Maharashtra State Board of Technical

Education

Government Polytechnic, Gadchiroli

Micro Project:- Write algorithm to find the

approximate roots of algebraic equations

Diploma in
“Computer Engineering 2I”

Sr.No. Names of Student Roll No.

1 Attahar Sheikh 17
2 Puja Shende 18
3 Shifa Hakim 19
4 Kshitij Tarare 20
5 Pritam Tembhurne 21

GUIDANCE

Mr. Y.M.Y.Pathan Sir

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, GADCHIROLI
 Index

Sr. No. Topic Page No.

01 Certificate 01

02 Submission 02

03 Acknowledgement 03

Part – A

1. Aim
2. Course Out Come
04 04 - 05
3. Proposed Methodology
4. Action Plan

Part – B

1. Title of Micro project

2. Rationale
3. Aim of micro project
05 4. Course outcomes 06 - 17
5. Actual methodology Followed
6. Actual resourced used
7. Outputs of Micro project
8. Applications of Micro project
 GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, GADCHIROLI
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Certificate
This is to certify that the following students of this institute have carried
out this micro-project work on “Write algorithm to find approximate roots
of algebraic equations” under the guidance of Mr. Y. M. Y. Pathan Sir
lecture in Mathematics during the session 2021-2022. This work has been
done in the partial fulfilment of the award for in Computer Engineering
from Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education, Mumbai.
SUBMITTED BY

Sr.No. Roll No. Names of Student Enrollment No.

1 17 Attahar Sheikh 2101190070
2 18 Puja Shende 2101190075
3 19 Shifa Hakim 2101190064
4 20 Kshitij Tarare 2101190085
5 21 Pritam Tembhurne 2101190071
1
Mr. Y. M. Y. Pathan Sir Mr. P. S. Chalakh Sir
Project Guide Head of Department
Lecturer in Mathematics (Science & Humanity)

Dr. A. B. Borade Sir

Principal
Govt. Poly. Gadchiroli.

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 GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, GADCHIROLI
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER ENGINEERING

SUBMISSION
We, the students of First year of Department of Computer
Engineering, humbly completed this Micro-project work on “Write
algorithm to find approximate roots of algebraic equations ” for time to
time as described in This report by our own skill and study between the
periods from 2021-2022
As per instruction and guidance of Mr. Y. M. Y. Pathan Sir and
following students were associated with us for this work. However,
quantum of our contribution has been approved by the guide.

PROJECT GROUP MEMBERS

Sr.No. Roll No. Names of Student Enrollment No.

1 17 Attahar Sheikh 2101190070
2 18 Puja Shende 2101190075
3 19 Shifa Hakim 2101190064
4 20 Kshitij Tarare 2101190085
5 21 Pritam Tembhurne 2101190071
1

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the most we express our deep sense of gratitude and respect

to our Guide Mr. Y. M. Y. Pathan Sir, Lecturer in Mathematics,
Government Polytechnic, Gadchiroli. We are very much grateful to him
for the expertise and guidance we have received from him while working
on this Micro project.

We would like to extend our thanks to Mr. P. S. Chalakh sir

Head of the Department and Mr. C. B. Nikhare Sir Mentor & lecturer in
English for his encouragement, support and guidance. We are also
grateful to our Principal, Dr. A. B. Borade Sir for encouraging us from
time to time.

We also extend our thanks to all lecturer & other staff of

department for their co-operation and kind help throughout the
Microproject. Last but not the least, we are thankful to all those who
have directly or indirectly help us in completion of these project work.

Sr.No. Roll No. Names of Student Enrollment No.

1 17 Attahar Sheikh 2101190070
2 18 Puja Shende 2101190075
3 19 Shifa Hakim 2101190064
4 20 Kshitij Tarare 2101190085
5 21 Pritam Tembhurne 2101190071
1

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 Part-A Micro project proposal
(format for micro project proposal A about 2-3 pages)

Title of Micro Project

Write algorithm to find the approximate roots of algebraic equations

1.0 Aims/Benefits of the Micro Project

The aim of the project In mathematics and computing, a root-finding

algorithm is an algorithm for finding zeros, also called "roots", of
continuous functions. A zero of a function f, from the real numbers to
real numbers or from the complex numbers to the complex numbers, is a
number x such that f(x) = 0. As, generally, the zeros of a function cannot
be computed exactly nor expressed in closed form, root-finding
algorithms provide approximations to zeros, expressed either as floating
point numbers or as small isolating intervals, or disks for complex roots
(an interval or disk output being equivalent to an approximate output
together with an error bound).

2.0 Course outcomes addressed

(a) Students are able to solve the problem of roots of algebraic equations.

(b) This micro project helps the students to make a p p r o x i m a t e

r o o t s o f a l g e b r a i c e q u a ti o n s .

3.0 Proposed Methodology

First we all our group members select our topic of micro project. After
selecting the topic of our micro project we all discuss on our micro project.
About which members are gathered the information about micro project.
Which students are working on micro project and last is printing and typing the
micro project. We all distributed works in group and go for next process.

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 5.0 Action Plan

Sr. Details of activity Planned Planned Names of responsible team

No sort finish date members
1 Collecting Data 08-12-2021 11-12-2021 1.Attahar Sheikh
2. Puja Shende

2 Discussion on 12-12-2021 20-12-2021 1. Shifa Hakim

project/discussio 2. Kshitij Tarare
n with guide
3 Working on project 21-12-2021 23-12-2021 1.Attahar Sheikh
and finalizing the 2.Puja Shende
project 3.Shifa Hakim

4 Working on draft 24-12-2021 26-12-2021 1.Shifa Hakim

(typing,prints,etc.)

6.0 Resource required

Sr.No. Names of resource/materials Specification Qty. Remarks
1 Books mentioned in the Basic mathematics 1
2 project
internet Computer 1

Names of team members with roll no.

Names Roll no.
1. Attahar Sheikh 17
2.Puja Shende 18
3.Shifa Hakim 19
4.Kshitij tarare 20
5.Pritam Tembhurne 21

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 Part –B Micro project
Report
(Outcomes after Execution) Format for Micro project Report (Minimum 6
pages)

Title of Micro Project

Write algorithm to find the approximate roots of algebraic

equations

1.0 Rationale
The project is to students are also to write algorithm to find the
approximate roots of algebraic equations all the student remove his own
confusion about roots of algebraic equations . This micro project helps the
student’s to know about approximate roots of algebraic equation.

2.0 Aims/Benefits of the Micro-Project

The aim of the project In mathematics and computing, a root-finding
algorithm is an algorithm for finding zeros, also called "roots", of
continuous functions. A zero of a function f, from the real numbers to
real numbers or from the complex numbers to the complex numbers, is
a number x such that f(x) = 0. As, generally, the zeros of a function
cannot be computed exactly nor expressed in closed form, root-finding
algorithms provide approximations to zeros, expressed either as
floating point numbers or as small isolating intervals, or disks for
complex roots (an interval or disk output being equivalent to an
approximate output together with an error bound).

3.0 Course Outcomes Addressed

A) Students are able to find approximate roots of algebraic equations.

B) This micro project helps the students to understand roots of algebraic equation.

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4.0 Literature Review

In mathematics and computing, a root-finding algorithm is an algorithm for finding

zeros, also called "roots", of continuous functions. A zero of a function f, from the
real numbers to real numbers or from the complex numbers to the complex
numbers, is a number x such that f(x) = 0. As, generally, the zeros of a function
cannot be computed exactly nor expressed in closed form, root-finding algorithms
provide approximations to zeros, expressed either as floating point numbers or as
small isolating intervals, or disks for complex roots (an interval or disk output being
equivalent to an approximate output together with an error bound).
Solving an equation f(x) = g(x) is the same as finding the roots of the function h(x) =
f(x) – g(x). Thus root-finding algorithms allow solving any equation defined by
continuous functions. However, most root-finding algorithms do not guarantee that
they will find all the roots; in particular, if such an algorithm does not find any root,
that does not mean that no root exists.
Most numerical root-finding methods use iteration, producing a sequence of
numbers that hopefully converge towards the root as a limit. They require one or
more initial guesses of the root as starting values, then each iteration of the
algorithm produces a successively more accurate approximation to the root. Since
the iteration must be stopped at some point these methods produce an
approximation to the root, not an exact solution. Many methods compute
subsequent values by evaluating an auxiliary function on the preceding values. The
limit is thus a fixed point of the auxiliary function, which is chosen for having the
roots of the original equation as fixed points, and for converging rapidly to these
fixed points.
The behaviour of general root-finding algorithms is studied in numerical analysis.
However, for polynomials, root-finding study belongs generally to computer algebra,
since algebraic properties of polynomials are fundamental for the most efficient
algorithms. The efficiency of an algorithm may depend dramatically on the
characteristics of the given functions. For example, many algorithms use the
derivative of the input function, while others work on every continuous function. In
general, numerical algorithms are not guaranteed to find all the roots of a function,
so failing to find a root does not prove that there is no root. However, for
polynomials, there are specific algorithms that use algebraic properties for certifying
that no root is missed, and locating the roots in separate intervals (or disks for
complex roots) that are small enough to ensure the convergence of numerical
methods (typically Newton's method) to the unique root so located.

1. Bracketing methods

Bracketing methods determine successively smaller intervals (brackets) that contain

a root. When the interval is small enough, then a root has been found. They generally
use the intermediate value theorem, which asserts that if a continuous function has
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values of opposite signs at the end points of an interval, then the function has at
least one root in the interval. Therefore, they require to start with an interval such
that the function takes opposite signs at the end points of the interval. However, in
the case of polynomials there are other methods (Descartes' rule of signs, Budan's
theorem and Sturm's theorem) for getting information on the number of roots in an
interval. They lead to efficient algorithms for real-root isolation of polynomials, which
ensure finding all real roots with a guaranteed accuracy.
o Bisection method
The simplest root-finding algorithm is the bisection method. Let f be a continuous
function, for which one knows an interval [a, b] such that f(a) and f(b) have opposite
signs (a bracket). Let c = (a +b)/2 be the middle of the interval (the midpoint or the
point that bisects the interval). Then either f(a) and f(c), or f(c) and f(b) have opposite
signs, and one has divided by two the size of the interval. Although the bisection
method is robust, it gains one and only one bit of accuracy with each iteration. Other
methods, under appropriate conditions, can gain accuracy faster.
o False position
The false position method, also called the regula falsi method, is similar to the
bisection method, but instead of using bisection search's middle of the interval it
uses the x-intercept of the line that connects the plotted function values at the
endpoints of the interval, that is

False position is similar to the secant method, except that, instead of retaining the
last two points, it makes sure to keep one point on either side of the root. The false
position method can be faster than the bisection method and will never diverge like
the secant method; however, it may fail to converge in some naive implementations
due to roundoff errors that may lead to a wrong sign for f(c); typically, this may occur
if the rate of variation of f is large in the neighborhood of the root.
 ITP method
The ITP method is the only known method to bracket the root with the same worst
case guarantees of the bisection method while guaranteeing a superlinear
convergence to the root of smooth functions as the secant method. It is also the only
known method guaranteed to outperform the bisection method on the average for
any continuous distribution on the location of the root (see ITP Method#Analysis). It
does so by keeping track of both the bracketing interval as well as the minmax
interval in which any point therein converges as fast as the bisection method. The
construction of the queried point c follows three steps: interpolation (similar to the
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regula falsi), truncation (adjusting the regula falsi similar to Regula falsi §
Improvements in regula falsi) and then projection onto the minmax interval. The
combination of these steps produces a simultaneously minmax optimal method with
guarantees similar to interpolation based methods for smooth functions, and, in
practice will outperform both the bisection method and interpolation based methods
under both smooth and non-smooth functions.

2. Interpolation

Many root-finding processes work by interpolation. This consists in using the last
computed approximate values of the root for approximating the function by a
polynomial of low degree, which takes the same values at these approximate roots.
Then the root of the polynomial is computed and used as a new approximate value
of the root of the function, and the process is iterated.
Two values allow interpolating a function by a polynomial of degree one (that is
approximating the graph of the function by a line). This is the basis of the secant
method. Three values define a quadratic function, which approximates the graph of
the function by a parabola. This is Muller's method.
Regula falsi is also an interpolation method, which differs from the secant method by
using, for interpolating by a line, two points that are not necessarily the last two
computed points.

3. Roots of polynomials

Finding roots of polynomial is a long-standing problem that has been the object of
much research throughout history. A testament to this is that up until the 19th
century algebra meant essentially theory of polynomial equations.
Finding the root of a linear polynomial (degree one) is easy and needs only one
division. For quadratic polynomials (degree two), the quadratic formula produces a
solution, but its numerical evaluation may require some care for ensuring numerical
stability. For degrees three and four, there are closed-form solutions in terms of
radicals, which are generally not convenient for numerical evaluation, as being too
complicated and involving the computation of several nth roots whose computation
is not easier than the direct computation of the roots of the polynomial (for example
the expression of the real roots of a cubic polynomial may involve non-real cube
roots). For polynomials of degree five or higher Abel–Ruffini theorem asserts that
there is, in general, no radical expression of the roots.
So, except for very low degrees, root finding of polynomials consists of finding
approximations of the roots. By the fundamental theorem of algebra, one knows that
a polynomial of degree n has at most n real or complex roots, and this number is
reached for almost all polynomials.

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It follows that the problem of root finding for polynomials may be split in three
different sub problems;

o Finding one root

o Finding all roots
o Finding roots in a specific region of the complex plane, typically the real roots or
the real roots in a given interval (for example, when roots represents a physical
quantity, only the real positive ones are interesting).

Another class of methods is based on converting the problem of finding polynomial

roots to the problem of finding eigenvalues of the companion matrix of the
polynomial.[1] In principle, one can use any eigenvalue algorithm to find the roots of
the polynomial. However, for efficiency reasons one prefers methods that employ
the structure of the matrix, that is, can be implemented in matrix-free form. Among
these methods are the power method, whose application to the transpose of the
companion matrix is the classical Bernoulli's method to find the root of greatest
modulus. The inverse power method with shifts, which finds some smallest root first,
is what drives the complex (cpoly) variant of the Jenkins–Traub algorithm and gives it
its numerical stability.

 Finding one root

The most widely used method for computing a root is Newton's method, which
consists of the iterations of the computation of

If f is a polynomial, the computation is faster when using Horner's

method or evaluation with preprocessing for computing the polynomial and its
derivative in each iteration.
The convergence is generally quadratic, it may converge much slowly or even not
converge at all. In particular, if the polynomial has no real root, and  is real, then
Newton's method cannot converge. However, if the polynomial has a real root, which
is larger than the larger real root of its derivative, then Newton's method converges
quadratically to this largest root if  is larger that this larger root (there are easy ways
for computing an upper bound of the roots, see Properties of polynomial roots). This
is the starting point of Horner method for computing the roots.

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When one root r has been found, one may use Euclidean division for removing the
factor x – r from the polynomial. Computing a root of the resulting quotient, and
repeating the process provides, in principle, a way for computing all roots. However,
this iterative scheme is numerically unstable; the approximation errors accumulate
during the successive factorizations, so that the last roots are determined with a
polynomial that deviates widely from a factor of the original polynomial. To reduce
this error, one may, for each root that is found, restart Newton's method with the
original polynomial, and this approximate root as starting value.
When applying these methods to polynomials with real coefficients and real starting
points, Newton's and Halley's method stay inside the real number line. One has to
choose complex starting points to find complex roots. In contrast, the Laguerre
method with a square root in its evaluation will leave the real axis of its own accord.

o Finding roots in pairs

If the given polynomial only has real coefficients, one may wish to avoid
computations with complex numbers. To that effect, one has to find quadratic
factors for pairs of conjugate complex roots. The application of the multidimensional
Newton's method to this task results in Bairstow's method.The real variant of
Jenkins–Traub algorithm is an improvement of this method.

o Finding all roots at once

The simple Durand–Kerner and the slightly more complicated Aberth method
simultaneously find all of the roots using only simple complex number arithmetic.
Accelerated algorithms for multi-point evaluation and interpolation similar to the fast
Fourier transform can help speed them up for large degrees of the polynomial. It is
advisable to choose an asymmetric, but evenly distributed set of initial points. The
implementation of this method in the free software MPSolve is a reference for its
efficiency and its accuracy.
Another method with this style is the Dandelin–Gräffe method (sometimes also
ascribed to Lobachevsky), which uses polynomial transformations to repeatedly and
implicitly square the roots. This greatly magnifies variances in the roots. Applying
Viète's formulas, one obtains easy approximations for the modulus of the roots, and
with some more effort, for the roots themselves.

o Exclusion and enclosure methods

Several fast tests exist that tell if a segment of the real line or a region of the complex
plane contains no roots. By bounding the modulus of the roots and recursively
subdividing the initial region indicated by these bounds, one can isolate small regions
that may contain roots and then apply other methods to locate them exactly.
All these methods involve finding the coefficients of shifted and scaled versions of
the polynomial. For large degrees, FFT-based accelerated methods become viable.
For real roots, see next sections.

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 o Real-root isolation
Finding the real roots of a polynomial with real coefficients is a problem that has
received much attention since the beginning of 19th century, and is still an active
domain of research. Most root-finding algorithms can find some real roots, but
cannot certify having found all the roots. Methods for finding all complex roots, such
as Aberth method can provide the real roots. However, because of the numerical
instability of polynomials (see Wilkinson's polynomial), they may need arbitrary-
precision arithmetic for deciding which roots are real. Moreover, they compute all
complex roots when only few are real.
It follows that the standard way of computing real roots is to compute first disjoint
intervals, called isolating intervals, such that each one contains exactly one real root,
and together they contain all the roots. This computation is called real-root isolation.
Having isolating interval, one may use fast numerical methods, such as Newton's
method for improving the precision of the result.

o Finding multiple roots of polynomials

Most root-finding algorithms behave badly when there are multiple roots or very
close roots. However, for polynomials whose coefficients are exactly given as
integers or rational numbers, there is an efficient method to factorize them into
factors that have only simple roots and whose coefficients are also exactly given. This
method, called square-free factorization, is based on the multiple roots of a
polynomial being the roots of the greatest common divisor of the polynomial and its
derivative.

5.0 Actual Methodology followed

We all discuss on our micro project. After selecting the topic of our micro
project we all discuss on our micro project. About which members are
gathered the information about micro project. Which students are working on
micro project and last is printing and typing the micro project. We all
distributed works in group and go for next process. All of group members are
do all work very well. Some students are gathered the information about
grouped and ungrouped data. Some work on the gather information. Last
process was some members are took typing and printing. After all that process
our micro project was complete

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6.0 Actual Resource used

Sr. Names of Specification Qty. Remar

No. resource/material ks
s
1 Books Basic 1
mentioned in the mathematics
2 internet Computer 1

7.0 Outputs of micro project

 we are learn how to use various formulas
 we are all able to use computers
 Specially we are used formula on computer to typing
 Thus helps us to understand the
 we are able to solve roots of algebraic equations

8.0 Skills developed/ Learning outcomes of this Micro Project

The helps us to developing our mathematics and solving our mathematics.

Helps to understand attitude of others and creates awareness of special
needs of research process. Improving your reading skills will reduce
unnecessary reading time and enable you to read in a more focused and
selective manner. You will able to increase your levels of understanding
and concentration.

9.0 Applications of this Micro Project

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are nothing but the
solutions of the quadratic equation. i.e., they are the values of the variable (x)
which satisfies the equation. The roots of a quadratic function are the x-
coordinates of the x-intercepts of the function. Since the degree of a
quadratic equation is 2, it can have a maximum of 2 roots. We can find the
roots of quadratic equations using different methods.

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