Industrial and Power Electronics

1. What is the impact of power electrics in power system?

Ans. The power system is a network which consists of generation, distribution and transmission system.
The power system includes the devices connected to the system like the synchronous generator, motor,
transformer, circuit breaker, conductor etc.

Power electronics drives make possible the control of electric motors, with the additional advance of
greater system efficiency and reliability. A motor drive comprises an electric motor, a power electronic
converter and possibly a speed and position sensor.

2. What does commutation mean in electronics?

A commutator is a rotary electrical switch in certain types of electric motors and electrical generators that
periodically reverses the current direction between the rotor and the external circuit. By reversing the
current direction in the rotating windings each half turn, a steady rotating force (torque) is produced.

Commutation in DC machines is the process by which the reversal of current takes place. In DC generator
this process is used to convert the induced AC in the conductors to a DC output. In DC motors
commutation is used to reverse the directions of DC current before being applied to the coils of the
commutation in DC machine.

Each armature coil contains two commutators attached at its end. For the transformation of current, the
commutator segments and brushes should maintain a continuously moving contact. To get larger output
values more than one coil is used in DC machines. So, instead of one pair, we have a number of pairs of
commutator segments.

Fig.1 Commutator showing in DC machine.

The coil is short-circuited for a very short period of time with the help of brushes. This period is known as
commutation period. Let us consider a DC motor in which the width of the commutator bars is equal to
the width of the brushes. Let the current flowing through the conductor be Ia. Let a, b, c be the
commutator segments of the motor. The current reversal in the coil .i.e. commutation process can be
understood by the below steps.

Effects of Commutation

The computation is called Ideal commutation when the reversal of current is completed by the end of the
commutation period. If the current reversal is completed during the commutation period, sparking occurs
at the contact of brushes and overheating occurs damaging the surface of the commutator. This defect is
called P oorly commutated machine.

To prevent this type of defects there are three types of methods for improving commutation.

 Resistance commutation.
 EMF commutation.
 Compensating winding.

Three types of commutation are identified: i) Voltage commutation, ii) Current commutation and iii)
Load commutation. In a voltage commutated thyristor circuit a voltage source is impressed across the
SCR to be turned off, mostly by an auxiliary SCR.

What do you mean by forced commutation?

In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. Forward current must be
forced to zero with an external circuit (known as commutating circuit) to commutate the SCR. Hence the
name, forced commutation. These commutating circuits consist of components like inductors.

Thyristor current can be reduced to a value below the value of holding current. Since the thyristor is
turned off forcibly it is termed as a forced commutation process. Forced commutation can be observed
while using DC supply; hence it is also called DC commutation.
What are the advantages of forced commutation for DC- DC converters?

The advantages of forced commutation are good load regulation and that the voltage across the thyristor is
restricted to no more than the supply voltage. If load resistance R is increased, the charging of capacitor C
will be slow, making the minimum off-time longer.

Electronic conversion, Practical electronic converters use switching techniques. Switched-mode DC-to-
DC converters convert one DC voltage level to another, which may be higher or lower, by storing the
input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to the output at a different voltage.

What are the types of forced commutation?

The forced commutation can be classified into different methods as follows:

 Class A: Self commutated by a resonating load.

 Class B: Self commutated by an LC circuit.
 Class C: Cor L-C switched by another load-carrying SCR.
 Class D
 Class E: An external pulse source for commutation.
 Class F: AC line commutation.

How Does the Commutation Process Take Place?

The device called commutator helps in this process. Let’s look at the functioning of a DC motor to
understand the commutation process. The basic principle on which a motor works is electromagnetic
induction. When current is passed through a conductor it produces magnetic field lines around it. We also
know that when a magnetic north and magnetic south faces each other, magnetic lines of force move from
North Pole magnet to South Pole magnet as shown in the figure below.

Firing Angle:

The number of degrees from the beginning of the cycle when SCR is switched on is firing angle. Any
SCR would start conducting at a particular point on the ac source voltage. The particular point is defined
as the firing angle. The earlier in the cycle the SCR is gated ON, the greater will be the voltage applied to
the load.

Firing Angle Control:

Firing angle control can be used in applications like controlling the speed of fan motors, controlling the
intensity of a bulb, by controlling the application of power to the SCR. The firing angle control is
achieved by varying the time of application of Gate pulses to the SCR. The voltage to the Gate terminal of
the SCR can be applied at a given time decided by the remote input.

Basically by controlling the firing angle means managing the point on the AC signal waveform when the
SCR is going to be triggered or in other words, the time corresponding to the AC signal waveform when
the SCR gate is going to be given DC supply voltage. Normally to trigger an SCR we use optoisolator.
For a simple power application circuit, where no power control is required, normally zero-crossing
detectors or optoisolators having zero-crossing detectors can be used, by which the SCR is triggered only
at the zero crossing levels of the AC waveform. For other applications involving power controlling
application, the gate is triggered using pulses and the firing angle is varied accordingly to control the
switching of the SCR and accordingly the power of the SCR.

Q. What is meant by Cyclo-converter? Draw the circuit of a single phase bridge type Cyclo-
converter and explain its operation with load.

Ans: Cyclo-converter: A cyclo-conveter is a direct frequency changer that converts AC power at one
frequency to AC power at another frequency by AC-AC conversion, without an intermediate conversion
link.
Single phase bridge type Cyclo-converter: Single phase bridge type Cyclo-converter is shown in Fig.1.
Here, two single phase fully-controlled bridges are connected in opposite directions. Bridge 1 supplies
load current in the positive half of the output cycle and bridge 2 supplies load current in the negative half
of the output cycle. The two bridges should not conduct together as this will produce a short-circuit at the
input.
Instead of one thyristor in the centre-tap transformer configuration, two thyristors come in series with
each voltage source in the bridge configuration.
For resistive loads, the SCRs undergo natural commutation and produce discontinuous current operation
as same as produced in single phases to single phase cyclo-converter.
For inductive loads, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous, depending upon the firing angle
and load power factor. The load voltage and current waveforms would be similar to single phases to
single phase for discontinuous load current and as in single phases to single phase for continuous load
current.
When the load current is positive, the firing pulses to the SCRs of bridge 2 will be inhibited and bridge 1
will be gated. Similarly, when the load current is negative,bridge 2 will be gated and the firing pulses will
not be applied to the SCRs in bridge 1. This is the circulating current free mode of operation.
Thus, the firing angle control scheme must be such that one converter can conduct at a time, and the
change-over of firing pulses from one converter to the other should be periodic according to the output
frequency. However the firing angles of SCRs of both the converters should be the same to produce a
symmetrical output.
When a Cyclo-converter operates in the non-circulating current mode, the control scheme becomes
complicated if the load current is discontinuous. The control scheme becomes somewhat simplified if
some amount of circulating current is allowed to flow between them. In this case, a circulating current
limiting reactor is connected between the positive and negative converters. This circulating current by
itself keeps both the converters in virtually continuous conduction over the whole control range. This type
of operation is called as the circulating-current mode of operation.
Inverter
A power inverter, or inverter, is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current to
alternating current. The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed.

Inverters are also called AC Drives, or VFD (variable frequency drive). They are electronic devices that
can turn direct current to alternating current. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it
can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired
voltage. It is also responsible for controlling speed and torque for electric motors.

An inverter refers to a power electronic device that converts power in DC form to AC form at the required
frequency and voltage output. A current source inverter is supplied with a variable current from a DC
source that has high impedance.

Q. What is Push-pull inverter? Explain the working principle of this inverter.

Ans: Push-pull Inverter: The push-pull inverter is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes
direct current to alternating current through push-pull action. It can enhance both the load capacity and
switching speed due to the push-pull option. It is comparatively complex in design than other inverters.

Working principle of Push Pull Inverter: For the operation of push pull inverter the output transformer
is a must. The circuit diagram for the push pull inverter is as shown in Fig.1.

Mode I:

Fig.1. Fig.2

 When Q1 is turned on the de source voltage appears across the left half of the primary OA.
 The primary current flows from O to A. Due to the transformer action the voltage between AB is
2V Volts.
 The load voltage is positive, so is the load current (Fig.2). After half time at t = T / 2, Q1 is turned
off by reducing its base drive to zero.

Fig.3 Fig.4
 Mode II:
 At t = T / 2 transistor Q2 is turned ON .
 The input dc voltage now gets connected across winding OB. The primary current flows from O
to B, through Q2 as shown in Figure C.
 The load voltage changes its polarity, and the direction of load current is reversed. Q2 conducts
for half time and is turned off at t = T.
 The square output waveform is thus obtained across the load. The load voltage waveform is as
shown in Figure D.

Transformer-less inverter

A transformer-less inverter is an inverter which does not have a transformer. Since the function of
stepping up the voltage is necessary, transformer-less inverter carry out this function by using
computerized multi-step process and electronic components which play the role of a transformer.

Q. What is the difference between a transformer and an inverter?

Transformers increase or decrease alternating current (AC) electricity from one voltage level to another.
Inverters take direct current (DC) electricity as their input and produce AC electricity as their output.
Inverters normally include a modified transformer in their design.

Even though in some transformerless inverters, the current passes through a capacitor, the capacitor may
not always be as reliable as an actual transformer. In other words, transformerless inverters are less
complex in their designs and thus more prone to surges and shocks.

Q. Difference between the Push-pull and the transformer-less inverters.

Push-pull inverter Transformer-less inverter

1. The push-pull inverter is a power electronic A transformer-less inverter is a power
device or circuitry that changes direct current to electronic device that changes direct current
alternating current through push-pull action. to alternating current which does not have a
transformer.
2. A transformer is used in the output section to Computerized multi-step process and
perform the push-pull action of this type of electronic components play the role of a
inverter. transformer.

3. It can enhance both the load capacity and This type of inverter are not able to perform
switching speed due to the push-pull option. these functions.
4. It is comparatively complex in design than the Less complex in design and more prone to
transformer-less inverter. surges and shocks.
Q. What is series resonant inverter? Explain the principle of series resonant inverter.

Ans: Series resonant inverter: In series resonant inverters, resonance is occurred when the
resonating components and switching device are placed in series with the load to form an under-damped
circuit. The current through the switching devices fall to zero due to the natural characteristics of the
circuit.

Principle of series resonant inverter: The series resonant inverters are based on resonant
current oscillation.The resonating components and switching device are placed in series with the
load to form an underdamped circuit. The current through the switching devices falls to zero due
to the natural characteristics of the circuit. If the switching element is a thyristor, it is said to be
self-commutated. This type of inverter produces an approximately sinusoidal waveform at a high
output frequency ranging from 200 to 100KHz and is commonly used in relatively fixed output
applications (e.g., induction heating, sonar transmitter , fluorescent heating, or ultrasonic
generators). Due to the high switching frequency, the size of resonating components is small.

Fig.1: Series resonant inverter.

Fig.1 shows the circuit diagram of a simple series resonant inverter using two unidirectional
thyristor switches. When the thyristor T1is fired, a resonant pulse of current flows through the
load and the current falls to zero at t =tin and T2 is self commutated. Firing of the thyristor T2
causes a reserve resonant current through the load and T2 is also self-commutated.

Q.What is magnetic amplifier? Discuss the effect of negative feedback in magnetic

amplifier.

Ans: Magnetic amplifier: Magnetic amplifier can be defined as the amplifier whose output is an
enlarged reproduction of the essential features of an input wave and which draws power, therefore, from a
source other than the input signal. When the gain and utility of a magnetic device such as saturable
reactor amplifier is increased by the addition of rectifier in its output, then the combined form is called the
magnetic amplifier. These magnetic amplifiers provide extremely high power amplification. Further they
are rugged and have long life.

Effect of negative feedback in magnetic amplifier:

The effect of negative feedback in the magnetic amplifier is found explicitly when the ac load
current variation with the number of turns in control coils is observed. This effect on output
current is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 Effect of negative feedback on output current in magnetic amplifier.

1. At point o, corresponding to zero control current, the feedback action is almost negligible.

2. With 10 amp.-turns in control winding, the load current in absence of feedback is 0.6 amps.
This load current flowing through 5 turns of feedback coil produces 3 amp.-turns.

3. With negative feedback, these 3 amp.-turns oppose the 10 amp.-turns of the control coil,
leaving net flux corresponding to only 7 amp.-turns.

Now from the curve OPQR, corresponding to 7 amp.-turns in control coil, output current is about
0.35 amps as shown at point Q1. But this reduced load current tends to reduce feedback action.
Similarly, for 15 amp.-turns in control coil, the negative feedback results in reduced output
current as given by the points R2 instead of R. Curve OP2Q2R2 gives the output load current with
negative feedback. Thus we find that negative feedback has reduced the gain of the magnetic
amplifier. But the new curve OP3Q3R3 is more linear. Negative feedback results in more linear
output-input characteristic, greater stability and faster response,

If we increase the number of turns on the feedback winding from 5 to say 20, the feedback
increases. Within this increased feedback, the output current further decreases. Curve OP3Q3R3
then gives the new output current curve. This curve is more linear than that for smaller feedback.
The linearity of gain and stability of gain improve with increase in negative feedback. Further the
response becomes more fast.