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    GENBIO 2 Midterm Reviewer - JMDP

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    Jhianne Mylz Parañal
    1. Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance through experiments with pea plants including the law of segregation and independent assortment. He found that traits are determined by genes which segregate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization. 2. Non-Mendelian inheritance includes incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and multiple alleles where traits are not solely dominant or recessive. 3. The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is replicated, genes are transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to synthesize proteins.

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    GENBIO 2 Midterm Reviewer - JMDP

    Uploaded by

    Jhianne Mylz Parañal
    132 views4 pages
    1. Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance through experiments with pea plants including the law of segregation and independent assortment. He found that traits are determined by genes which segregate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization. 2. Non-Mendelian inheritance includes incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and multiple alleles where traits are not solely dominant or recessive. 3. The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is replicated, genes are transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to synthesize proteins.

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    GENBIO 2 Midterm Reviewer_JMDP

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    1. Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance through experiments with pea plants including the law of segregation and independent assortment. He found that traits are determined by genes which segregate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization. 2. Non-Mendelian inheritance includes incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and multiple alleles where traits are not solely dominant or recessive. 3. The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is replicated, genes are transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to synthesize proteins.

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    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    132 views4 pages

    GENBIO 2 Midterm Reviewer - JMDP

    Uploaded by

    Jhianne Mylz Parañal
    1. Mendel discovered the laws of inheritance through experiments with pea plants including the law of segregation and independent assortment. He found that traits are determined by genes which segregate and assort independently during gamete formation and fertilization. 2. Non-Mendelian inheritance includes incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and multiple alleles where traits are not solely dominant or recessive. 3. The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. DNA is replicated, genes are transcribed to mRNA which is then translated to synthesize proteins.

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    GENBIO 2: MIDTERM REVIEWER

    MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE


    Genetics and Heredity - biological inheritance
    Genetics - study of heredity
    Theory of Blending Inheritance - theory before about genetics; Mendel disapproved this because
    of the presence of dominant and recessive traits
    Johann Gregor Mendel - Father of Genetics
    - used pea plant as his model system
    Phenotype - Physical characteristic, observable trait
    Genotype - genetic make up of organism
    Homozygous - pair of identical alleles; true breed; eg. RR, rr
    Heterozygous - two different alleles for a gene; eg. Rr
    Characteristic - heritable feature; eg. Height
    Gene - determinant of a characteristics of an organism; Mendelian factor
    Trait - variant for a character (types); eg. Tall, intermediate, short
    Dominant - trait expressed, visible; eg. (R)
    Recessive - trait covered; eg. (r)
    Allele - version of a gene; portion of a gene; alternative form of trait
    Cross - mating, fusion of gemetes
    Monohybrid Cross - 2 alleles in single gene locus segregate; eg. RR x rr
    Dihybrid Cross - 2 different gene loci segregate independently; eg. RrYy x RrYy
    Locus - specific place on chromosome where gene is located
    P Generation - parental
    F1 Generation - first filial generation; offspring of P gen
    F2 Gen - second filial generation; offspring from interbreeding of F1 gen
    Mendel’s Experiments:
    1. True breed garden peas; identical; parental generation; YY x yy (only dominant) (homozygous)
    2. Cross pollinate F1 generation; presence of dominant and recessive allele (heterozygous)
    3. Combine two different traits; RRYY x rryy
    Two Principles of Heredity:
    Law of Segregation - only one gene of a pair is distributed to each gamete; like cross multiplying.
    Occurs during process of sex cell formation (meiosis)
    Eg. RrYy = RY, Ry, rY, ry
    Law of Independent Assortment - genes of different traits may assort independently of one
    another. Different pairs of alleles are passed independently.
    Three Important Conclusions of Mendel:
    A. Inheritance of each trait is determined by genes
    B. An individual inherits one gene/unit from each parent for each trait
    C. Trait may not show but can still be passed on
    Punnett Square - calculate the probability of inheriting a specific trait; by Reginald Punnett; to
    discover all potential combinations of genotypes

    NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
    - tells that not all traits have simple dominant/recessive traits.
    TYPES:
    1. Incomplete dominance
    - happens when allele is not completely dominant over the other allele. Blending to be
    intermediate. Shows heterozygous phenotype intermediate between two homo pheno.
    Eg. RR x WW = RW (Pink)
    2. Co-dominance
    - both alleles are present to the phenotype of organism. Combines parent’s phenotype where
    both are visible
    Eg. B(black) x W(White) = BW(Speckled with black and white)
    3. Multiple Alleles
    - having more than two phenotypes for a particular trait. Example is the human blood type: ABO
    Reproduction - allows us to produce new individuals to add to our population.
    PEDIGREE
    - diagram that shows occurrence of a particular genetic trait passed from generations in a
    family. Genetic family trees.
    - Purpose: to have an easy to read chart that depicts a particular characteristic or disorder in an
    individual. Determine probability of a child having a disorder. Also crucial in animals selectively
    bred for specific characteristics.
    Autosomal - 50:50 ratio between males and females affected
    X-linked - most males are affected
    Dominant - one of the parents must have the disorder
    Recessive - neither parents have it

    CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE - basic underlying principle in genetics; flow of genetic information
    Sequence involves in regulating hereditary characteristics: DNA - RNA - Protein = DNA codes for
    RNA, which codes for proteins
    Protein Synthesis - continuously creating new proteins
    Protein - sequence of amino acids
    Three Steps:
    A. Replication - DNA replication ensures each cell has a complete set of DNA molecules during
    cell division. DNA makes a copy of itself. Semiconservative in nature.
    *A pairs with T, G = C, C = G, T = A, A = U(in RNA)
    Helicase - enzyme that splits two strand
    Replication Fork - structure created in splitting
    RNA Primase - attract RNA nucleotides - primers(starters) for binding DNA nucleotides
    3’-5’ - leading strand; DNA polymerase can read
    5’-3’ - cannot be read, lagging strand - RNA primase adds more RNA primers
    Okazaki Fragments - gap between two RNA primers
    DNA Pol I exonuclease - reads fragments and removes the RNA primers in lagging strand
    DNA polymerase - fills the gaps
    Nucleases - remove the wrong nucleotides
    Telomeres - ends of linear DNA consist of noncoding DNA containing repeat sequence
    B. Genetic Transcription - process by which mRNA is synthesized based on the DNA template.
    Copying the code from DNA; takes place in nucleus
    RNA polymerase - reads DNA and makes mRNA
    Promoter - a region where enzyme RNA polymerase binds
    C. Translation - process of protein synthesis by ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmin
    reticulum, specifically in the ribosomes which facilitate the translation.
    - single stranded RNA acts as template
    tRNA - carries particular amino acid
    Polypeptide - a specific amino acid chain after mRNA is decoded
    (refer to m3 for steps)

    RECOMBINANT DNA: STEPS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING


    Biotechnology - use of organisms and their components in generating valuable products.
    Genetic Manipulation - enables the operation and engineering of genes and gene products of
    any organism.
    Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) - animal or plant that has been changed
    DNA - contains all genetic information determining traits and characteristics
    Genetic Engineering - engineer a set of genetic changes directly into an organisms DNA for the
    first time.
    - Aims to help humans fight famine and other societal problems
    - organisms DNA is modified using technology
    STEPS:
    1. Selecting and isolating the candidate gene/ Gene extraction and Isolation
    - Gene of interest - high GC content, lower repetitive DNA sequence, can be isolated using
    restriction digestion or polymerase chain reaction.
    Restriction endonucleases - bacterial enzymes digest DNA sequences in specific locus.
    2. Selection and construction of plasmid/ Gene construct
    Plasmid DNA - circular, double stranded cytoplasmic DNA that replicate independently
    - vehicle for transferring the gene of interest to the target location.
    Ligase - power sealer
    E. Coli - common bacterial host
    Human DNA + Bacterial Plasmid DNA = Recombinant DNA
    3. Transformation into the host genome/ DNA Insertion
    - transporting the recombinant DNAN into the recipient cell or the host genome.
    Methods:
    A. Microinjection - sharp needle
    B. Electroporation - electrical current
    C. Sonication - ultrasonic waves
    4. Confirmation of insert
    Polymerase Chain Reaction - copies DNA billions of times for detection and quantitation.
    APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
    1. Health and Diseases - treating diseases and improving health conditions
    A. Gene Therapy - uses gene to treat or prevent disease.
    B. Vaccines and Recombinant Hormones - eg. Production of insulin
    2. Environment
    A. Phytoremediation and Plant Resistance Development - use of plants to remove, transform,
    clean up or stabilize contaminants
    B. Energy Applications - mediate hydrogen production
    3. Food and Agriculture -
    (refer to m5)

    GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE - calendar for events in Earth history; intervals on the basis of the rocks
    (sedimentary rocks) formed within them. A means of measuring the history of the Earth
    Law of Superposition - layers in rocks
    1. EONS - largest, first three are called Precambrian
    A. Hadean - oldest, beneath the Earth
    B. Archean - origin, first life form
    C. Proterozoic - transition to oxygen, multicelled organism
    D. Phanerozoic - visible evidence of life, diversification, contain Eras
    2. ERAS - within Phanerozoic, next largest interval unit
    3. PERIOD - third unit, smaller, inside each Era
    A. Paleozoic - old life
    1. Cambrian - Explosion of evolution; Cambrian Explosion - diversification of species
    2. Ordovician - colonizing of a barren land, Ordovician extinction
    3. Silurian - First breath of air, first plants
    4. Devonian - age of fishes and forests, Devonian extinction
    5. Carboniferous - age of bugs, large underground coal deposit
    6. Permian - age of amphibians, climate change = species evolve, semiaquatic at top, greatest
    dying transforms face of the Earth, Permian Triassic extinction
    B. Mesozoic - middle, rise and fall of dinosaurs
    1. Triassic - Rise of the Dinosaurs
    2. Jurassic - Land of the Giants, Jura in European Alps
    3. Cretaceous - Age of Tyrants, rise and fall of dinosaurs, Pangaea cracks, Cretaceous-
    Tertiary extinction
    C. Cenozoic - new life
    1. Paleogene - ancient born; rise of mammals
    A. Paleocene - placental animals and birds
    B. Eocene - modern groups of mammal, perissodactyls and artiodactyls
    C. Oligocene - Antarctic was warm, hell pig, first cat
    2. Neogene
    A. Miocene - increased seasonal variation and global coolin tend
    B. Pliocene - appearance of Lake Idaho, horse Equus simplicidens
    3. Quarternary - age of mammals
    A. Pleistocene - most recent Ice ages, mammoths, Neanderthals
    B. Holocene - last ice age, agricultural revolution, Holocene extinction event, humans dominate

    MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE


    Evolution - change in heritable characteristics
    Charles Darwin - Father of Evolution
    *Any variation in a population is due to the changes in our DNA
    *Leading indicator of the appearance of new species is the inability of the later generation and
    the original species to mate and produce fertile offspring.
    Microevolution - small scale, changes in allele frequencies within a single population
    Mutation - ultimate source of new alleles in a gene pool
    General Drift & Natural Selection - most relevant
    1. Natural Selection - environment; change of heritable traits over a period of time
    Fitness - ability of individual to survive and reproduce in a specific environment
    Types:
    A. Directional - only one extreme trait, more extreme traits thrives more, highest or lowest
    B. Stabilizing - average form of a trait have the highest fitness; normal/average
    C. Disruptive/DIversifying - either extreme variation of a trait have greater fitness; both
    extremes
    2. Artificial Selection - alteration because of people; intentional breeding of plants or animals;
    eg. Genetic engineering, GMO
    3. Genetic Drift - change in allele due to chance event; base on probability or luck
    A. Population bottleneck - sudden sharp decline in the population (usually natural disasters)
    B. Founder effect - loss of genetic variation because of migration, have a mother population
    4. Mutation - change in the structure of a gene caused by alterations in the DNA sequence of an
    organism, neutral or beneficial
    5. Recombination - rearrangement of genes, naturally occurs during crossing over in meiosis,
    DNA exchanged between homologous chromosomes; different characteristics

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