Thinking the Unthinkable: The Story of Complex Numbers (with a Moral)

Author(s): ISRAEL KLEINER

Source: The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 81, No. 7 (OCTOBER 1988), pp. 583-592
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
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Thinking the Unthinkable :
The Story of Complex
Numbers (with a Moral)
By ISRAELKLEINER

usual
definition of complex num
bers, either as ordered pairs (a, 6) of
The
real numbers or as "numbers" of the form
a + bi, does not give any indication of their
long and tortuous evolution, which lasted
about three hundred years. I want to de
scribe this evolution very briefly because I
think some lessons can be learned from this
story, just as from many other such stories
concerning the evolution of a concept,
result, or theory. These lessons have to do
with the impact of the history of mathemat
ics on our understanding of mathematics
and on our effectiveness in teaching it. But
more about the moral of this story later.

Birth
Jerome Cardan
This story begins in 1545. What came ear (1501-1576)
Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons
lier can be summarized by the following
quotation from Bhaskara, a twelfth-century
Hindu mathematician (Dantzig 1967) : Cardan, too, dealt with quadratics in his
The square of a positive number, also that of a nega book. One of the problems he proposed is
tive number, is positive; and the square root of a posi the following (Struik 1969):
tive number is two-fold, positive and negative; there is
no square root of a negative number, for a negative If some one says to you, divide 10 into two parts, one
number is not a square. of which multiplied into the other shall produce... 40,
it is evident that this case or question is impossible.
In 1545 Jerome Cardan, an Italian math Nevertheless, we shall solve it in this fashion.

ematician, physician, gambler, and philos

opher, published a book entitled Ars Magna Cardan then applied his algorithm (es
(The great art), in which he described an sentially the method of completing the
algebraic method for solving cubic and square) to + y = 10 and xy = 40 to get
quartic equations. This book was a great the two numbers 5+ ?lb and 5 ?
yj
event in mathematics. It was the first major ? 15. aside the
y/ Moreover, "putting
achievement in algebra since the time, 3000 mental tortures involved" (Burton 1985),
years earlier, when the Babylonians Cardan formally multiplied 5 + ?lb by
yj
showed how to solve quadratic equations. 5 ? yj ?15 and obtained 40. He did not

Israel Kleiner teaches at York University, Downsview, The author would like to acknowledge financial assist
ONT M3J 1P3. His current interest is the relation be ance from the Social Sciences and Humanities Re
tween the history and pedagogy of mathematics. search Council of Canada.

October 1988 583

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pursue the matter but concluded that the inspection. The task was undertaken by the
result was "as subtle as it is useless" hydraulic engineer Rafael Bombelli about
(NCTM 1969). Although eventually rejec thirty years after the publication of
ted, this event was nevertheless historic, Cardan's work.
since it was the first time ever that the Bombelli had the "wild thought" that
square root of a negative number was ex since the radicands 2+
y
?121 and
plicitly written down.
And, as Dantzig 2? differ only in sign, the same
y/?121
(1985) has
observed, "the mere writing might be true of their cube roots. Thus, he
down of the impossible gave it a symbolic let
existence."

In the solution of the cubic equation,

and
square roots of negative numbers had to be
reckoned with. Cardan's solution for the
cubic x3 = ax + b was given as
and proceeded to solve for a and b by ma
nipulating these expressions according to
the established rules for real variables. He
deduced that a = 2 and 6 = 1 and thereby
showed that, indeed,

-
the so-called Cardan formula. When applied
j/2+y^m + j/2 y^m
= (2 + + (2~y-i) = 4
to the historic example x3 = 15x + 4, the y^?)
formula yields
(Burton 1985). Bombelli had thus given
to the This event
=y2+y^m + y2-y^m. meaning "meaningless."
signaled the birth of complex numbers. In
his own words (Leapfrogs 1980) :
It was a wild
thought, in the judgement of many; and I
Doubts concerning the too was for a long time of the same opinion. The whole

meaning and legitimacy of matter seemed to rest on sophistry rather than on

truth. Yet I sought so long, until I actually proved this
complex numbers persisted to be the case.

for three centuries, until

Of course, breakthroughs are achieved
the mid-1800s. in this way?by thinking the unthinkable
and daring to present it in public.
The equation x3 = 15x + 4 represents
Although Cardan claimed that his general
the so-called irreducible case of the cubic,
formula for the solution of the cubic was
in which all three solutions are real yet
inapplicable in this case (because of the ap
they are expressed (by Cardan's formula) by
pearance of square roots of nega
yj ?121), means of complex numbers. To resolve the
tive numbers could no longer be so lightly
apparent paradox of cubic equations exemp
dismissed. Whereas for the quadratic (e.g.,
2 lified by this type of equation, Bombelli de
+ 1 = 0) one could say that no solution
veloped a calculus of operations with com
exists, for the cubic x3 = 15x + 4 a real
= plex numbers. His rules, in our symbolism,
solution, namely 4, does exist ; in fact, are (?l)i = ?i, (+ i)(+ i) = -1, (-i)( + i) =
the two other solutions, ? 2 ? are also = =
y/s, + 1, (?l)(-0 + /, (+ i)(-i) +1, and
real. It now remained to reconcile the ? ? =
( i)( i) ?1.
He also considered exam
formal and "meaningless" solution
ples involving addition and multiplication
= - of complex numbers, such as 8i + (? 5i) =
^2 + V-121 + >?2 y/^Ul + Si and
3=
of 15x + 4, found by using Cardan's
formula, with the solution =
4, found by (^4 +720(^3 +^80 =y8 + Uyfil
584 _ -? Mathematics
Teacher

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 Bombelli thus laid the foundation stone of that contained the identity
the theory of complex numbers.
Many textbooks, even at the university
level, suggest that complex numbers arose
was typical of the period
in connection with the solution of
quadrat (Crossley 1980) :
ic equations, especially the equation x2 + The remark which
you make concerning... imaginary
1=0. As quantities which, however, when added together yield
indicated previously, the cubic a real quantity, is surprising and entirely novel. One
rather than the quadratic equation forced would never have believed that
the introduction of complex numbers.
j\ + + v/i-y^s
make and there is something hidden therein which
^/?
Growth is incomprehensible to me.

Bombelli's work was only the

beginning of
the saga of complex numbers.
Although his
book L'Algebra was widely read, complex
numbers were shrouded in mystery, little
understood, and often entirely ignored. Wit
ness Simon Stevin's remark in 1585 about
them (Crossley 1980):
There is enough legitimate matter, even infinitely
much, to exercise oneself without oneself
occupying
and wasting time on uncertainties.

Similar doubts concerning the meaning

and legitimacy of complex numbers
persist
ed for two and a half centuries. Neverthe
less, during that same period complex num
bers were extensively used and a consider
able amount of theoretical work was done. GottfriedWilhelm von Leibniz
We (1646-1716)
illustrate this work with a number of Courtesy of John Wiley & Sons
examples.

Leibniz, who spent considerable time

and effort on the question of the of
meaning
Breakthroughs are achieved complex numbers and the possibility of de
by thinking the unthinkable riving reliable results by applying the ordi
and daring to present it nary laws of algebra to them, thought of
them as "a fine and wonderful
in public. divine
refuge of the
spirit?almost an amphibian be
tween being and non-being" (Leapfrogs
As early as 1620, Albert Girard 1980).
suggest
ed that an equation of degree Complex numbers were widely used in
may have the eighteenth
roots. Such statements of the fundamental century. Leibniz and John
Bernoulli used imaginary numbers as an
theorem of algebra were, however, vague aid to integration. For
and unclear. For example, Ren? Descartes, example,
who coined the unfortunate word " .
" imagi
for the new numbers, stated that al ? dx
nary ( + ai)(x ai)
though one can imagine that every equa
tion has as many roots as is indicated
by its
? ?-? *>
2a ?
degree, no (real) numbers to J \x + ai ai)
correspond
some of these imagined roots.
The following quotation, from a letter in 2ai
1673 from Christian Huygens to Gottfried ? ?
[log(* + ai) log ( ai)]. This use, in
von Leibniz in response to the latter's letter
turn, raised questions about the meaning of

October 1988
585

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 the logarithm of complex as well as nega which by their nature are impossible and ordinarily
are called or fancied numbers, because
tive numbers. A heated controversy ensued imaginary they
exist only in the imagination.
between Leibniz and Bernoulli. Leibniz
=
claimed, for example, that log i 0, ar Even the great Carl Friedrich Gauss,
that = and hence who in his doctoral thesis of 1797 gave the
guing log( ?l)2 log l2,
= = =
21og(-l) 21ogl 0; thus log(-l) 0, first essentially correct proof of the funda
and hence 0 = log( ?1) =
logf2
=
21og?, mental theorem of algebra, claimed as late
from which it follows that log i = 0. Ber as 1825 that "the true metaphysics of
yj?1
noulli opted for log i = ( )/2 ; this equation is elusive" (Kline 1972).
follows from Euler's = ?
identity eni 1, It should be pointed out that the desire
?
which implies that log ( 1) = ni and hence for a logically satisfactory explanation of
that log i = ^log( ?1) =
(ni)/2, although complex numbers became manifest in the
this argument is not the one that Bernoulli latter part of the eighteenth century on
used. The controversy was subsequently re philosophical, if not on utilitarian, grounds.
solved by Leonhard Euler (Leapfrogs 1978). With the advent
of the Age of Reason in the
eighteenth century, when mathematics was
held up as a model to be followed, not only
in the natural sciences but in philosophy as
well as political and social thought, the in
adequacy of a rational explanation of com
plex numbers was disturbing.

The desire for a logically

satisfactory explanation of
complex numbers was
prompted by philosophical and
pedagogical considerations.

Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783) The problem of the logical justification
Courtesy of Holt, Rinehart & Winston of the laws of operation with negative and
complex numbers also became a pressing
Complex numbers were used by Johann pedagogical issue at, among other places,
Lambert for map projection, by Jean at the turn of the
Cambridge University
D'Alembert in hydrodynamics, and by nineteenth was
century. Since mathematics
Euler, D'Alembert, and Joseph-Louis La viewed by the educational institutions as a
grange in incorrect proofs of the fundamen of rational
paradigm thought, the glaring
tal theorem of algebra. (Euler, by the way, in the
inadequacies logical justification of
was the first to designate 1 by i.) the operations with negative
yj? and complex
Euler, who made fundamental use of numbers became untenable. Such questions
complex numbers in linking the ex i = ix 2?" and "Is
as, "Why does 2 J~a~b
ponential and trigonometric functions by = true for negative a and b?" re
the formula eix = cos yfa yfb
+ i sin , expressed ceived no satisfactory answers. In fact,
himself about them in the following way in his text of the_1760s on algebra,
Euler,
(Kline 1972): claimed 1 = = +2 as a
possi
yj? -J?4 yjA
Because all conceivable numbers are either greater ble result. Robert Woodhouse opined in
than zero, less than zero or equal to zero, then it is
1802 that since imaginary numbers lead to
clear that the square root of negative numbers cannot
be included among the possible numbers_And this right conclusions, they must have a logic.
circumstance leads us to the concept of such numbers, Around 1830 George Peacock and others at

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 modeled himself on Gauss's definition of
congruences for integers (Kline 1972).
Maturity

By the latter part of the nineteenth century

all vestiges of mystery and distrust of com
plex numbers could be said to have disap
peared, although a lack of confidence in
them persisted among some textbook wri
ters well
into the twentieth century. These
authors would
often supplement proofs
using imaginary numbers with proofs that
did not involve them. Complex numbers
could now be viewed in the following ways :

1. Points or vectors in the plane

2. Ordered pairs of real numbers
Karl FriedrichGauss
3. Operators (i.e., rotations of vectors in
(1777-1855)
Courtesy of Dover Publications the plane)
4. Numbers of the form a + bi, with a and 6
Cambridge set for themselves the task of real numbers
determining that logic by codifying the
5. Polynomials with real coefficients
laws of operation with numbers. Although 2
modulo + 1
their endeavor did not satisfactorily resolve
6. Matrices of the form
the problem of the complex numbers, it was
perhaps the earliest instance of "axio
matics"
By
in algebra.
1831 Gauss hadovercome his scru
[-: a
with a and 6 real numbers
ples concerning complex numbers and, in 7. An field
algebraically closed, complete
connection with a work on number theory,
(This is an early twentieth-century
published his results on the geometric rep
view.)
resentation of complex numbers as points in
the plane. Similar representations by the Although the preceding various ways of
Norwegian surveyor Caspar Wessel in 1797 viewing the complex numbers might seem
and by the Swiss clerk Jean-Robert Argand confusing rather than enlightening, it is of
in 1806 went largely unnoticed. The geo
metric representation, given Gauss's stamp
of approval, dispelled much of the mystery
surrounding complex numbers. In the next
two decades further developments took
place. In 1833 William Rowan Hamilton
gave an essentially rigorous algebraic defi
nition of complex numbers as pairs of real
numbers. (To Hamilton the complex number
(a, b) consisted of a pair of "moments of
time," since he had earlier defined real
numbers, under Immanuel Kant's influence,
as "moments of time.") In 1847 Augustin
Louis Cauchy gave a completely rigorous
and abstract definition of complex numbers
William Rowan Hamilton
in terms of congruence classes of real poly
2 (1805-1865)
nomials modulo + 1. In this, Cauchy Courtesy of Dover Publications

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course commonplace in mathematics to The descriptions of such developments
gain a better understanding of a given con are rather technical. Only the barest of il
cept, result, or theory by viewing it in as lustrations can be given :
many contexts and from as many points of
(1) In algebra, the solution of poly
view as possible.
nomial equations motivated the introduc
The foregoing descriptions of complex
tion of complex numbers: Every equation
numbers are not the end of the story.
with complex coefficients has a complex
Various developments in mathematics in
root?the so-called fundamental theorem of
the nineteenth century enable us to gain a their use in the solution of
algebra. Beyond
deeper insight into the role of complex the com
algebraic polynomial equations,
numbers in mathematics and in other areas.
plex numbers offer an example of an alge
Thus, complex numbers offer just the right to which
braically closed field, relative
setting for dealing with many problems in
many problems in linear algebra and other
mathematics in such diverse areas as al
areas of abstract algebra have their "natu
gebra, analysis, geometry, and number
ral" solution.
theory. They have a symmetry and com
in such (2) In analysis, the nineteenth century
pleteness that is often lacking
as saw the development of a powerful and
mathematical systems the integers and
who beautiful branch of mathematics, namely
real numbers. Some of the masters
made fundamental contributions to these complex function theory. We have already
areas seen how the use of complex numbers gave
say it best: The following three quo
us deeper insight into the logarithmic, ex
tations are by Gauss in 1801, Riemann in
ponential, and trigonometric functions.
1851, and Hadamard in the 1890s, respec
Moreover, we can evaluate real integrals
tively :
by means of complex function theory. One
indication of the efficacy of the theory is
that a function in the complex domain is
once
One gains a better infinitely differentiate if differ
entiable. Such a result is, of course, false in
understanding of a given the case of functions of a real variable (e.g.,
concept, result, or theory =
f(x) *4/3).
by viewing it in as many (3) The complex numbers lend symmetry
contexts and from as many and generality in the formulation and de
points of view as possible. scription of various branches of geometry,
for example, Euclidean, inversive, and non
Euclidean. Thus, by the introduction of
ideal points into the plane any two circles
... would in beauty and bal
Analysis lose immensely can now be said to intersect at two points.
ance and would be forced to add very hampering re
strictions to truths which would hold generally other
This idea aids in the formulation and proof
wise, if... imaginary quantities were to be neglected. of many results. As another example, Gauss
used the complex numbers to show that the
(Birkhoff1973)
regular polygon of seventeen sides is con
The origin and immediate purpose of the introduction
of complex magnitudes into mathematics
structible with straightedge and compass.
lie in the
theory of simple laws of dependence between variable (4) In number theory, certain Diophan
magnitudes expressed by means of operations on mag
tine can be solved neatly and
nitudes. If we enlarge the scope of applications of equations
these laws by assigning to the variables conceptually by the use of complex num
they involve
complex values, then there appears an otherwise bers. For example, the equation x2 + 2 = y3,
hidden harmony and regularity. ? =
when expressed as (x + y3,
y/2i)(x s/2i)
(Ebbinghaus 1983) can readily be solved, in integers, using
The shortest between two truths in the real properties of the complex domain consist
path
domain passes through the complex domain. ing of the set of elements of the form
(Kline 1972) a + with a and b integers.
by/2i,

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 (5) An elementary illustration of Hada story and others like itmay furnish us with
mard's dictum that "the shortest path be a slightly better understanding of the
tween two truths in the real domain passes nature and evolution of the mathematical
through the complex domain" is supplied enterprise. It addresses such themes or
by the following proof that the product of issues as the following :
sums of two squares of integers is again a
(1) The meaning of number in mathemat
sum of two squares of integers ; that is,
ics. Complex numbers do not fit readily into
= u2 + students' notions of what a number is. And,
(a2 + 62)(c2 + d2) 2,
of course, the meaning of number has
for some integers u and v. For, over the centuries. This
changed story pre
sents a somewhat better perspective on this
(a2 + b2)(c2+ d2)
= (a + bi)(a ? bi)(c + di)(c - di) issue. It also leads to the question of wheth
= [(a + bi)(c + di)X(a - bi)(c - er numbers beyond the complex numbers
di)~]
= ? exist.
(u + vi)(u vi)
= U2 + V2.

Try to prove this result without the use of

Complex numbers offer the
complex numbers and without being given
the u and in terms of a, b, c, and d.
right setting for dealing
with many problems in
to their fundamental uses in
In addition mathematics in such diverse
mathematics, some of which were pre areas as algebra, analysis,
viously indicated, complex numbers have and number
become a fixture in science and technology. geometry, theory.
For example, they are used in quantum me
chanics and in electric circuitry. The "im (2) The relative roles of physical needs
possible" has become not only possible but and intellectual curiosity as motivating fac
indispensable. tors in the development of mathematics. In
this connection it should be pointed out
The Moral that the problem of the solution of the
cubic, which motivated the introduction of
Why the history of mathematics? Why
complex numbers, was not a practical prob
bother with such "stories" as this one? Ed
wards (1974) puts it in a nutshell :
lem. Mathematicians already knew how to
find approximate roots of cubic equations.
Although the study of the history of mathematics has
an intrinsic appeal of its own, its chief raison d'etre is
The issue was to find a theoretical alge
surely the illumination of mathematics itself. braic formula for the solution of the
cubic?a question without any practical
My colleague Abe Shenitzer expresses it as
consequences. Yet how useful did the com
follows : re
plex numbers turn out to be! This is a
One can invent mathematics without knowing much of curring theme in the evolution of math
its history. One can use mathematics without knowing
ematics.
much, if any, of its history. But one cannot have a
mature appreciation of mathematics without a substan
(3) The relative roles of intuition and
tial knowledge of its history.
logic in the evolution of mathematics. Rigor,
is essential for the teach formalism, and the logical development of a
Such appreciation
er to possess. It can provide him or her with concept or result usually come at the end of

and a process of mathematical evolution. For

insight, motivation, perspective?
crucial ingredients in the making of a good complex numbers, too, first came use (theo
teacher. Of course, whether this story has retical rather than practical), then intuitive

in achieving these objectives in understanding, and finally abstract justi

succeeded
relation to the complex numbers is for the fication.
reader to judge. However, beyond the im (4) The nature of proof in mathematics.
mediate objective of lending insight, this This question is related to the preceding

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 item. But although (3) addresses the evolu
tion of complex numbers in its broad fea
tures, this item deals with local questions
of proof and rigor in establishing various
results about complex numbers (cf., e.g., the
derivation of the value of logi by von Leib
niz and Bernoulli). One thing is certain?
what was acceptable as a proof in the sev
enteenth and eighteenth centuries was no
longer acceptable in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. The concept of proof in
mathematics has evolved over time, as it is
still evolving, and not necessarily from the
less to the more rigorous proof (cf. the
recent proof, by means of the computer, of
the four-color conjecture). Philip Davis
goes a step further in outlining the evolu
tion of mathematical ideas (Davis 1965):
It is paradoxical that while mathematics has the repu
tation of being the one subject that brooks no contra
George P?lya
in reality it has a long history of successful
(1887-1985)
dictions, of Birkh?user
Courtesy Boston
living with contradictions. This is best seen in the ex
tensions of the notion of number that have been made
over a period of 2500 years. From limited sets of in
from? Why would anyone have bothered
tegers, to infinite sets of integers, to fractions, nega
tive numbers, irrational numbers, numbers,
with it? These are fascinating questions,
complex
transfinite numbers, each extension, in its way, over and the teacher should at least be aware of
came a contradictory set of demands.
the answers to such questions. When and
(5) The relative roles of the individual how he or she uses them in the classroom is
and the environment in the creation of math another matter. On this matter George
ematics. What was the role of Bombelli as P?lya (1962) says the following:
an individual in the creation of complex race has acquired
Having understood how the human
numbers? Cardan surely had the op the knowledge of certain facts or concepts, we are in a
better position to judge how the human child should
portunity to take the great and courageous
acquire such knowledge.
step of "thinking the unthinkable." Was
the time perhaps not ripe for Cardan, but Can we not at least have a better
ap
ripe for Bombelli about thirty years later? preciation of students' difficulties with
the
Is it the case, as John Bolyai stated, that concept of complex numbers, having wit
"mathematical discoveries, like springtime nessed mathematicians of the first rank
violets in the woods, have their season make mistakes, "prove" erroneous theo
which no human can hasten or retard" rems, and often come to the right con
(Kline 1972)? This conclusion certainly clusions for insufficient or invalid reasons?
seems to be borne out by many instances of
Some Suggestions for the Teacher
independent and simultaneous discoveries
in mathematics, such as the geometric rep Let me conclude with some comments on,
resentation of complex numbers by Wessel, and suggestions for, the use of the history
and Gauss. The complex numbers of mathematics in the teaching of math
Argand,
are an case ematics, in particular with reference to
interesting study of such
to which, of course, we have no complex numbers. Many of the points are
questions,
definitive answers. implicit in the preceding story.

(6) The genetic principle in mathematics (1) I first want to reiterate what I view
education. What are the sources of a given as the major contribution of this story for
concept or theorem? Where did it come the teacher. P?lya (1962) puts it very well :

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To teach effectively a teacher must develop a feeling issue of motivation. To some students the
for his subject; he cannot make his students sense its
applications of a theorem are appealing; to
vitality if he does not sense it himself. He cannot
share his enthusiasm when he has no enthusiasm to others, the appeal is in the inner logical
share. How he makes his point may be as important as structure of the theorem. A third factor,
the point he makes; he must feel it to be
personally useful but often neglected, is the source of
important.
the theorem: How did it arise? What moti
Theobjective of my story, then, is to vated mathematicians to introduce it?With
give the teacher some feeling for complex complex numbers, their origin in the solu
numbers, to imbue him or her with some tion of the cubic, rather than the quadratic,
enthusiasm for complex numbers. should be stressed. Cardan's attempted divi
When it comes to suggestions for class sion of ten into two parts whose product is
room use, it cannot be overemphasized that forty reinforces this point. How much fur
these are only suggestions. The teacher, of ther one continues with the historical ac
course, can better judge when and how, at count is adecision better made by the
what level, and in what context to intro teacher in the classroom, bearing in mind
duce and relate historical material to the the lessons that should be conveyed
discussion at hand. The introduction of his through this or similar historical material.
torical material can, however, convey to (6) Historical projects deriving from
the student the following important lessons, this story about complex numbers can be
which are usually not imparted through the
given to able students as topics for research
standard curriculum. and presentation to, say, a mathematics
club. Possible topics are the following :

(a) The logarithms of negative and com

In the evolution of
plex numbers.
complex numbers, first came
(6) What is a number? That is, discuss
use, then intuitive the evolution of various number systems
understanding, and finally and the evolution of our conception of what
abstract justification. a number is.

(c) Hypercomplex numbers (e.g., the

quaternions). Their discovery is another
(2) Mathematics is far from a static, life
fascinating story.
less discipline. It is dynamic, constantly
(d) Gauss's congruences of integers and
evolving, full of failures as well as achieve
Cauchy's congruences of polynomials. The
ments.
latter lead to a new definition (description)
(3) Observation, analogy, induction, and
of complex numbers.
intuition are the initial and often the more
of acquiring mathematical (e) An axiomatic characterization of
natural ways
numbers (see (7) under the heading
knowledge. Rigor and proof usually come at complex
the end of the process. "Maturity"). In this connection we ought
to discuss the notion of characterizing a
(4) Mathematicians usually create their
mathematical system, and thus the concept
subject without thought of practical appli
of isomorphism. (Cf. the various equivalent
cations. The latter, if any, come later, some
later. This point relates to descriptions of complex numbers discussed
times centuries
"immediate relevance" and to "instant previously.)

gratification," which students often seek (7) Many elementary and interesting il
from any given topic presented in class. lustrations of Hadamard's comment demon

(5) We must, of course, supply the stu strate that "the shortest path between two
dent with "internal relevance" when intro truths in the real domain passes through
ducing a given concept or result. This point the complex domain." We are referring to
brings us to the important and difficult elementary results from various branches of

October 1988 591

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 whose statements do S. "Complex Numbers: An Example of
mathematics, results Jones, Phillip
Recurring Themes in the Development of
not contain complex numbers but whose Mathematics?I?III.
"
Mathematics Teacher 47 (Feb
"best" proofs often use complex numbers. ruary, April, May 1954):106-14, 257-63, 340-45.
One such example was given previously. Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to
Modern Times. New York: Oxford University Press,
Some others by Cell (1950), Jones
(1954), 1972.
and the NCTM (1969) can be found in the
Leapfrogs: Imaginary Logarithms. Fordham, Ely,
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592 Mathematics Teacher

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