MATH COURSE III: SUMMARY NOTES

Chapter 1

Functions and polynomials

A function is a relation between an element in a set and only one element in

another set. Inputting an x-value through a function f gives one y-value, called
f (x).

1.1 Graph transformations

Transformation f (x) Description
Translations f (x) + k translation k units up
f (x) − k translation k units down
f (x − h) translation h units to the right
f (x + h) translation h units to the left
Stretches, compressions 0 < |a| < 1 vertical compression by factor of |a|
|a| > 1 vertical stretch by factor of |a|
Reflections f (−x) reflection about the y-axis
−f (x) reflection about the x-axis
−f (x) + k reflection about the line y = k

1
Quadratic functions: 6
Parent function f : f (x) = x2

Transformed function g : g(x) = a(x − h)2 + k

-
Vertex: (h, k)

Cubic functions: 6
Parent function f : f (x) = x3

Transformed function g : g(x) = a(x − h)3 + k

-
Vertex: (h, k)

Square root functions: √ 6

Parent function f : f (x) = x
√
Transformed function g : g(x) = a x − h + k
-
Vertex: (h, k)

Absolute value functions: 6 y = g(x)

Parent function f : f (x) = |x| AK
 y = f (x)
I
@ A


Transformed function g : g(x) = a|x − h| + k @ A

@k A
a
@ 1 1 -
Vertex: (h, k) 1 h

2
1.2 Solving systems of three-variable equations
1. Eliminate one of the variables x, y, or z to produce two new equations. Example
2. Repeat with the two new equations to produce one equation, and solve.
3. Plug the found variable into one of the two equations, and solve for the second variable.
4. Plug the two solved variables into the original equations, and solve.
5. Present solution as an ordered triple (x, y, z).

3
Chapter 2

Polynomials

A polynomial is an expression with variables and coefficients combined and

multiplied together, and their exponents are non-negative integers (natural num-
bers).

• Examples: 6x3 , 7x + 67, −5t5 + 6y 0 , 7x5 y 7 + 90t3

√
• Non-examples: x − 6, x−3 , 56a 6x
5

Terminology
• Term: the thingies being added together, like −5t5 and 6y 0 in the poly-
nomial −5t5 + 6y 0
• Degree: the highest power of variables present in a polynomial (Example:
6x7 and 7x4 y 3 are in the 7th degree.)
• Standard form: the simplified form of a polynomial where all the degrees
decrease from left to right (Example: The standard form of −5+7x3 +7x4
is 7x4 + 7x3 − 5.)
• Leading coefficient: the first coefficient in a polynomial in standard
form, or the coefficient of the variable under the polynomial’s degree (Ex-
ample: 6 is the leading coefficient of 6x3 + 5x + 90.)

2.1 Classifying polynomials

Polynomials are classified on the number of non-zero terms and their degrees.
Number of terms:
No. of terms Name Example
1 monomial 3n3
2 binomial 680x2 6 + 6x
3 trinomial 4y 3 + 5xy
4 polynomial with 4 terms 56a8 + 67a6 + 5a + 9
n polynomial with n terms 5n16 + ... + 90
| {z }
n

4
Degrees:
Degree Name Example
0 constant 69
1 linear 3n + 7
2
2 quadratic x + 2x + 1
3 cubic x + 3x2 + 3x + 1
3

4 quartic x4 + 4x2 + 1
5 quintic 7x5 + 78x4 + 90
n nth-degree polynomial yn

Examples:
• x2 + 5xy + y 2 is a quadratic trinomial.
• 69x5 + 69x3 + 69x2 + 69x is a quintic polynomial with 4 terms.
• 220 is a constant monomial.

2.2 Pascal’s triangle and binomial theorem

Example. Expand (x + y)4 .
Solution. Since n = 4, let’s look at the fourth row of Pascal’s triangle:

1+4+6+4+1

Since the degree is 4, multiply x to every term in powers decreasing from 4 to

0.
1x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x1 + 1x0
We do the same thing for y, except the powers increase from 0 to 4.

1x4 y 0 + 4x3 y 1 + 6x2 y 2 + 4x1 y 3 + 1x0 y 4

=⇒ (x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4

Pascal’s triangle: A triangle containing coefficients in a binomial

expansion. The first and last numbers in each row are 1. A number
other than 1 is the sum of the two closest numbers in the previous row.

n=0 1
n=1 1 1
n=2 1 2 1
n=3 1 3 3 1
n=4 1 4 6 4 1
n=5 1 5 10 10 5 1
n=6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(n → ∞)

5
 n n!


Binomial theorem: Let n ∈ Z>0 , and j = j!(n−j)! (the binomial
coefficient). Then,
n        
X n n n n n−1 1 n n
(x + y)n = xn−j y j = x + x y + ... + y .
j=0
j 0 1 n

2.3 Division
2.3.1 Synthetic division
2.3.2 Rational root theorem

6
Chapter 3

Trigonometry

3.1 Angles
6
e
sid al

KA
min

A
A
ter

120◦
A
60◦ A
A - -
initial side

An angle (in standard position) is the figure created by the rotation of a ray
starting on the origin, called the terminal side, in relation to a ray placed on
the x-axis, called the initial side.

The reference angle: the smallest angle produced by the terminal side and
the x-axis.

Coterminal angles (not shown) are angles that share the same terminal side
as the original angle. Over the domain R, there are infinitely many coterminal
angles.

Example. 480◦ is coterminal to 120◦ , because the angle is one full rotation
plus a 120◦ rotation. −240◦ is also coterminal, because if you rotate clockwise
240 degrees, you will end up in the same line as 120◦ .

From 60◦ , we can draw a reference triangle (see Special right triangles):

7
3.1.1 Degrees vs. radians
The two most commonly used systems of angle measurements are the sexages-
imal system and the radial system. In the sexagesimal system, one turn is
divided up into 360 parts, called degrees; this is the most familiar system.

In the radial system, its units are called radians. One radian is constructed
to be an angle whose minor arc has a length equal to the radius of the circle.
There are 2π radians in one full turn.

'$

1 turn = 2π radians = 360◦ , 1 half-turn

&% = π radians = 180◦

Angle conversion formulas:

π
To convert degrees to radians, multiply the angle by 180 .

180
To convert radians to degrees, multiply the angle by π .

3.2 Trigonometric functions

Trigonometric functions: Given a right triangle with reference angle

θ,


hypotenuse 
 opposite


 θ
adjacent
• sine: sin θ = opposite
hypotenuse

• cosine: cos θ = adjacent

hypotenuse

• tangent: tan θ = opposite

adjacent

• cosecant: csc θ = hypotenuse

opposite = 1
sin θ

• secant: sec θ = hypotenuse

adjacent = 1
cos θ

• cotangent: cot θ = adjacent

opposite = 1
tan θ

8
3.3 Special right triangles
3.4 Trigonometric identities

Simple stuff:

sin −θ = − sin θ cos −θ = cos θ tan −θ = − tan θ

Angle sum formulas:

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
Angle difference formulas:

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β

Pythagorean trigonometric identities:

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
=⇒ 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
=⇒ tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

3.5 Graphs of trigonometric functions

Let’s graph a parent function sin θ, with θ in radians.

3.6 Solving triangles

To solve a triangle means to find all of the triangle’s components (side lengths
and angles), given some information.

Pythagorean theorem: Let a and b be lengths of a right triangle’s

legs and c be the hypotenuse. Then,

a2 + b2 = c2

9
Example. In a right triangle with leg lengths 3 and 4, what is the length of
the hypotenuse?
Solution. As of the theorem, we can plug in a = 3 and b = 4 and let c be the
hypotenuse’s length.

a2 + b2 = c2
32 + 42 = c2
9 + 16 = c2
25 = c2
5=c
c=5

Therefore, the hypotenuse is 5.

Law of sines: In a triangle with opposite side-angle pairs (a, A), (b, B),
and (c, C), C
sin A sin B sin C HHH a
= =
a b c HH
b B

or 
a b c 
= = 
  c

sin A sin B sin C
A 

Example. Solve the triangle: A = 120◦ , a = 7, B = 45◦ .

Solution. To find b,
7 b C
= HHH 7
sin 120◦ sin 45◦ H
7 sin 45◦ b 45◦H B

b= 
sin √120◦  ◦  
2 120

c
7· 2
= √ A 

3
2
√
7 6
b=
3

10
To find c,

C = 180◦ − A − B
= 180◦ − 120◦ − 45◦
C = 15◦
7 c
=
sin 120◦ sin 15◦
7 sin 15◦
c=
sin √120◦√
√ √ !
7 · 6− 2
6− 2
= √ 4 sin 15◦ =
3 4
2
√ √
21 2 − 7 6
c=
6

Law of cosines: In a triangle with opposite side-angle pairs

(a, A), (b, B), and (c, C),
C
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A HHHa
2 2 2 HH
b = a + c − 2ac cos B b

B
2 2 2

c = a + b − 2ab cos C  
  c

A 


• This theorem can be used for SAS (to find missing side lengths) and SSS
triangles (to find missing cosines).
• The Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the law of cosines, where
C = 90◦ .

Example. Solve the triangle: C = 20◦ , a = 11, b = 5.

11
 C
Solution. To find c, use the law of cosines: HH 11
◦ H
 20 HH
5 B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C 

= 112 + 52 − 2 · 11 · 5 cos 20◦   c
 

= 146 − 110 cos 20◦ A 


√
c = 146 − 110 cos 20◦ ≈ 6.529
sin 20◦ sin α
≈ Apply law of sines...
6.529 5
5 sin 20◦
sin A ≈
6.529
5 sin 20◦
A ≈ arcsin ≈ 15.18◦
6.529
B ≈ 180◦ − 20◦ − 15.18◦ ≈ 144.82◦

Example. Solve the triangle: a = 6, b = 7, c = 8.

Solution. Find one of the angles (let’s find A): C
HHH6
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2ab cos A
H
7 HB


a2 − b2 − c2 = −2ab cos A  
  8

a2 − b2 − c2 62 − 72 − 82 77 
cos A = − =− = A
2ab 2·6·7 84
77
A = arccos ≈ 23.556◦
84
sin 23.556◦ sin B
≈ Apply law of sines...
6 7
7 · sin 23.556◦
sin B ≈
6
7 · sin 23.556◦
B ≈ arcsin ≈ 27.791◦
6
C = 180◦ − A − B ≈ 180◦ − 23.556◦ − 27.791◦ = 128.653◦

12
Chapter 4

Sequences, finite sums, and

series

4.1 Sequences
A sequence is a list of objects called terms which can repeat and can follow a
certain pattern.
(an ) = a1 , a2 , a3 , ...

• Explicit formula: an equation that defines how the nth term an relates
to n
• Recursive formula: states how one term relates to the last

Most of the time, you’ll have to guess the pattern for a sequence and hope
that it’s correct. To make it easier, here are some “special” sequences, called
arithmetic and geometric progressions.

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4.1.1 Arithmetic sequences
An arithmetic sequence, or arithmetic progression, is a sequence whose
terms are added by a constant d, called the common difference.

Explicit formula:
an = a1 + (n − 1)d
where a1 is the first term of the sequence.

Recursive formula:
an = an−1 + d

4.1.2 Geometric sequences

A geometric sequence, or geometric progression, is a sequence, such that
one term is multiplied by a constant r, called the common ratio.

Explicit formula:
an = a1 rn−1
Recursive formula:
an = ran−1
If you know the sequence is geometric, you can find r by dividing one term by
its previous:
an
r=
an−1

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4.2 Summation
A summation is the sum Σ of all terms of a sequence (an ) within an upper
bound y and a lower bound n = x.
y
X
an = ax + ax+1 + ax+2 + ... + ay−1 + ay
n=x

4.2.1 Partial sums

A partial sum of a sequence Sn is the summation of a finite number of terms
in a sequence (ai ).
n
X
Sn = ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an
i=1

Properties

k
X
1=k
n=1
k
X k
X a−1
X
an = an − an
n=a n=1 n=1
k
X k
X
an = a0 + an
n=0 n=1
k
X n(n + 1)
n=
n=1
2
k
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n2 =
n=1
6
k  2
X
3 n(n + 1)
n =
n=1
2

Arithmetic series
A finite arithmetic series is the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic
progression (ai ):
n
X n(a1 + an )
Sn = ai =
i=1
2

15
Geometric series
A finite geometric series is the sum of the first n terms geometric progression
(ai ):
n
X a1 (1 − rn )
Sn = ai =
i=1
1−r

4.2.2 Series
A series, or infinite series, is the summation of all terms an in an infinite
sequence (an ).1
∞
X
an = a1 + a2 + a3 + ...
n=1

In other words, it is a sum with the top number being ∞.

A series on a convergent sequence will have an actual sum value that exists.
One way to test if a sequence is convergent or not is to. . . . . . . . . ..

1 Formal definition: Let (S, ◦) be a semigroup, (a ) be a sequence in S, and (s ) be a

n N
sequence defined as
XN
sN = (an ) = a1 ◦ a2 ◦ a3 ◦ ... ◦ aN .
n=1
A series is the limit of sN as N approaches ∞:
∞
X N
X
sN = an = lim an .
N →∞
n=1 n=1

16
Chapter 5

Statistics

Basically, math but with a lot of writing.

5.1 Terminology
5.2 Normal distribution and the bell curve
The standard normal distribution

5.3 z-table
A z-value is how many standard deviations σ away from the mean µ

5.4 Sampling
The multiple sampling methods are
• random sampling: You randomly pick an individual.
• systematic sampling: You pick an individual for a starting point, then
pick every nth individual after.

• self-selected sampling: You sample individuals who wish to participate

in the sampling.
• convenience sampling: You sample individuals close to you/most con-
venient to you.

• cluster sampling:
• stratified sampling:

5.5 Bias

17