2 Justin Glessner, North American Adaptations of Vinaya (30 October 2009). <https://utmosts.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/sample-essay.pdf >
3 The ‘Doctrine of the Elders.’ 4 Rules of discipline governing the Sangha. 5 Collection of Pali commentaries on Theravada Tipitaka Vinaya. 6 Pali commentary.
7 Commentaries.
1 day needs of monastics in areas such as handling money, attitude toward
sex and alcohol, ordination and consumer life styles.
Vinaya Rules
During Buddha’s lifetime as the monastic order grew so did impure
motives of the monks in the Sangha (monastic community).8 Seeing this
transformation, Buddha deemed it necessary to establish prohibiting rules
to abolish impure actions, and hence created vinaya Tripitaka.9 The
interpretations of the Tripitaka, composed of three parts: the Sutras or
teachings of the Buddha, the Abhidharma10 and the Vinaya or rules of
monastic conduct11 were made in order to adapt to conditions of distinct
environmental and cultural conditions. Therefore, vinaya can be seen as a
set of rules or a code of conduct meant to govern the sangha.
Minor Modifications Approved By Buddha
Before Buddha's Parinibbana (nirvana after death), he had permitted
Ananda (disciple) that it was okay for the Sangha to amend or modify
some minor rules. 12 Nevertheless, overpowered with grief of the demise
8 Glessner, above n 34.
9 Three baskets of Pali Canon. 10 Higher teachings.
11 The Vinaya in Modern Times (26 May 2011) Protecting Nyingma: Setting the Record Straight. < https://protectingnyingma2.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/the-vinaya-in-modern- times/>
12 W Rahula, Theravada-Mahayana Buddhism: From Gems of Buddhist Wisdom – Buddhist
2 of the Buddha, Ananda had not asked the Master what the minor rules
were.13 For example, there was no urgency to change the Vinaya rules a
few months after the Parinibbana of the Buddha as little or no political,
economic or social changes had occurred, However, a hundred years
later, the Second Council monks had agreed that change in certain minor
rules was essential.14 Perhaps the reason for the continuous survival of
Buddhism in and beyond Asia is because the Buddha did not make a
‘rigid, draconian code’ but had left the interpretation of the Vinaya rules
to the monks in each generation.15
Circumstances Initiate Change
It was the Buddha’s intention to keep Buddhism alive and contemporary
with the allowance to make minor adjustments to the Vinaya rules. It is
not surprising that Vinaya differs greatly from tradition to tradition, For
example, Tibetan Buddhists allows its followers to eat meat and to eat
after noon, while in the Theravada tradition prohibits it.16 Similarly, in
Missionary Society (1996) UrbanDharma.org.
<http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/theramaya.html> 13 Ibid 14 Ibid 15 Swarna Wickremeratne, Buddha in Sri Lanka: Remembered Yesterdays (State University Of York, 2006) 183.
16 The Vinaya in Modern Times, above n 43.
3 the Japanese Zen tradition, monks do not adhere to the vow of celibacy
because of some political decision of the Meiji era.17
Buddha wanted his religion to be a modern path, something which people
could relate to and identify with at any given time thus his approval of
changes in Vinaya. For instance, he himself rebelled against the Hindu
perversions (caste system/ subordination of the lay by Brahmin priests) of
his time. Although deeply influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism dropped
all corruption and unreasonableness of Hindu traditional ideologies.18
Globalization, improvements in transportation and effective
communication with other Theravada Buddhist countries will surely
change the image of the Buddhist monk.19 For example, Sri Lankan
monks in urban areas are involved with drug rehabilitation programs and
counseling after the ethnic Sinhalese versus the Tamil wars. These factors
have contributed to monks having to reinvent themselves to suit social,
political, and economic changes affecting their role in society.20
In the Thai tradition, Buddhist males over twenty are temporarily
ordained as monks, and can return to secular life and armed services, and
17 Ibid.
18 Huston Smith and Phillip Novak, Buddhism: A Concise Introduction (HarperOne, 2004) 21.
19 Wickremeratne, above n 47, 190. 20 Ibid.
4 large private companies make temporary ordination easier by granting
employees a three-month leave with full salary.21
Transformation and Adaptation of Vinaya (Eastern to Western)
As Buddhism emerges into the 21st Century it needs to adapt to modern
society. For example, the rule of how much black wool a monk may own,
in the Vinaya is clearly out of date.22 Also the injunction against handling
money is impossible to comply with.23 With advances in information
technology, and societies’ dependence on money as a measure of
exchange Buddhism has to modify the Vinaya rules to cater for modern
society as Vinaya specifically guides monks on such issues.24
Another example of the adaptation and interpretation of the Vinaya rules
is the dressing code of Western Buddhist monastics. In Asia where
Buddhist monks had to follow strict Vinaya rules regarding robes...
‘Wearing an unmarked robe is a pācittiya offense.’25 However, in
countries such as America with areas of colder temperatures several
layers of underclothing with an outer robe is permitted. Nonetheless,
21 Ibid.
22 The Vinaya in Modern Times, above n 43.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Introduction to Patimokkha Rules (1994). <http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/vin/sv/bhikkhu-pati-intro.html>
5 Vinaya rules were still complied with thus inner garments are completely
covered by the outer robe in order to maintain the appearance of a monk.
Despite the slight alternation of the clothing requirement in the Vinaya
because of environmental influence, monks still adhered to the
appearance of Theravada monks in the East.26
Sexual intercourse is regarded as a serious offences for a monk in the
traditional Vinaya. Voluntary sexual intercourse is considered a parajika
offense.27 Interactions with women is thought to invoke sexual feelings.
However, a respondent of Western Theravada Buddhism predicts that
adaptation of the Vinaya in regards to the interaction between monks and
women should be considered.28 It can be embarrassing and offensive to
Western women seeking individual counselling from monks who follows
strict etiquette. Even though the traditional Vinaya strictly prohibits
physical contact with women it would be beneficial to Buddhism and for
monks to adapt to this cultural change and eventually practice hugging or
shaking hands with women.29 Although this change will be difficult to
26 Steven Heine and Charles S Prebish (eds), Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition (Oxford University Press, 2003) 65.
27 Bhikkhu, above n 57.
28 Paul David Numirich, Vinaya in Theravada Temples in the United States (1 December 2004) Buddhist Ethics. <http://www.tuvienquangduc.com.au/English/Ethics/22.vinaya.html> 29 Ibid.
6 attain, Western Theravada monks can increase monastic recruitment and
reveal a non-sexist attitude toward women in general. 30
Interpretations and applicability of Vinaya
The Buddha formulated the Vinaya rules one by one, as he saw fit in
response to particular situations. He had the rationale for the rules before
he pronounced them.31 For instance, the rule forbidding lustful conduct
between monks and women originated after an incident where a monk
was reported have fondled the wife of a Brahmin.32 The Buddha wanted
women to feel safe in the knowledge that when visiting monasteries that
they would not be in danger of being molested.33 According to Buddha
sex and lust were distractions of the mind. Likewise, Buddha had logical
reasons for monks not to consume solid food after they had their midday
meal. Originally monks were allowed to go begging for their evening
meal however, they encountered difficulties and misadventures which
caused them physical harm such as falling into drains in the dark.
In addition, Theravada Vinaya rules need to be interpreted and adjusted to
suit the existing requirements of the human body and convenience.
Brahmali, Ajhan, Adapting the Monastic vinaya to Australian Society
Buddhism and Australia: International Conference on Buddhism <http://buddhismandaustralia.com/index.php? title=Adapting_the_Monastic_Vinaya_to_Australian_Society_by_Ajahn_ Brahm%C4%81li>
David Paul, Numirich, Vinaya in Theravada Temples in the United States
(1 December 2004) Buddhist Ethics <http://www.tuvienquangduc.com.au/English/Ethics/22.vinaya.html>
9 Glessner, Justin, North American Adaptations of Vinaya (30 October 2009) <https://utmosts.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/sample-essay.pdf>
Mokkh, Suan, Everyone Needs Vinaya: reflections on Buddhist Lifestyle
The Vinaya in Modern Times (26 May 2011) Protecting Nyingma: Setting the Record Straight <https://protectingnyingma2.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/the-vinaya-in- modern-times/>
