International Journal of Zero Waste Generation

Vol.1, No.1, 2013; ISSN 2289 4497

Published by ZW Publisher

Stabilisation of Soft Soil Using Electrokinetic

Stabilisation Method
Nurul Syakeera Binti Nordin*, Saiful Azhar Bin Ahmad Tajudin*, Aeslina Binti Abdul Karim*
* Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract—This paper presents an experimental study on soils. This research study was conducted in the Research
applying Electrokinetic Stabilisation (EKS) method to Centre for Soft Soils (RECESS) of Faculty of Civil &
stabilise soft soil which has low shear strength. EKS Environmental Engineering, UTHM. UTHM soft clay was
method is the combination processes of electroosmosis and used as the sample and EKS test rig was used for this
chemical grouting. This technique is most effective in silty research as shown in Fig. 2.
and clayey soils where the hydraulic conductivity is very low.
Soil sample was dried, ground and sieved. Water was added II. ELECTROKINETIC STABILISATION (EKS)
to the sample to form slurry. The slurry was then inserted to
the EKS test rig where a load was applied to it until the EKS is the combination process of electroosmosis
slurry become saturated. Once saturated, EKS treatment and chemical grouting and it is most effective for silty and
was carried out to it where the electrolyte used was calcium clayey soils because of its low hydraulic conductivity.
chloride (CaCl2) and Ferrum plate was used as electrodes. Basically, this technique is to improve the volume
After 7 days of EKS treatment, the treated soil was then stability of soil around and beneath the foundation. This
investigated through their physical and chemical properties. technique involves applying an electrical current across
It was found that the treated soil near the cathode has the
the soil mass to boost the chemical migrates from the
highest shear strength value up to 18.06 kN/m2 compared
with the anode and in the middle of the soil sample. From
injection point with the purpose of reacting beneficially
consolidation results, the data is useful in determining the with the soil to bring about an improvement in its
compression index Cc, coefficient of consolidation cv and properties.
volume of compressibility mv. It shows that after EKS Electrokinetic stabilisation suits for weak clayey soils
treatment the pH of the sample was increased near the which have a low hydraulic conductivity and require
cathode, while the electric conductivity value decreased near strengthening for soil condition. Otherwise it is also can
the cathode. It shows that the concentration of Ca2+ be used to stabilise the heavily over consolidated clayey
increased near the anode and Fe3+ increased near the soil. The advantage by using EKS instead of traditional
cathode, obtained from atomic absorption spectrometer
mix-in-place chemical stabilisation is that the technique
testing. Nevertheless, there’s no new minerals presences after
the EKS treatment and the three major elements in clay are
allows for remote treatment through soil without any
silicate oxide, aluminum oxide and ferum oxide. excavation works [7].
The electrokinetic stabilisation technique can be
enhanced by the use of some non-toxic stabilising agents
Keywords-Electrokinetic stabilisation; electroosmosis; such as lime or calcium chloride solutions. These
chemical grouting; clayey soils; shear strength. chemical solutions can be fed at the anode or the cathode
depending on the ions to be transferred into the soil. The
I. INTRODUCTION addition of these chemical stabilisers will alter some
The main problems that faced in construction are the properties of the soil such as texture, plasticity,
low permeability, low strength and low bearing capacity compressibility and permeability. Hence, it can be very
of soft soil. In a certain condition, the soil or fill material effective in improving soil characteristics by reducing the
cannot reach the required specification in geotechnical amount of clay size particles and increasing the shear
aspect and need to be improved. There are two options to strength [16].
enhance the ground improvement, either by physical or
chemical stabilisation [15]. Ground improvements are A. Electroosmosis
important in the construction so that loads can be applied
without causing failure of collapse, settle or failure cause
of bearing capacity. EKS is the one of the principles of
chemical stabilisation and has been chosen as potentially
the best method to enhance the improvement of the soft
soil [6]. It shows that this method can be less expensive
compared to other methods, furthermore this method also
have the advantage of not disturbing site activities. Figure 1. Electroosmosis
The aim of this research is to evaluate the use of EKS
as an effective method to strengthen UTHM soft clay

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Electroosmosis is the relative movement of solution

in soil pores under an externally imposed electrical
potential. The relative movement of electrolyte solution is
attributed to the drag attraction by the mobile counter ions
in the electric double layer. The flow of electroosmotic
fluid in a negatively charged capillary is induced by the
externally applied electrical field. The electric force
exerted on the excess positively charged ions near the
surface causes this flow. The flow of counter ions is
always in the direction of the cathode [5].
Fig. 1 shows the view of electroosmosis where direct
current has been applied through the wet soil mass. The
cations and anions are attracted to the cathode and anode
respectively. The migrations of ions will carry the water Figure 2. Schematic diagram of EKS test rig.
of hydration and exert a viscous drag on the water around
them. After no more mobile cations and anions in a soil There also have two different detachable bases which
that contain a negatively charged clay particles, a net are the solid and perforated bases. The holes of perforated
water flow toward the cathode are exist. This type of flow walls and base are 5 mm in diameter and the spacing
is termed as electroosmosis. The magnitude depends on between the holes is 17 mm centre to centre (see Fig. 3).
the value of ke (coefficient of electroosmotic hydraulic The purpose of perforated base is to enable drainage of
conductivity) and the value of voltage gradient that been water from main compartment during consolidation while
used [15]. the solid base was grooved to discharge water at the edge
Electroosmosis is the method of reducing water of the tank to a volume measuring tube.
content of the soil in situ, thus increasing the shear
strength. The application of electroosmosis through soil
involves the movement of ions and water molecules. The
movement of water will reduce the water content and pore
water pressure, thereby increasing the effective stress of
the soil [7].
When an electrical potential is used through a soil
mass, cations and anions are pulled to the cathode and
anode respectively, whereas neutral particles are pulled to
neither [15]. These forced for migrations occurs most
readily by the ions with the greatest mobility. In the soil
mass these ions are found in the pore water existing
between the soil particles and the ions movement will
causes a transfer of momentum to the pore water. The net
transfer of momentum by both cations and anions within
Figure 3. EKS test rig.
the pore water will help to determine the corresponding
direction and rate of pore water movement [7]. Filter papers were attached at both perforated sides of
wall and perforated base from inside the main
III. EXPERIMENTAL WORK compartment to prevent soil particle movement into the
electrode chambers. During consolidation, solid acrylic
The EKS test rig was designed for this research. A plates of 3 mm thick were used on both sides of filter
schematic diagram of the EKS test rig is shown in Fig. 2. systems to ensure drainage of water only occurred at the
It was made by transparent acrylic plate with 420 mm top and bottom of the soil. A steel loading plate was
depth, 170 mm width and 358 mm length. The thickness placed on top of the sample in the main compartment to
of the acrylic plate was 15 mm. The transparent acrylic ensure the loads were uniformly distributed to the soil
plate for the EKS test rig was used to prevent short sample.
circuiting, monitoring the soil level during consolidation The steel loading plate was designed with twelve 10
and monitoring the level of water and chemical solution. mm diameter holes to allow drainage at the top. The plate
The EKS test rig consisted of three chambers, which was covered with polystyrene to avoid direct contact with
were separated with perforated walls. The soil sample was steel plate and the soil. The holes of the polystyrene were
placed into the main compartment and the two small made at the same position with the holes of the plate to
compartments were used to supply the chemical stabilisers avoid blocking of water during consolidation.
into the soil. After completing the consolidation stage, the 3 mm
solid acrylic plates were removed from the EKS test rig
carefully. After a consolidation stage of the soil ended, the
perforated base was changed to the solid base. Electrode,
electrolyte and stainless steel wire were placed as shown

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in Fig. 2 for the treatment stage. 0.2 mol/l of CaCl2 would be too small to be determined by another method.
solution was fed at the anode compartment while distilled This test was performed immediately after EKS treatment
water (DW) was fed at the cathode compartment. A ended and this testing was determined in accordance with
constant low voltage gradient (8 V/m) was applied to the Head [12].
soil sample to transport calcium ions from the anode For chemical properties and mineralogy; pH, electric
towards the cathode. EKS treatment was performed for a conductivity (EC), atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS),
7 days period of time. The weight of the electrodes was x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and x-ray diffraction (XRD)
measured before and after treatment to check the weight testing were conducted for treated soil. Each sample for
loss that caused by corrosion of the electrode. treated soil was performed at different sections as same as
physical properties testing.
A. Sample Preparation
Soil samples were dried in the oven for 24 hours. The IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
dried sample was ground using grinder machine to get
very fine material that would pass 425 µm sieve. A. Soil Classification
The slurry sample was prepared by mixing the soil Table 1 shows the result of soil classification. The
samples about 14.05 kg with 12.08 kg distilled water to plastic limit for soft clay was 34.05 % and the liquid limit
achieve 96% water content. The water content of slurry was 64.01 %. The percentage of liquid limit was in the
was chosen based on 1.5 times liquid limit (LL). range of 30 – 110 % and plastic limit was in the range of
The slurry sample was mixed using mechanical mixer 25 – 40 % based on Mitchell and Soga [15], thus can be
and blended thoroughly for 30 minutes. Then, the slurry considered as kaolinite soil. The results of plastic index,
sample was placed inside the main compartment of EKS specific gravity and pH value were 30.05 %, 2.71 and
test rig and was left overnight to ensure homogeneity. 4.48, respectively. Generally, the soil classification values
Uniformly distributed load was applied to the slurry of the soil sample were similar as reported by
sample by using large strain consolidation to reduce the Abdurahman [1]. The results were reported that plastic
water content. limit, liquid limit, plastic index and specific gravity value
were 20 – 35 %, 37 – 65 %, 13 – 31 % and 2.18 – 2.65,
respectively.
B. Laboratory Testing of Treated Soil
The treated soil after EKS treatment were investigated TABLE I. SOIL CLASSIFICATION RESULTS
through their physical and chemical characteristics. The
Testing Results
soils were divided into 3 sections which are near the
Plastic Limit 34.05 %
cathode, in the middle and near the anode. The layers Liquid Limit 64.01 %
were divided at the bottom (0 – 80 mm), in the middle (81 Plastic Index 30.05 %
– 160 mm) and at the top (161 – 240 mm) at each section. Specific Gravity 2.71
This was performed in repeatability test and to know the pH 4.48
effects and efficiency of the treatment.
B. Shear Strength
C. Test for Treated Soil
Atterberg limit, moisture content, consolidation and The profiles of the average shear strength of soft clay
laboratory vane shear testing were performed to determine after EKS treatment were shown in Fig. 4. The graph
the physical properties of the treated soil. For the consists of values of shear strength that were taken at
Atterberg limit test, liquid limit test is in accordance with middle and top section; and shear strength value of a
BS 1377 Part 2: 1990: 4.3 and plastic limit test is in control (untreated soft clay). Clearly shows that the shear
accordance with BS 1377 Part 2: 1990: 5. For the liquid strength value of treated soft clay was higher than the
limit test, the wet soils from the tank were not oven dried treated soft clay.
because it may affect the soil properties due to the high At the middle (81 – 160 mm), the average shear
temperature. While for plastic limit test, it is possible to strength near anode area was the weakest one and the
dry using oven before the test will perform. highest value of shear strength was near cathode section.
Moisture content for treated soils was determined in Same at the top section (161 – 240 mm), the weakest
accordance with BS 1377 Part 2: 1990: 3.2. The treated shear strength value was near the anode and the highest
soil that was attached to the vane blade after conducting value was at cathode section. In conclusion, that might be
laboratory vane shear test was taken immediately for occurred an error at the top section during the treatment
moisture content determination. caused by applying the low current voltage. Supposedly
Consolidation for treated soil was determined in the vane shear should be directly does inside the test
accordance with BS 1377 Part 5:1990:3. 75 mm in container to avoid the error and to obtain the exact shear
diameter containing ring and Geotechnical Software DS7 strength value of undisturbed sample.
ELE International were used for this testing.
The laboratory vane shear test was performed
because the size of the treated soil samples in the tank

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where at 208 mm from anode the moisture content for

both depths were 50.73% of middle and 50.92% for top
with 0.19% different. While at 162 mm from anode the
moisture content for both depths were 50.12% and
50.28% respectively and the difference of percentage was
0.16%. And this clearly showed that after EKS treatment
the percentage of moisture content were same at mid
section but much differ near the cathode and the anode for
both depths.

Figure 4. Shear strength of CaCl2-DW system with distance from anode

C. Moisture Content
Fig. 5 shows the percentage moisture content of soil
after EKS treatment between the electrodes. The graph
obtained from the moisture content value that taken from
six different points and between the two different depths
of the section. Comparison of the values can be made due
to the differentiation of percentage near cathode section, Figure 5. Water content of CaCl2-DW system with distance from anode
near anode section and at mid section.
At the middle (81 – 160 mm) the lowest percentage
was near the cathode section with 47.09%, while the D. Consolidation
highest percentage of moisture content was near the anode
section with 50.99%. There’s a large difference of the The purpose of consolidation test is to determine the
percentage between anode and cathode section. The shape magnitude and rate of volume decrease that a laterally
of the graphs shows the percentage were increased from confined soil specimen undergoes when subjected to
cathode to anode section. different vertical pressures. From the measured data, the
At top section (161 – 240 mm), the lowest percentage consolidation curve (void ratio against pressure) can be
was near the electrodes where’s near the cathode and the plotted. The data were useful in determining the
anode section. There’s small different about the compression index, Cc, coefficient of consolidation, cv,
percentage of moisture content between the cathode and and volume of compressibility, mv.
the anode section with 0.83% different. The percentage
was increased from the cathode section but decreased
from mid section to anode section.
Shows that, the percentage for both layers were likely
at the same value at 208 mm and 162 mm from anode

Figure 6. Compression curve of CaCl2-DW system at middle.

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Figure 7. Compression curve of CaCl2-DW system at top.

TABLE II. VALUE OF CC, CV AND MV

Treatment Control Near the At the middle Near the anode Near the At the middle Near the anode
systems cathode (MID) (MID) (MID) cathode (TOP) (TOP) (TOP)
Cc 0.498 0.316 0.374 0.274 0.326 0.349 0.349
Cv (m2/year) 0.14 – 0.35 0.05 – 0.90 0.24 – 1.35 0.22 – 1.06 1.69 – 6.51 1.21 – 7.13 0.99 – 9.34
Mv (m2/MN) 1.637 1.100 1.004 1.513 0.519 0.713 0.922

Fig. 6 shows the compression curve of untreated soils and the average volume compressibility, m v was 1.637
and three curves of treated soil in the middle (81 – 160 m /MN. At the middle (81 – 160 mm), the highest
2

mm) and Fig. 7 shows the compression curves at top average volume compressibility, mv was at near cathode
(161 – 240 mm). Those six different curves were taken at section with 1.513 m /MN and the coefficient of
2

two different depths and three different points. The three consolidation, cv varied between 0.22 and 1.06 0.35
different points were taken near the cathode, near the m /year. The lowest average volume compressibility, mv
2

anode and at the middle. The control curve was the was at middle (81 - 160 mm) with 1.004 m2/MN and the
untreated sample that will be utilised as a reference to coefficient of consolidation, cv varied between 0.24 and
any changes resulting from the EKS treatment. 1.35 m /year. While for top section (161 -240 mm), at this
2

According to Mitchell [15], a linear relationship depth the highest average volume compressibility, mv was
between void ratio and log of effective consolidation at middle with 1.713m /MN and the coefficient of
2

pressure that defines the compression index, Cc is simply consolidation, c varied between 1.21 and 7.13 m /year. 2

a useful engineering approximation that applies over a The lowest average volume compressibility, mv was near
range of stresses and void ratios of practical interest. The the anode section with 0.519 m2/MN and the coefficient
value of Cc that less than 0.2 are considered to represent of consolidation, cv varied between 1.69 and 6.51 m/year.
soils of slight to low compressibility; values of 0.2 to 0.4
are for soils of moderate to intermediate compressibility; E. pH and Electric Conductivity
and Cc greater than 0.4 indicates high compressibility.
From Table 2, clearly shows Cc for untreated soil greater
than 0.4 and considered it as high compressibility soil. From the pH and electric conductivity (EC) result, it
While for treated soil for middle and top section the C c shows the value of pH for treated sample was increased
values all below 0.4 and in between 0.2 to 0.4 and such from anode to cathode more than the untreated/control
Cc values are considered as moderate to intermediate value as shown in Fig. 8. According to Reddy &
compressibility. Chinthamreddy [18], in low buffering soils, such as
For middle section (81 – 160 mm), at this depth the kaolin, the pH of the soils decreases to 2 – 3 near the
value of compression index, Cc gave the lowest value anode and increases to 8–12 near the cathode.
near cathode section and the highest value was at middle. While for the electric conductivity result it showed
While for top section (161 – 240 mm), the highest and that the value increased at 46 – 230 mm from anode and
same values of compression index, Cc were near the dropped at cathode. At the middle (81 -160 mm), the
cathode and at middle. For both depths, shown that at the result shows that at 46 - 230 mm from anode the pH
middle it gave the highest value of compression index, value are higher compared to others EC value. The
Cc. electrical conductivity can be used to describe particle
For untreated soil the values of coefficient of alignment during consolidation as reported by
consolidation, cv varied between 0.14 and 0.35 m/year Blewett [8]. This particle alignment, or tortuosity, will
also define the flow characteristics of the deposit

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either under hydraulic, electrical, thermal or chemical

gradients or any combination of these. In terms of
electric conductivity the value obtained from the
experiment was lower than the initial value (229 mV), the
reducing value of electric conductivity occur from anode
towards the cathode.

Figure 10. Concentration of Iron ion across distance

G. X-Ray Flourescene (XRF)

From Fig. 11, it shows that there’s no improvement in

Silica Oxide (SiO2) mineral from the anode to the
Figure 8. pH and Electric Conductivity distribution across the sample cathode, and only a little increase percentage of
Aluminum Oxide (AlO3), and the increasing Ferum
F. Atomic Absorption Spectrocospy (AAS) Oxide (Fe2O3). Fig. 12 shows the percentage of
concentration of quartz which has a little value of
increasing compared to the untreated sample. There’s no
From Fig. 9, it shows that the concentration of
improvement of percentage for Aluminum Oxide (AlO 3)
calcium increased to 242 mg/l (treated with EKS) from
and the value decreased from the anode to the cathode.
45.4 mg/l (untreated). Hence, the concentration value
Higher percentages of silica oxide were caused by the
decreased to 38.8 mg/l near the cathode. At the middle
presence of quartz mineral in the soil as primer mineral.
section (81 -160 mm), the value of concentration
increased to 150 mg/l and when getting closer to the
cathode it experienced a decline. At 276 mm from anode
the sample are in higher concentration with 49.85 mg/l.
Result of iron concentration was shown in Fig. 10.
From the graph, it shows that at the top (161 -240 mm)
the value of iron concentration was increased from the
anode to the cathode with a value of 508 mg/l compared
with the untreated value with 208.3 mg/l. At the middle
(81 – 160 mm) the value of iron concentration was
increased at 184 mm from the anode and it decreased to
287.3 mg/l. The concentration value increased again to
321.4 mg/l at 276 mm from the anode or near to the
cathode. Figure 11. Percentage of concentration of element over distance from
anode at top.

Figure 9. Concentration of Calcium ion across distance

Figure 12. Percentage of concentration of element over distance from
anode at middle.

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H. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 showed the result that

obtained from XRD to analyze the presence of
mineral in the clay sample. The result shows that
there’s no presence of new mineral in the clay
sample. The sample of clay contains quartz (SiO2) as
a primer mineral and the second highest mineral was
muscovite (H2KAl2(SO4)3), while the third highest
mineral was montmorillonite
(Na0.33(AlMg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2·6H2O)). Muscovite is a
mineral that usually deforms from host rock such as
igneus, metamorphic and sediment. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the presence of muscovite is taken Figure 15. Percentage of concentration over distance from anode at
from the break of host rock by transportation agent middle.
where it was deposited. Fig. 15 and Fig. 16, it shows
the increase value of quartz mineral.

Figure 13. XRD result at top. Figure 16. Percentage of concentration over distance from anode at top.

V. CONCLUSION

The introduction of highly alkaline calcium chloride

(CaCl2) solution from the anode compartment into the
soil sample has significantly increased the strength of the
treated soil especially in the vicinity of the cathode.
Results from consolidation test shown that compression
index, Cc for treated soils are less from the untreated soil.
The Cc for treated soils were considered as moderate to
intermediate compressibility compared to the untreated
soil that considered as high compressibility soil. It is
Figure 14. XRD result at middle. because the voids of treated soil was fulfill with
cementitious agents. And there’s also slightly different
value of Cc, cv and mv between the middle (81 -160 mm)
and top (161 – 240 mm), it can conclude that the
difference occurred because treated soils at middle (81 -
160 mm) was subjected to impose weight from soil at top
(161 -240 mm) and obviously the more deeper the depth
of the soil the more higher stress of the soils.
For the chemical properties, the result shows the
condition of the soil was still acidic from anode to
cathode, while EC value were rising from anode to

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