GENBIO 2: MIDTERM REVIEWER

MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Genetics and Heredity - biological inheritance
Genetics - study of heredity
Theory of Blending Inheritance - theory before about genetics; Mendel disapproved this because
of the presence of dominant and recessive traits
Johann Gregor Mendel - Father of Genetics
- used pea plant as his model system
Phenotype - Physical characteristic, observable trait
Genotype - genetic make up of organism
Homozygous - pair of identical alleles; true breed; eg. RR, rr
Heterozygous - two different alleles for a gene; eg. Rr
Characteristic - heritable feature; eg. Height
Gene - determinant of a characteristics of an organism; Mendelian factor
Trait - variant for a character (types); eg. Tall, intermediate, short
Dominant - trait expressed, visible; eg. (R)
Recessive - trait covered; eg. (r)
Allele - version of a gene; portion of a gene; alternative form of trait
Cross - mating, fusion of gemetes
Monohybrid Cross - 2 alleles in single gene locus segregate; eg. RR x rr
Dihybrid Cross - 2 different gene loci segregate independently; eg. RrYy x RrYy
Locus - specific place on chromosome where gene is located
P Generation - parental
F1 Generation - first filial generation; offspring of P gen
F2 Gen - second filial generation; offspring from interbreeding of F1 gen
Mendel’s Experiments:
1. True breed garden peas; identical; parental generation; YY x yy (only dominant) (homozygous)
2. Cross pollinate F1 generation; presence of dominant and recessive allele (heterozygous)
3. Combine two different traits; RRYY x rryy
Two Principles of Heredity:
Law of Segregation - only one gene of a pair is distributed to each gamete; like cross multiplying.
Occurs during process of sex cell formation (meiosis)
Eg. RrYy = RY, Ry, rY, ry
Law of Independent Assortment - genes of different traits may assort independently of one
another. Different pairs of alleles are passed independently.
Three Important Conclusions of Mendel:
A. Inheritance of each trait is determined by genes
B. An individual inherits one gene/unit from each parent for each trait
C. Trait may not show but can still be passed on
Punnett Square - calculate the probability of inheriting a specific trait; by Reginald Punnett; to
discover all potential combinations of genotypes

NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
- tells that not all traits have simple dominant/recessive traits.
TYPES:
1. Incomplete dominance
- happens when allele is not completely dominant over the other allele. Blending to be
intermediate. Shows heterozygous phenotype intermediate between two homo pheno.
Eg. RR x WW = RW (Pink)
2. Co-dominance
- both alleles are present to the phenotype of organism. Combines parent’s phenotype where
both are visible
Eg. B(black) x W(White) = BW(Speckled with black and white)
3. Multiple Alleles
- having more than two phenotypes for a particular trait. Example is the human blood type: ABO
Reproduction - allows us to produce new individuals to add to our population.
PEDIGREE
- diagram that shows occurrence of a particular genetic trait passed from generations in a
family. Genetic family trees.
- Purpose: to have an easy to read chart that depicts a particular characteristic or disorder in an
individual. Determine probability of a child having a disorder. Also crucial in animals selectively
bred for specific characteristics.
Autosomal - 50:50 ratio between males and females affected
X-linked - most males are affected
Dominant - one of the parents must have the disorder
Recessive - neither parents have it

CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE - basic underlying principle in genetics; flow of genetic information
Sequence involves in regulating hereditary characteristics: DNA - RNA - Protein = DNA codes for
RNA, which codes for proteins
Protein Synthesis - continuously creating new proteins
Protein - sequence of amino acids
Three Steps:
A. Replication - DNA replication ensures each cell has a complete set of DNA molecules during
cell division. DNA makes a copy of itself. Semiconservative in nature.
*A pairs with T, G = C, C = G, T = A, A = U(in RNA)
Helicase - enzyme that splits two strand
Replication Fork - structure created in splitting
RNA Primase - attract RNA nucleotides - primers(starters) for binding DNA nucleotides
3’-5’ - leading strand; DNA polymerase can read
5’-3’ - cannot be read, lagging strand - RNA primase adds more RNA primers
Okazaki Fragments - gap between two RNA primers
DNA Pol I exonuclease - reads fragments and removes the RNA primers in lagging strand
DNA polymerase - fills the gaps
Nucleases - remove the wrong nucleotides
Telomeres - ends of linear DNA consist of noncoding DNA containing repeat sequence
B. Genetic Transcription - process by which mRNA is synthesized based on the DNA template.
Copying the code from DNA; takes place in nucleus
RNA polymerase - reads DNA and makes mRNA
Promoter - a region where enzyme RNA polymerase binds
C. Translation - process of protein synthesis by ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmin
reticulum, specifically in the ribosomes which facilitate the translation.
- single stranded RNA acts as template
tRNA - carries particular amino acid
Polypeptide - a specific amino acid chain after mRNA is decoded
(refer to m3 for steps)

RECOMBINANT DNA: STEPS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING

Biotechnology - use of organisms and their components in generating valuable products.
Genetic Manipulation - enables the operation and engineering of genes and gene products of
any organism.
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) - animal or plant that has been changed
DNA - contains all genetic information determining traits and characteristics
Genetic Engineering - engineer a set of genetic changes directly into an organisms DNA for the
first time.
- Aims to help humans fight famine and other societal problems
- organisms DNA is modified using technology
STEPS:
1. Selecting and isolating the candidate gene/ Gene extraction and Isolation
- Gene of interest - high GC content, lower repetitive DNA sequence, can be isolated using
restriction digestion or polymerase chain reaction.
Restriction endonucleases - bacterial enzymes digest DNA sequences in specific locus.
2. Selection and construction of plasmid/ Gene construct
Plasmid DNA - circular, double stranded cytoplasmic DNA that replicate independently
- vehicle for transferring the gene of interest to the target location.
Ligase - power sealer
E. Coli - common bacterial host
Human DNA + Bacterial Plasmid DNA = Recombinant DNA
3. Transformation into the host genome/ DNA Insertion
- transporting the recombinant DNAN into the recipient cell or the host genome.
Methods:
A. Microinjection - sharp needle
B. Electroporation - electrical current
C. Sonication - ultrasonic waves
4. Confirmation of insert
Polymerase Chain Reaction - copies DNA billions of times for detection and quantitation.
APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
1. Health and Diseases - treating diseases and improving health conditions
A. Gene Therapy - uses gene to treat or prevent disease.
B. Vaccines and Recombinant Hormones - eg. Production of insulin
2. Environment
A. Phytoremediation and Plant Resistance Development - use of plants to remove, transform,
clean up or stabilize contaminants
B. Energy Applications - mediate hydrogen production
3. Food and Agriculture -
(refer to m5)

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE - calendar for events in Earth history; intervals on the basis of the rocks
(sedimentary rocks) formed within them. A means of measuring the history of the Earth
Law of Superposition - layers in rocks
1. EONS - largest, first three are called Precambrian
A. Hadean - oldest, beneath the Earth
B. Archean - origin, first life form
C. Proterozoic - transition to oxygen, multicelled organism
D. Phanerozoic - visible evidence of life, diversification, contain Eras
2. ERAS - within Phanerozoic, next largest interval unit
3. PERIOD - third unit, smaller, inside each Era
A. Paleozoic - old life
1. Cambrian - Explosion of evolution; Cambrian Explosion - diversification of species
2. Ordovician - colonizing of a barren land, Ordovician extinction
3. Silurian - First breath of air, first plants
4. Devonian - age of fishes and forests, Devonian extinction
5. Carboniferous - age of bugs, large underground coal deposit
6. Permian - age of amphibians, climate change = species evolve, semiaquatic at top, greatest
dying transforms face of the Earth, Permian Triassic extinction
B. Mesozoic - middle, rise and fall of dinosaurs
1. Triassic - Rise of the Dinosaurs
2. Jurassic - Land of the Giants, Jura in European Alps
3. Cretaceous - Age of Tyrants, rise and fall of dinosaurs, Pangaea cracks, Cretaceous-
Tertiary extinction
C. Cenozoic - new life
1. Paleogene - ancient born; rise of mammals
A. Paleocene - placental animals and birds
B. Eocene - modern groups of mammal, perissodactyls and artiodactyls
C. Oligocene - Antarctic was warm, hell pig, first cat
2. Neogene
A. Miocene - increased seasonal variation and global coolin tend
B. Pliocene - appearance of Lake Idaho, horse Equus simplicidens
3. Quarternary - age of mammals
A. Pleistocene - most recent Ice ages, mammoths, Neanderthals
B. Holocene - last ice age, agricultural revolution, Holocene extinction event, humans dominate

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE

Evolution - change in heritable characteristics
Charles Darwin - Father of Evolution
*Any variation in a population is due to the changes in our DNA
*Leading indicator of the appearance of new species is the inability of the later generation and
the original species to mate and produce fertile offspring.
Microevolution - small scale, changes in allele frequencies within a single population
Mutation - ultimate source of new alleles in a gene pool
General Drift & Natural Selection - most relevant
1. Natural Selection - environment; change of heritable traits over a period of time
Fitness - ability of individual to survive and reproduce in a specific environment
Types:
A. Directional - only one extreme trait, more extreme traits thrives more, highest or lowest
B. Stabilizing - average form of a trait have the highest fitness; normal/average
C. Disruptive/DIversifying - either extreme variation of a trait have greater fitness; both
extremes
2. Artificial Selection - alteration because of people; intentional breeding of plants or animals;
eg. Genetic engineering, GMO
3. Genetic Drift - change in allele due to chance event; base on probability or luck
A. Population bottleneck - sudden sharp decline in the population (usually natural disasters)
B. Founder effect - loss of genetic variation because of migration, have a mother population
4. Mutation - change in the structure of a gene caused by alterations in the DNA sequence of an
organism, neutral or beneficial
5. Recombination - rearrangement of genes, naturally occurs during crossing over in meiosis,
DNA exchanged between homologous chromosomes; different characteristics