support Bangalore
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,rF-
la
Downloaded from VTUSOLUTION.IN NOTES | INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE Like us on FB for regular updates
Controls Systems Notes (15EC4 ) h ttp s : i/p e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

6, Mo-fto G.IcuJ.aa'^aug
9dn
t-pq4D*.-#" t'c'rl r''s g r'v e-r.,r' by
I

Bc !ogF-
u
9H=
lQc.iH) *Cjnr)l
cr_t UJ =
df"

n
p...oce,&-oe l-
\,A...\.A../\AAa\
al gl.aae- Ct-o*t €V@-*f
s_!gl' tr*", roo-6fn r"* Ca.lcr -Lq.t-e.J

tio
o

*'u1**d b5 q'-'ff\ Yhaae-

4E lao

Co-lcrrlale- 3c'f't o-t oO = trlp c-

1l"ggi
f3ffi't'
.*;e- fn
fl.r-

ar-3in
Lo'o,'e-

Co'-t
lu
{*-*L+ 6ive*' ?c."!4 '4o-ffu'
ct'tcl-t-" st) L '
So
Eaynv>+icr-z- f * 3t'von- b5 '

rtCjr"t)
Pr"t= l80 + lQcjr'r)
I*= dr.
U

DI ?oLeJtj,LTe
I '
;-

i* CaLcrlla*e-tl o-t gafoc-"'1a tlvef,

%t '- tho"se-- rnor-6P^
VT

gJ,,r -t-- ti*\.

at U9 : NJ'
.9bcpe'- Cp,lu'^tcte yhnae-
#

Styz'" Tt- yl'.aae nna"r6?n'

r.l*
aber,^o +"6-rrlA Uivex

OnlineN,Chat
Prasltunllr AsstSupport Projects
Prof, Dept of EEE, | Technical
Sui Vidya Seminar
trnstitute ofGuidance & Support
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Co ntrol s S.ls/erzas N otes ( I 5 EC4 3) Irttp s : //p e c e sv it. b I o g sp o t. i n/

?--ob le,rn * Ort 1-*wer'1'9

( t\Ar^v\.^lL
J' otn''{'o l-p*.b?o^tr'c'r *' ."''
\- ,.^../\.^* - rr, - ''^'a''A"^ #

f y tha- +".^ror;d f6.'n, -t-er., %u- &*h'""- c+o- t'toil3 +"edl"orrl

Co,atrol &g*ve:n r'lL ?iv
on b5
loo
qc$--4+6.6
ond
F.rd *t^ra Ye/Ec,r,a rue- ?*'ot xe-hctno-n{- 4-"1*0"*J

n
X6a\an '
bo,"dc,grdtFr o+ +l-r-- LLI'*A too|

tio
s; i gfvrn
U Gcs)
' = t9o a t Hcs)=t
ststb.sq)

th.at ++12- C LT F f x fl-fvcH b.-t

LJe hrtoto
cls)
.-4=

Rts)
lu
qc")
t+ht$ L+ts)
So
loo
loo
= S2+ l"-}q9 St-+;I--gIl€-
L g'5t{s -Ftoo
oo
t+. I €+
{-6.5q s s}Ls#
""
U

ccs) loo
Bct .*+ 6.Fhs+too
-+O
VT

By G.rrpo-?ng &r.,ah'croQ
(r9ibt^ ' Ataod.A-fd {t'nc "

rlL
tNn

sot 2-qdas+ il*

h9e hqvo
hg.o

t.la = rl loo
tJ6 : to 'racl/ Eec-
Proshutrtitl\]ls.rf
Online Chat Support Sui Vidyu
ProJ, Dept oJ'ElEE,Projects lnstitute
| Technical SeminarofGuidance
Technoiog3,, Rc.,iutzukunle,
& Support Bangolore
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Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) h ttps : //p e c e s v it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

z Qhn = 6.5\
L q ro

q .F

q = 0-3L+

n
+ w

tio
u*on-ot't
R:-'\,'^"-A'

\".1t n' rj I -?,q -

= lo rF o' 8g'6t
rl
b*
lu
So
t^lr = g- ebb -o.Jl

Yn z'+on o-re I
J^-/'v'\'^-

l"lt
l-q- e f-o 3 a+) I - tD.3Lf
U

Mr = l.tt8
VT

Eondt,gidtb'--
ar=hJ,
= lO* t- B[o
g""f+fa-q to'3:-t)L1 q Lo'3?t

= to* l- a Lo- sz+)-+ l' 2+2o l

Wb = lq.3ll Yod/ 3e-e

Online
Prushsttllt N,Chat
AsstSupport
Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects | Technical
Sai Vidyu SeminarofGuidance
lttstilute & Support
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ar
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Controls Systems Notes (15EC4j) https ://p ec e sv it. b I o gs p ot. ird

?, #-z- t-rnn*-r-1 dornafn ,Lyu-t'fiulh'crrr.s .f---"-

De*ctr.t?n<-
@econd - Brdev f,V*ua uei+h U-ni! *e-abat*t o-n-d
Q csl = ,rt/ECs+6X

L>5 FtC9=
-r-\r^,-.r^.,\ Giu.n
Sotrrt-rcrrri
\^-zv\-^,,\ G csl
I
1--
) I

0
4"-" SCg+g)
SCE+.

LTF r"rr Vf re'w L"'t

n
* t'$e ,,no(D tl.'tu+ thz' C

ccrD q c)

tio
Bts) l+qcs)*cs) >L5
229 c
i+6{
= - '*+as
I+ >Ls lu
::--.1 f+ 6s + >25
s1+ as
So
. C c^s) L>S
hts) s2+ e9* LLg

+ 8t f'xy fu'*b't'r'- O c.^si|t^ Ut , ,

r^lehav

",-f- sa+>q^tos *H.'L

ar"i = z2-5
No =.,1 z>s
VT

t,Jn

? 1,"t., = E
16t
t
Ct --
2-t^lr^: 2-d \ 5
--

q -- o'a

OnlineN,
Prasltttnth Chat Support
Assl Projects
Prof, Depl of EEE, | Technical
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EL
Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) h ttp s : //p e c e sv it. b i o g sp ot. i n/

I
M.,=
tqJ1-qL

2*0.L* I -@'2)-

n
Mo = ?.6o

tio
(,r,[,
=t n I - P,q-
- lsJr

(,r,lz
= | q'31 -Al
lu
^e2-
So
+ Ba.d" t^lriltlr-
db -- H,''

tr - a to'f) + J t-t-r Lo':-)-+'t

= ts .l t, - e co'L)') + l'358s
VT

db = LL'656racl-It*-'

Prashantlt
OnlineN, Asst
Chat Sai Vidya
ProJ, Dept od EEE,Projects
Support | Technical Seminar
Instittite Guidance & Support
o/'Technology, Download our
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r
e3
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Controls S-ystems n'otes (i 5EC43) hftp s : t/p e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i tt/

3!, l= fn"l h e -n,.u-'3 J-o.naf.: A?"c,}ica.H..rors frr o- L,6tat

hovfn6_
c cs) 8q
R Cs) sz+?s + B I
Sotcr*,'oo&]-
\.49a\r1 .A-
c cs) 8q
G
d
i,r"o
RCs) 6r-++.s+ gt
-+o

n
Corn
PctTe. fuuab'-o O criitl" ,Btonda-rc{ f
.roch'c/'rn.

tio
cc-s) hJ.,L
t-9e- hs"ve
R ts) sL+ zq tJns + tdn-

- uei = gl
t^.rn
=fsf
uJn = l r,od-l le'c--
lu
So
2QHn
3-
q
2 hJo e* I

Q = o.3sq
U

Qaaonoot- Pe.o-t5 '

I
VT

IYr =
L\ LX o.318*..1 I - to .281)L

Mr = l' 315
fi "ao.tot, t +r.adeDt
dr= unJ l-Rq'
=lx
cDv
Prsshuntlr N,Chat
Online Asst Prof, Dept of EEE,
Support Projects | Technical
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2_rr
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Controls Systems Notes (158C43) Ir ttp s : //p e c e s v it. b I o g sp ot. i rr'

crJO = hJrt .l r-eQ-+ffi

q)k I - e (o.3eel+ e - q Lo.geq)-+'r [o. 3 se)

= q* J I - e Co.gsqf + t. arq I

n
tJg

tio
h' Fin"t 6 K'o-,"16 d +*t *ho ]-.a*"x, Bhot-on l. +:-t?1",*
sotho-fNr=l'?5o'nd(r)'-=la'bszad'l'LQLc^gfrtbe''Lotifta
ti-e- O-nct bandort{[$-

R cs) lu cLs)
So
Sotr.fit"cr
t .-\t\.4#
i
CIs'aeA Lo of l--cto"fte- 'f"'nehcrtr r'lt
* crge- 14 nots fi1e{- flre.-
1.4 K
3tv en bg
-
?+".9 .sb€3.
gss =
G cs)
U

t
I + qrs)tlcs)
R Cs)
r+g-+ag
L
g,-aaStlq
.&+.'t
VT

cc.s) L

R cs) gz.1c-s* li ->o

-
83 cp.l?ro- lnz 8-1*bi"?2Q ugi+h ,4 Fcndo'-d" -f ,-ocli""n-
cc9 hJn-
RCS) .*+ 2q uJns t tJn-

Pruslttnth
Online
N,Chat
Asst Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
Support | Technical
Sui Vitlya Seminar
Institute ofGuidance & Support
Technologl,. Download our
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Controls Systems ilotes (l5EC43) http,s : //p e c e sv it. b I o gsp ot. i n/

uje h@ve-
-, t^l.,L = K

h)n - JE l.".d.l a'er,-

+ t Q ,"1" =fi

a_ o-
q --

n
2 t^Jo --aJ h -4

tio
=-*-
zJ rt

-+ Q.r.oton+ &"f*?
l'1, =
2qJF
I
lu
So
$?'.er
|'fa = 1.75
I
l. ?5
JG-
z-{
t.
./Jn (-h)
-
U

I
L.?t l.Z5 = a-
..lt'i
VT

I
l-75 =
a gtt - o.z o_
:
{n qh Jtt
-4

I
l-75
& J q1a-[:-
,ih .zJ-K-

Prashutttlr Asst
OnlineN,Chat Prof, Dept af EEE,Projects
Support Sai Vituu Institute
| Technical Seminar Guidance & Support
ol'Technolog_y, Download our
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L6
Controls Systems Notes (l5EC43) http s : //p e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

f.2-5 =
a-,.1 q B -ae-

l. 2-5 o- \ 15 -aa
86 {enflog &Tuateg 0" BofFr Aidea
2-
Q.zs)- c.t(,.r--">) = q h

n
i.., l.56esaa tqr+ -'.") = Q vr>

tio
6-:-:5J n- l'56z5aLl
?o
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bo,ro- \rn-tf,a- { ?n a*-te- Jt-'t> %

o*t*bx-+c:o
lut t'56?5aq =
So
L= -5+
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ry cornprfr:7 c^sitt-' fu,ra-b'".n @
L
L=6., &=\, b- -6'?5q ) (_- l-56aEa\.
U

#-z7a =
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VT

6.as-- J =o' oezal

1,.
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6.?5,a- ! 3'*t{ o-L

K=
o
B11 Goaide-?,r5 Poaibive te-'ur V= l.?$a-
gT
Bg Corrr,idevini Ne6a-l'iue te'rrn h = o.Stzgf

Prashunth
Online
N,Chat
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Controls Systems Notes (l5EC43) h t!p s : //p e c e s v it. b I o g sp ot. i rl
t6,,arntl-ra-t (t)v = *.,J | -ilef
Bt4 h.;:bc-bi l..Fio3 +1't- Vo-Luog c^ee- 5e*

t?.65 = J h -e[€-

-aF;

n
tio
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= Jh .

= Jr - ?frrt -^)
lu F.F ZV,-*
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a
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16)-
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t
I bo. o2-
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Bg t:cut. ?!3 Y4 = l '? soL ot

in Q"a;crrr @
acl'25a4) -, = 3?-o

a.sc.t- - aL -- 3LO
t'sf = 32*O

Prnsltanth
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Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) h ttp s : //p e c e svit. b I o g sp ot. i n/

*- 9+o
t.9
* = ?13'3t{
a_ =Jat33q
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n
81t^obtn-l @
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tio
3Lo
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O.b2-9 02- - aL = 3?o

(-not-o t!-tc't ib i'+
f,roro +t-a-- Db+e-tvaFi.rnn .qse-
rrob Toa,eible- b 3* a x-e-a'l rtob,l-- +

= L66-6+ and
a*
'
lu I t'r '6 o
So
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Not .l,
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c/.rb = Lwo
q 8
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VT

---
=e
L
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75t>6
g
LQ-6 o

get+{"Pftq t€rre- = o- 5q11t Le.r.-'

Prashanth N,Chat
Online Asst Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
Support Institute
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Sui Viclya ofGuidance
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Controls Systems Notes (15EC43) http s : //p e c e svit. b I o g sp ot. i n/

Notto ) @e-- lgooco V&t

Lr96=J ta-
26L.6+
tdo = lb.33 TacL I Auu-

n
E=
2Jl4

tio
ltt- bo
=
z*- I6.33

E = o.qq?o

-
Bood rcfAlb t'k X fvex by
lu
So
ueb

=16 -33 t-7 [o.qq+o)=+] e - q [o .ctrr+"f] t [0.'rl+")

t^eb = Ll -+o -*d,| 6eJ-

5, F[ux- belot^r thstllg o- f bazn Csp to'ol &,trate-.o

eecl .

Th e- P ea.n Ov era boo F tB a SbeF fo ptrl t'* l" ]u

Oelerro Foe- tl-4-'ptt".oing

;, qeao..^nt peorr l{o.ancl rcatla $'}6
iil Nor ooL'1 ed reaono-h b fr"aue-l Ut
f ii, 3o.,a totdth . c Cs)

Prushanth N,Chat
Online Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects
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Controls Systems Notes (158C43) h ttp s :.//p e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

\^.^-^.-\^" -:
Sol,r-h'ctn r lvg/'4. --SfS+q) , *Cs)=t
o V
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t<
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tio
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9 csD -_
R" cs) st+ aqhlns+ tdo-

(ronz = vi
e UJrr = 'l 15
lu +@
So
r'.

q= .q ---> @
2JK
U

Overahmb- flk
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Strreo b6
VT

-nq
HF= la% = e tl'-qL xloo
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O.lL= e JEL *l0O'
e6 {o-nir-6 no"h,tra'l L"B 6tL both "fttlqg

Ln to. te)
_nq
J r-q-

Proshcnth
OnlineN,Chat
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3l
Controls S-yslems Notes ( I 5EC4-l) http s : /ip e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. in/

t' z.rzo = I
r-q-
2. 120 q

JT-r
q
o. 6+q 8 =-

n
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tio
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6
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q
lo {f.,a '11' Con*ider- 4n

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Prushan!lt N,Chat Support '{echnology-,
Projects | Technical Seminar Guidance & Support Download our app or visit website
'4sst Prof, Depl oJ'EEE, Sni Vidyu Institute of Rr$anukunte, Bangalore
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Controls Systems Notes (15EC43) It ttps : /ip e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

.2-
Lr
E
Lt ( Ft+)-
L rb
E,
Lr lq

tt It
h
T6
\-

n
[!'
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l1
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tio
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l=rr"no 8-1r^ert^r:.rn O Use- have-

u)6=fl+-
rJo = J
lu
rz*o
So
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ly.rr = l.o?8
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ft eerzrrl +--a**'Zt hJt'

td-r - u,,'., J r- PF = 3.5+8x J r -L* o'5592-

6
+ Bo.rd to fctttr ulb:
(r)b : trgn

= 3.5+8 I -a * (o.ss1)L+ S; C"'ssTFtq[o'ss

tt)a = q.zqe 16*a/5e-e | :,

Pr*shanth I/,Chat
Online ,4ssl Prof, Dept of EEE,
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Projects Institute
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Controls Sltstems Notes (158{J43) https ://pe c e st it. b I o gsp ot. i n/

6f -F,..,a -.hhe- g-fo rna.rgfn Rnc\ pt-a.se-rna.r-3Po i"t bh e -S'ptem

lo
G
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lu
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o
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I ^f "
VT

A+ ,f oof Fp't^at+, %{nrlzo=glo also d'n+oot'

* "Lo"g
Lzx,fsat+,

OnlineN,
Prnslttutth Chat
Asst Prof, Dcpl of EEE,
Support Projects
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3rf
Controls Systems Notes (I5EC43) It ttp s : i/p e c e sv i t. b I o g sp ot. i n/

kTffiyi ob Croat Ovav f"t-ta*

+ Th* wLo?t^ r'a Co.-lcrdp.-te.ol 3-e"l'rl

b5 \ffire -f.'" uru{U'

3J"
lo
=l
JF;6'-

n
to
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F#
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tio
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t^) =F .r
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t ha
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ho-u ,fr gfo-- to'f trreto;cbev {-uncb'qrD '
U

lo
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#' Lt-*r"crn
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q ts) Lt<s) = lo
fiiuu- s lsl+s + l)
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o
Note:- 4""n i'olo
lo F,fqrut de t.ttn"$
9 tiqD HtiD = o
Jr^r (d'"f+ir^rtt) Ph-aae ferrn =l=
qd
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Prushutttlr
OnlineN,Chat
Asst Prof, Depl of EEE,Projects
Support Inslitute
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33
Controls Systems Nutes (l5EC43) ! tttp s : //p e c e sv it. b I o g sp o t. i n/
lo lo
Q C;,^t) H l
iur) =
i" (-t^.rt+ lr,^r +r) ,* tr,-uF)*id

lo
to Lg I
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iu,r
fci-'un*iq
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n
lo l-,Jt,.l
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tio
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t

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C-:t-o*& sVev {'r"1*
So
b.tr e","*H.,7.. fhaAe 6
-l .(rJ t3o
10 - fo'n I -t,.r'-
=
1 JI ,D r8o
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, -l t,\J
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Online&
Prushanlh lssl
Chat Prof, Dept of EEE,
Support Projects Institute
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3b
Controls Systems Notes (l5EC43) http s : //p e c e svit. b I o g sp ot. i n/

B? '%ub6},ftrF;13 fo tta.Xru'Fucra le-.'

^f -
.

lqtit^r) *tjurll =
Qr^rrcr)L+ t^:r
tz.lpc=l

1r-r)L+rL

n
tio
ute trzr>ot^o +hcr.t
rno-r21f- = 20 t"tj*;. lu*.
tcrio =,o.
=2o I'A# lu
',^ .rr4o--gPr,t = - ?od b
So
e- ho'rnnX
r--'-Ef* 4.-- tb 'b'6atetn
g, Firrd +n4-- Yl-'a'se-
OL t-c. n\er ft^-'"-t-'.,o' '
q L$Hts) =iqg
SoLtll.rot $fv e--,
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t^f e- have .

I C;r> l'{-t
jr"r) : "10 .
VT

it u:'

lq tir"r) trtix) = .LL

t/.9'
o
t i r^r) tt-tJ,^r. )-
qo^
= -qo

q (i\^r) t+LiO =
to [o [- qoo'
ir^r ,*,W' r_:1--J
pt-,aa g_
fno5"u'tt'*e
t e'rrt te-*rrn- '

Prashuttlh ll,Chat
Online Asst Praf, Dept of EEE,
Support Projects | Technical
Sui VidT-tr SeminarofGuidance
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Controls S.vstems Notcs (I 5EC43) h ttp s : //p e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i n/

Phacn- .ttaSPtt lnrr" Cslcr.to^f,."1 o.L ?*r"n Gr-o^'E OVeY fna"utg

t-rnit5
lD? h,r-h 19 ?d. ta .

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I

to
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n
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uJ =lO, Sd- =I
->

tio
* t.Se- l4oor.o tt-'at

?ho,*e rfictl5fn
r€o + +
etJ = (-l)g c-

pl-nae- rrrarSfo = loo

= t8O - ao
o
lu o
So
travei Of *
roarn.tn. * o kfL
.r')-
qy Fro"\ +rz-
F,P-
toof +--ir4- t- +*ru-t^icrn-
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#m-
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Sot-r.ubio-o',- lo
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* b0 l-Tt'"f? s bg itc t.A e- [ro,-v € '

lo
q Ciur) H fjto) =
itl t jt^r +rof NoLel- 4"a," +
1..
..fifr- t'A oo
lo
j61 (jwtto)- ;Tffi)- 1:o"lrt-.,-'F)
lo I o
l-qo->tan -lu0
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Prasltonlh
Online
MChat
,4ssl Pro-f, Dept af EEE,
Support Projects | Technical
Sai Vidya Seminar
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Controls Systems Notes (l5EC43) https : //p e c e svit. b I o gsp ot. i n/

* e W" "{q'ftu f,<< 6latu"-l bt q,^A gLo*a +D'

I 8oo o-t T l-24e- Lro..a ovex 4.r-e4 er.'a''-J '

o
.'- -1o *Z tc'n-t-# = -lgo
o
-[q" *zreu^t-iij =
r€o

n
-
q'o*L{sfl..q = t800

tio
ltonJ ,N -; t 8f -q3
fo
tlrrr_l l,..
to
- qoo
o.

r
w=l/ tq'r
-l
+
lu
5^J ' '!to
= 60
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-{-"

+-t- t,.t=5, Le'^-l+ = Z+o

+.t N--to, to -t*

-- Lo Tetd IOr;_-
U

lt |.)= Y l= ,l
F6y"L,"- "oo
VT

Go'fn .r:o-rqPo = Lo Lol

Y'. o _r
200.

= iD loq0 t-oo

q"f" "rr6fn = \bdb

Online Chat Support

Prnsltcrttth N, Assl Prof, Dept of EEE,Projects | Technical Seminar Guidance & Support
Sui Vidv-s Download our app or visit website
Institute of Technology, Rujanukunle, Bungulore
F
31
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Controis,9ystems Notes ( 1 58C43) h ftps ://pe c e s v i t. b I o gsp o l. i n/

to, FpnJ tt e- ,X,"P" futfu +*- tt e- &Tztero l-"'Avfn?

qf- troF lt^t'4"-' 'furr-eh'cn2- qcSH.') = +rT
Sobrh'crrnl'
-\.,vv^,^ /?-a.- r-^--rr'-\ = I
O
$fv.r !cs:l*cs3
*F ->

t\.t'^=s=it,,cioQ''ar'ttn-Oc^ee-ha're

n
I
cl cjr^r) FlLiur) =

tio
[jr^rtrf

q l jrr) ttt r"r)

j
lu = -3bad
I
So
Q tiw) H-Lj nr)
_l = -3 lan-rCw)
Q** Dt G?r')3
f r" C-o'\u^tc.l tol ^t
tuoca Sve-
tho.'se_
to - tef
L*f") b3 1*^#n
U

f--.+**-a ?l^o^'-
,.o 6oo
+ Etg-n*t L,J = /- LYo
VT

bJ{t hr

Lo= ta,^ (oo)

bJ =..G

3#^
I q Or^r; **t:*> ll
r^r:G_
J.e

Online Chat Support Projects | Technical Seminar Guidance & Support Download our app or visit website
Prsshantlp N, Asst Prof, Dept of EEE, Sui Vidyu Ittstitute of Techno{og-v, Rtiunukunte, Bungalore
____r

qo
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Controls Systenr iYotes (158C43) https : //pe c esv it. bl o gs p ot. i n/

^ol
?*" =G
= zol'oX
I

9J. mo1-Pn I

P
= 2--olrtr?
lornot6in:l8db.

n
tio
lu
So
U
VT

Proslranlh
Online
N,Chat
AsstSupport
Prof, Deltt of EEE,Projects | Technical
Sui Vidyu Institute ofGuidance
Seminar & Support
Technology, Download our
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Bongulore
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t{l
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Controls Systems Notes (158C43) h tip s : //p e c e sv it. b I o g sp ot. i nt

ft .*iqornen I I\hi'^v!'\r-\.^
uo,gh'crr,,g
\/-\/</../--J--
loo
l, Fo. o cloaecl Loop Cn'.atrool &Vato">, qcs) = s fs+ €)
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Ye-Fa,,,ar>t l-.nu VTU aot+
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n
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tio
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hou\ q c.D 3b t-oith un ilg {ee-dbc,.l't< .

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futi lu
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So
49,^-u- t e,to* Ao&n) l4o= l-otl a-nd t 'r = ll-ssY?.d Ix*
a)itt be- *o;li+fteA. Fl,go Ae-Larro ?oe- ++-c- bo ncl uo rd llr-

o,'rd ++1c- A e'tblfry *frne- '

ccs)
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Frequency Domain Analysis and Stability

By the term frequency response, we mean the steady-state response of a system to a sinusoidal
input. Industrial control systems are often designed using frequency response methods. Many
techniques are available in the frequency response methods for the analysis and design of control
systems.
Consider a system with sinusoidal input r (t )  A sin t . The steady-state output may be written
as, c(t )  B sin(t   ) . The magnitude and the phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and

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the steady-state output of a system is called frequency response. The frequency response test is
performed by keeping the amplitude A fixed and determining B and  for a suitable range of
frequencies. Whenever it is not possible to obtain the transfer function of a system through analytical
techniques, frequency response test can be used to compute its transfer function.

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The design and adjustment of open-loop transfer function of a system for specified closed-
loop performance is carried out more easily in frequency domain. Further, the effects of noise and
parameter variations are relatively easy to visualize and assess through frequency response. The
Nyquist criteria is used to extract information about the stability and the relative stability of a system
in frequency domain.

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Advantages of frequency domain analysis:

1. Transfer functions which are complicated to determine the behaviour of the experimentally
can be determined using the frequency response analysis
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2. Design of the system and adjusting the parameters of the system can be easily carried out.

3. Corrective measurement for noise disturbance generated in the system and parameters
variation can be easily determined using frequency analysis

4. Absolute and Relative stability of the closed loop system can be estimated from the knowledge
of the open loop frequency system

5. Frequency domain analysis can also be carried out for the non-linear control systems
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VT

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

Bode Plot:

Bode plots were first introduced by H.W. Bode, when he was working at Bell labs in the United
States. Now before I describe what are this plots it is very essential here to discuss a few advantages
over other stability criteria. Some of the advantages of this plot are written below:

Advantages of Bode Plot

1. It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple method to plot the

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logarithmic magnitude curve.
2. The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can be treated as an

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addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we are using a logarithmic scale.
3. With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of the system without
doing any calculations.
4. Bode plots provides relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase margin.

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5. It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.

There are various terms related to this plot that we will use frequently, They are
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1. Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the system. It
refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the system
unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.
2. Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the system. It
refers to the phase which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It
is usually expressed in phase.
3. Gain Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which magnitude curve cuts the
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zero dB axis in the bode plot.

4. Phase Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts the
negative times the 180o axis in this plot.
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5. Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet each other is
known as break frequency or corner frequency.
6. Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G (jω) has a peak
value is known as resonant frequency.
7. Resonant Peak: It is a maximum magnitude of closed loop system.

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

8. Bandwidth: Bandwidth is defined as difference between upper cut-off frequencies and lower
cut-off frequencies. Or The range of frequencies wherever system performance is satisfactory
is called bandwidth.
9. Cut-off rate: The value after the upper cutoff frequency.
10. Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product of various factors like
constant term K, Integral factors (jω), first order factors ( 1 + jωT)(± n) where n is an integer,
second order or quadratic factors.

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11. Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for each factor is expressed in
the dB per decade.

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12. Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for each factor is expressed in
the degrees.

Bode plot are also known as logarithmic plot (because we draw these plots on semi-log papers) and

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are used for determining the relative stabilities of the given system. Now in order to determine the
stability of the system using bode plot we draw two curves, one is for magnitude called magnitude
curve another for phase called Bode phase plot.
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Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

Polar Plot

The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of G(jω)
versus the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω is varied from zero to infinity. Thus, the
polar plot is the locus of vectors as ω is varied from zero to infinity. In polar plots, a positive
(negative) phase angle is measured counterclockwise (clockwise) from the positive real axis. The
polar plot is often called the Nyquist plot. Each point on the polar plot of G(jω) represents the

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terminal point of a vector at a particular value of ω. In the polar plot, it is important to show the
frequency graduation of the locus. The projections of G(jω) on the real and imaginary axes are its real

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and imaginary components. An advantage in using a polar plot is that it depicts the frequency
response characteristics of a system over the entire frequency range in a single plot. One disadvantage
is that the plot does not clearly indicate the contributions of each individual factor of the open-loop
transfer function.

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The steps that are involved in the sketching of polar plot are given below:
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Step 1. Determine the transfer function G(s) of the system.
Step 2. Put s =jω in the transfer function to obtain G(jω).
Step 3. Calculate |G(jω)| at ω =0 and ω = infinite by taking the limit as ω tends to zero.
Step 4. Calculate the phase angle of G(jω) at ω =0 and ω = infinite by taking the limit as ω tends to
zero.
Step 5. Rationalize the function G(jω) and separate the real and imaginary parts.
Step 6. Equate the imaginary parts to zero and determine the frequencies at which plot intersects the
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real axis and calculate the value of G(jω) at the point of intersection by substituting the determined
value of frequency in the expression of G(jω).
Step 7. Equate the real parts to zero and determine the frequencies at which plot intersects the
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imaginary axis and calculate the value of G(jω) at the point of intersection by substituting the
determined value of frequency in the expression of G(jω).
Step 8. Sketch the polar plot with the help of above information.

Polar plot of some important open loop transfer functions are shown below:
REFER CLASS NOTES

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

Nyquist plot:

Nyquist plots, just like Bode diagrams, are commonly used in the frequency-response
representation of linear, time-invariant, feedback control systems. Nyquist plots are polar plots, while
Bode diagrams are rectangular plots. One plot or the other may be more convenient for a particular
operation, but a given operation can always be carried out in either plot.
Nyquist criterion is a graphical method of determining the stability of feedback control

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systems by using the Nyquist plot of their open-loop transfer functions.
The steps that are involved in the sketching Nyquist plot (Both Nyquist contour and Nyquist plot)

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REFER CLASS NOTES

Stability analysis from Polar and Nyquist plot:

The stability of control system can be measured from the measurement of quantities like phase

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margin and gain margin. These quantities are useful to design the compensating network for the
compensating network for the unstable system, and thus for improving the stability of existing control
system.
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Rules for determining the stability of the system using polar plot:
Step 1. Draw the polar plot of the given transfer function.
Step 2. Find the critical point (-1+j0).
Step 3. Decide the stability:
1. If the critical point is within the plot, it means the system is unstable.
2. If the polar plot passes through the critical point, the system is marginally stable.
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3. If the critical point is outside the plot, it means the system is stable.
Rules for determining the stability of the system using Nyquist plot:
Step 1. Locate open-loop poles on the s-plane.
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Step 2. Draw the closed contour and avoid open-loop poles on the imaginary axis.
Step 3. Count the number of open-loop poles enclosed in the above contour of step b, say P.
Step 4. Plot G(jω) H(jω) and its reflection on the GH plane and map part of the small semi-circle detour
on the s-plane around poles (if any) on the imaginary axis.
Step 5. Once the entire s-plane contour is mapped on to the GH plane, count the number of encirclements
of the point (-1, 0) and its direction. Clockwise encirclement is considered positive, say N.
Step 6. The number of closed-loop poles in the right-half s-plane is given by Z=N+P. if Z >0, the system
is unstable.

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

Compensator
A compensator is a controller meant to improve characteristics of the open-loop plant so that it can
safely be used with feedback control.
There are three types of compensators — lag, lead and lag-lead compensators. These are most
commonly used.

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Lag Compensator:
The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having the phase
lag when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lag compensator circuit in the‘s’ domain is shown in the

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following figure.

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Here, the capacitor is in series with the resistor R2 across this combination.

The transfer function of this lag compensator is

Where,
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From the above equation, α is always greater than one.

From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lag compensator has one
1
pole at s= − ατ and one zero at s= − 1τ . This means, the pole will be nearer to

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

origin in the pole-zero configuration of the lag compensator. Substitute, s= jω in the transfer
function.

Phase angle ϕ= tan−1 ωτ− tan−1αωτ

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We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles of
input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function. So, in order to produce the phase lag at the output

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of this compensator, the phase angle of the transfer function should be negative. This will happen
when α>1.

Lead Compensator:

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The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase lead
when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lead compensator circuit in the‘s’ domain is shown in the
following figure.
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Here, the capacitor is parallel to the resistor R1 across resistor $R_2.

Where,

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

From the transfer function, we can conclude that the lead compensator has pole
at s= − 1 and zero at s= − 1
β βτ

Substitute, s= jω in the transfer function.

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Phase angle ϕ= tan−1ωτ− tan−1βωτ

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We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles of
input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function.
So, in order to produce the phase lead at the output of this compensator, the phase angle of the
transfer function should be positive. This will happen when 0<β<1. Therefore, zero will be nearer

Lead-Lag Compensator:
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to origin in pole-zero configuration of the lead compensator.

Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency
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region and phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both the lag and the lead
compensators. The lag-lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is shown in the following
figure.
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This circuit looks like both the compensators are cascaded. So, the transfer function of this circuit
will be the product of transfer functions of the lead and the lag compensators.

We know αβ= 1.

Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

Where

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Prashanth N , Asst Prof, Dept of ECE.

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1. Introduction:
A digital control system model can be viewed from different perspectives
including control algorithm, computer program, conversion between analog and
digital domains, system performance etc. One of the most important aspects is
the sampling process level. In continuous time control systems, all the system
variables are continuous signals. Whether the system is linear or nonlinear, all
variables are continuously present and therefore known (available) at all times. A

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Figure 1: A typical closed loop continuous time control system
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In a digital control system, the control algorithm is implemented in a digital
computer. The error signal is discretized and fed to the computer by using an A/D
(analog to digital) converter. The controller output is again a discrete signal which
is applied to the plant after using a D/A (digital to analog) converter. General block
diagram of a digital control system is shown in Figure 2.

e(t) is sampled at intervals of T. In the context of control and communication,

sampling is a process by which a continuous time signal is converted into a
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sequence of numbers at discrete time intervals. It is a fundamental property of

digital control systems because of the discrete nature of operation of digital
computer.
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Figure 3 shows the structure and operation of a finite pulse width sampler, where
(a) represents the basic block diagram and (b) illustrates the function of the same.
T is the sampling period and p is the sample duration

Figure 2: General block diagram of a digital control system

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Figure 3: Basic structure and operation of a finite pulse width sampler

In the early development, an analog system, not containing a digital device like
computer, in which some of the signals were sampled, was referred to as a

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sampled data system. With the advent of digital computer, the term discrete-time
system denoted a system in which all its signals are in a digital coded form. Most
practical systems today are of hybrid nature, i.e., contains both analog and
digital components.
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Before proceeding to any depth of the subject we should first understand the
reason behind going for a digital control system. Using computers to implement
controllers has a number of advantages. Many of the difficulties involved in
analog implementation can be avoided. Few of them are enumerated below.

1. Probability of accuracy or drift can be removed.

2. Easy to implement sophisticated algorithms.
3. Easy to include logic and nonlinear functions.
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4. Re-configurability of the controllers.

1.1 A Naive Approach to Digital Control

One may expect that a digital control system behaves like a continuous time
system if the sampling period is sufficiently small. This is true under reasonable
assumptions. A crude way to obtain digital control algorithms is by writing the
continuous time control law as a differential equation and approximating the
derivatives by differences and integrations by summations. This will work when
the sampling period is very small. However various parameters, like over shoot,
settling time will be slightly higher than those of the continuous time control.

Example: PD controller

A continuous time PD controller can be discretized as follows:

where k represents the discrete time instants and T is the discrete time step or the
sampling period. We will see later the control strategies with diﬀerent behaviors,
for example deadbeat control, can be obtained with computer control which are
not possible with a continuous time control.

1.2 Aliasing

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Stable linear systems have property that the steady state response to sinusoidal
excitations is sinusoidal with same frequency as that of the input. But digital

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control systems behave in a much more complicated way because sampling will
create signals with new frequencies. Aliasing is an effect of the sampling that
causes different signals to become indistinguishable. Due to aliasing, the signal
reconstructed from samples may become different than the original continuous
signal. This can drastically deteriorate the performance if proper care is not taken.

2. Inherently Sampled Systems

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Sampled data systems are natural descriptions for many phenomena. In some
cases sampling occurs naturally due to the nature of measurement system
whereas in some cases it occurs because information is transmitted in pulsed
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form. The theory of sampled data systems thus has many applications.

a. Radar: When a radar antenna rotates, information about range and direction is
naturally obtained once per revolution of the antenna.

b. Economic Systems: Accounting procedures in economic systems are generally

tied to the calendar. Information about important variables is accumulated only at
certain times, e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or yearly even if the
transactions occur at any point of time.
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c. Biological Systems: Since the signal transmission in the nervous system

occurs in pulsed form, biological systems are inherently sampled.

All these discussions indicate the need for a separate theory for sampled data
VT

control systems or digital control systems.

3. How Was Theory Developed?

a. Sampling Theorem: Since all computer controlled systems operate at discrete

times only, it is important to know the condition under which a signal can be
retrieved from its values at discrete points. Nyquist explored the key issue and
Shannon gave the complete solution which is known as Shannon’s sampling
theorem. We will discuss Shannon’s sampling theorem in proceeding lectures.

b. Difference Equations and Numerical Analysis: The theory of sampled-data

system is closely related to numerical analysis. Difference equations replaced the
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differential equations in continuous
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time theory. Derivatives
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and integrals are
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evaluated numerically by approximating them with differences and sums.

c. Transform Methods: Z-transform replaced the role of Laplace transform in

continuous domain.

d. State Space Theory: In late 1950’s, a very important theory in control system
was developed which is known as state space theory. The discrete time
representations of state models are obtained by considering the systems only at
sampling points.

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4. Discrete time system representations

As mentioned above, discrete time systems are represented by difference

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equations. We will focus on LTI systems unless mentioned otherwise.

4.1 Approximation for numerical differentiation

1. Using backward difference

(a) First order

(b) Second order lu

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2. Using forward difference

(a) First order

(b) Second order

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4.2 Approximation for numerical
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integration
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The numerical integration technique depends on the approximation of the

instantaneous continuous time signal. We will describe the process of backward
rectangular integration technique.

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Figure 4: Concept behind Numerical Integration

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As shown in Figure 4, the integral function can be approximated by a number of
rectangular pulses and the area under the curve can be represented by
summation of the areas of all the small rectangles. Thus,
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The above expression isNOTES
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a recursive formulation of backward
| INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE
rectangular
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integration where the expression of a signal at a given time explicitly contains the
past values of the signal. Use of this recursive equation to evaluate the present
value of u(NT) requires to retain only the immediate past sampled value e((N −1)T)
and the immediate past value of the integral u((N −1)T), thus saving the storage
space requirement.

In forward rectangular integration, we start approximating the curve from top

right corner. Thus the approximation is

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The recursive relation of the forward rectangular integration is:

Polygonal or trapezoidal integration is another numerical integration technique

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where the total area is divided into a number of trapezoids and expressed as the
sum of areas of individual trapezoids.

Example 1: Consider the following continuous time expression of a PID

controller:
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Where u (t) is the controller output and e (t) is the input to the controller.
Considering t = NT, find out the recursive discrete time formulation of u (NT) by
approximating the derivative by backward difference and integral by backward
rectangular integration technique.
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Solution: u (NT) can be approximated as

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which is the required recursive relation.

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Similarly, if we use forward difference and forward rectangular integration, we
would get the recursive relation as

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4.3 Difference Equation Representation
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The general linear difference equation of an nth order causal LTI SISO system is:

where y is the output of the system and u is the input to the system and m≤n.
This inequality is required to avoid anticipatory or non-causal model.
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Example 2: If you express the recursive relation for PID control in general
difference equation form, is the system causal?
Solution: The output of the PID controller is u and the input is e. When
approximated with forward difference and forward rectangular integration, u(NT)
VT

is found as:

By putting N = k+1 and comparing with general difference equation, we can say n
= 1 whereas m = 2. Thus the system is non-causal. However, when the
approximation uses backward difference and backward rectangular integration,
the approximated model becomes causal.
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5. Mathematical Modeling of Sampling Process
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Sampling operation in sampled data and digital control system is used to model
either the sample and hold operation or the fact that the signal is digitally coded.
If the sampler is used to represent S/H (Sample and Hold) and A/D (Analog to
Digital) operations, it may involve delays, ﬁnite sampling duration and
quantization errors. On the other hand if the sampler is used to represent
digitally coded data the model will be much simpler. Following are two popular
sampling operations:

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1. Single rate or periodic sampling

2. Multi-rate sampling

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We would limit our discussions to periodic sampling only.

5.1 Finite pulse width sampler

In general, a sampler is the one which converts a continuous time signal into a
pulse modulated or discrete signal. The most common type of modulation in the

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sampling and hold operation is the pulse amplitude modulation.

The symbolic representation, block diagram and operation of a sampler are

shown in Figure 5. The pulse duration is p second and sampling period is T
second. Uniform rate sampler is a linear device which satisﬁes the principle of
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superposition. As in Figure 5, p (t) is a unit pulse train with period T.

where us(t) represents unit step function. Assume that leading edge of the pulse
at t = 0 coincides with t = 0. Thus f*p (t) can be written as
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Figure 5: Finite pulse width sampler: (a) Symbolic representation (b) Block diagram
(c) Operation.

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Frequency domain characteristics:

Since p(t) is a periodic function, it can be represented by a Fourier series, as

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Using complex shifting theorem of Fourier transform

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The above equation implies that the frequency contents of the original signal f(t)
are still present in the sampler output except that the amplitude is multiplied by
𝑝
the factor 𝑇 . For n ≠ 0, Cn is a complex quantity, the magnitude of which is,

Sampling operation retains the fundamental frequency but in addition, sampler

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output also contains the harmonic components.

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According to Shannon’s sampling theorem, “if a signal contains no frequency
higher than wc rad/sec, it is completely characterized by the values of the signal
measured at instants of time separated by T = π/wc sec.”

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Sampling frequency rate should be greater than the Nyquist rate which is twice
the highest frequency component of the original signal to avoid aliasing.

If the sampling rate is less than twice the input frequency, the output frequency
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will be diﬀerent from the input which is known as aliasing. The output frequency
in that case is called alias frequency and the period is referred to as alias period.

The overlapping of the high frequency components with the fundamental

component in the frequency spectrum is sometimes referred to as folding and the
𝑊𝑆
frequency is often known as folding frequency. The frequency wc is called
2
Nyquist frequency.

A low sampling rate normally has an adverse eﬀect on the closed loop stability.
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Thus, often we might have to select a sampling rate much higher than the
theoretical minimum.

5.2 Flat-top approximation of ﬁnite-pulse width sampling

The Laplace transform of f*p (t) can be written as

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If the sampling duration p NOTES
is much
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smaller than the sampling
| INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE
period T and the
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smallest time constant of the signal f(t), the sampler output can be approximated
by a sequence of rectangular pulses since the variation of f(t) in the sampling
duration will be less signiﬁcant. Thus for k = 0, 1, 2…..... f*p (t) can be expressed
as an inﬁnite series

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Taking Laplace transform,

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Since p is very small, e−ps can be approximated by taking only the ﬁrst 2 terms,
as

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In time domain,
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where, δ(t) represents the unit impulse function. Thus the ﬁnite pulse width
sampler can be viewed as an impulse modulator or an ideal sampler connected in
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series with an attenuator with attenuation p.

5.3 The ideal sampler

In case of an ideal sampler, the carrier signal is replaced by a train of unit

impulse as shown in Figure 6. The sampling duration p approaches 0, i.e., its
operation is instantaneous.

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Figure 6: Ideal sampler operation

The output of an ideal sampler can be expressed as

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One should remember that practically the output of a sampler is always followed
by a hold device which is the reason behind the name sample and hold device.
Now, the output of a hold device will be the same regardless the nature of the
sampler and the attenuation factor p can be dropped in that case. Thus the
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sampling process can be be always approximated by an ideal sampler or impulse

modulator.

6. Data Reconstruction
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Most of the control systems have analog controlled processes which are
inherently driven by analog inputs. Thus the outputs of a digital controller
should ﬁrst be converted into analog signals before being applied to the systems.
Another way to look at the problem is that the high frequency components of f(t)
should be removed before applying to analog devices. A low pass ﬁlter or a data
reconstruction device is necessary to perform this operation.

In control system, hold operation becomes the most popular way of

reconstruction due to its simplicity and low cost. Problem of data reconstruction
can be formulated as:

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“ Given a sequence of numbers,
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f(0),f(T),f(2T),··· ,f(kt),···, a continuous
NOTES | INTERNSHIP | VIDEO LECTURE
time signal
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f(t), t ≥ 0, is to be reconstructed from the information contained in the sequence.”

Data reconstruction process may be regarded as an extrapolation process since

the continuous data signal has to be formed based on the information available
at past sampling instants. Suppose the original signal f(t) between two
consecutive sampling instants kT and (k + 1)T is to be estimated based on the
values of f(t) at previous instants of kT, i.e., (k − 1)T, (k − 2)T, ···0.

Power series expansion is a well-known method of generating the desired

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approximation which yields

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Since the only available information about f(t) is its magnitude at the sampling

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instants, the derivatives of f(t) must be estimated from the values of f(kT), as
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6.1 Zero Order Hold

Higher the order of the derivatives to be estimated is, larger will be the number of
delayed pulses required. Since time delay degrades the stability of a closed loop
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control system, using higher order derivatives of f(t) for more accurate
reconstruction often causes serious stability problem. Moreover a high order
extrapolation requires complex circuitry and results in high cost.

For the above reasons, use of only the ﬁrst term in the power series to
VT

approximate f(t) during the time interval kT ≤ t < (k+1)T is very popular and the
device for this type of extrapolation is known as zero-order extrapolator or zero
order hold. It holds the value of f(kT) for kT ≤ t < (k + 1)T until the next sample
f((k + 1)T) arrives. Figure 7 illustrates the operation of a ZOH where the green

line represents the original continuous signal and brown line represents the
reconstructed signal from ZOH.

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Figure 7: Zero order hold operation

The accuracy of zero order hold (ZOH) depends on the sampling frequency. When
T → 0, the output of ZOH approaches the continuous time signal. Zero order hold
is again a linear device which satisﬁes the principle of superposition.

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Figure 8: Impulse response of ZOH

The impulse response of a ZOH, as shown in Figure 8, can be written as

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to − can be regarded as a phase change of −1800. Thus the phase Characteristics
of ZOH is linear with jump discontinuities of −1800 at integral multiple of ws.
The magnitude and phase characteristics of ZOH are shown in Figure 9.

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6.2 First Order Hold

When the 1st two terms of the power series are used to extrapolate f(t), over the
time interval kT < t < (k + 1)T, the device is called a ﬁrst order hold (FOH). Thus
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Impulse response of FOH is obtained by applying a unit impulse at t = 0, the

corresponding output is obtained by setting k = 0,1,2,.....

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Figure 9: Frequency response of ZOH
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f(t) = 0 for t ≥ 2T. Figure 10 shows the impulse response of ﬁrst order hold.
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Figure 10: Impulse response of First Order Hold

If we combine all three regions, we can write the impulse response of a ﬁrst order
hold as,
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One can verify that according to the above expression, when 0 ≤ t < T, only the
ﬁrst term produces a nonzero value which is nothing but (1+t/T). Similarly, when
T ≤ t < 2T, ﬁrst two terms produce nonzero values and the resultant is (1 − t/T).
In case of t ≥ 2T, all three terms produce nonzero values and the resultant is 0.

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The transfer function of a ﬁrst order hold is:

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The frequency response is shown in Figure 11.
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Figure 11: Frequency response of FOH

Figure 12 shows a comparison of the reconstructed outputs of ZOH and FOH.

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Figure 12: Operation of ZOH and FOH

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Control Systems

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Control Systems

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SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CONTROL SYSTEMS NOTES (15EC43)

Syllabus: Time Response of feedback control systems: Standard test

Study Material Referred:

 Modern Control engineering-K Ogata.

 Linear Control Systems –B S Manke.

1 Time Response of feedback control systems 1

2 Standard test signals 2

3 Unit step response of First order Systems. 5

4 Unit step response of Second order Systems. 8

6 Steady state errors and error constants. 26

8 Solved Problems on Time Response. 52

9 Practice Problems on Time Response. 116

Introduction to PI, PD and PID Controller.

2) Quiz will be conducted after each Module test for 05 Marks.

3) Average of both will be taken as final marks for 05 Marks.

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Syllabus: Stability analysis: Concepts of stability, Necessary

Study Material Referred:

Modern Control engineering-K Ogata.

 Control Systems- Anand Kumar.

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