Lybech - How To Learn Greenlandic - Preview (01.04.2022)

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The document discusses Greenlandic grammar and phonology through analyzing affixes, stems, and sound rules. It also mentions several places in Greenland.

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in language. In the document, morphemes like prefixes and suffixes are used to build words and change their meanings. Morphemes can indicate things like case, number, tense, and more.

Some of the sound rules discussed include a rule for /v/ where it becomes [f] word-initially, a rule where /ð/ becomes [d] between vowels, and rules where consonants like /g/ and /k/ change depending on their environment.

Contents

I Sound rules 1

1 Preliminaries 3
1.1 Morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Join markers and morpheme class/type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 How to introduce yourself 7


2.1 How to be an N: N{-u}V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 A sound rule for /v/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 A sound rule for vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 How to have an N: N{-qaq}V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Weak q-stems and endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.6 A sound rule for k-stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Modifiers to incorporated nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Travelling to Greenland 21
3.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 A new ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Verbalisation of the allative N{mut} and N{nut} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 An affix for ability: V{sinnaa}V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 The fricative rule again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6 Necessarily truncative morphemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 The contemporative mood and sandhi epenthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.8 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4 Coming to Nuuk 37
4.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Spelling of assimilated /q/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 A sound rule for /ð/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

i
Contents

4.4 Noun phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42


4.5 Persons, mood markers and participial endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.6 Transitive endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5 Geography of Nuuk 51
5.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 A sound rule for /g/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 The iterative mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 The go-to affix V{gi’jaqtuq}V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.5 A sound rule for [a] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.6 Plural of nouns and verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.7 Verbalisation of the locative: Being in N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.8 Comparing things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.9 There is N: N{-qaq}V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.10 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

6 The new apartment 69


6.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2 A sound rule for /ə/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.3 Verbal ə-stems with indicative mood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.4 A sound rule (and spelling rule) for /t/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.5 A new verbal stem type: t(ə)-stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.6 Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.7 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Bibliography 87

A Glossary 89
A.1 Bases and particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A.2 Affixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

ii
Part I

Sound rules

1
CHAPTER 1
Preliminaries

In chapter 1 of the AITWG I describe a system of notation for morphemes, join patterns,
phonemes and levels of language description, which I employ throughout the rest of the
book. In the present book I use the same notation, so this short chapter is meant as a
brush-up and (rather terse) summary of the most important points. You can safely skip it
and read chapter 1 of the AITWG instead, if you prefer more detailed explanations.

1.1 Morphemes
Greenlandic is a polysynthetic language, meaning that you construct words on-the-fly, as
you speak (or write), by joining many ‘bits’ of words together, to form complete words.
These ‘bits’ are called morphemes in the linguistic, technical jargon I have dubbed ‘Gram-
maric’; and a morpheme is defined as an element with a meaning that cannot be subdivided
any further. This is the reason why Greenlandic words can be so long, compared to e.g.
English words: they consist of many morphemes – 5-6 per word is not unusual – whilst
English words usually just consist of one or two morphemes. Here is a simple example,
where I have indicated the morpheme boundaries with a | symbol:

pi|si|niar|fim|mu|ka|rusuk|kalua|ra|ma

meaning because I actually wanted to go to the store (but …) Each segment contributes a
specific meaning to the word, so for example -rusuk- means want to, and the segment -si-
means to buy something.
You cannot find this word in any Greenlandic dictionary, because I just constructed
it. To translate such a word, you must instead be able to take it apart again, to find the

3
1. Preliminaries

constituent morphemes which you then can translate, e.g. with the aid of a dictionary.
And conversely, to learn to speak or write Greenlandic, you must learn the rules for how
to join morphemes together.
This can be difficult, because morphemes change their shape and sound, depending on
the other morphemes surrounding them. For example, -rusuk- can also come to be spelt
-kusup- or -kuso- and several other variants. To abstract away from all this variation, I
instead write morphemes in a special ‘canonical’ form, from which you can then derive the
final, context dependent form, by applying a small number of rules. I write this canonical
form of each morpheme in curly braces; so taking the previous example again, I would
write it thus:

{pi}{si}{niaq}{(v)vik}{mut}{-kaq}{(q)gusuk}{galuaq}{ga}{ma}

1.2 Join markers and morpheme class/type


Greenlandic only has three classes of words (at least for the purpose of this book): nouns,
verbs and particles. But since words are constructed by joining morphemes together, then
morphemes too can be divided into these three groups. Furthermore, particles are not
constructed, so this is the only group of words it will make sense for you to memorise as
whole words.
This leaves us with just nouns and verbs; or rather nominal and verbal morphemes. A
nominal morpheme gives rise to a nominal stem, which can then be extended by adding
another morpheme onto the end of it, and likewise does a verbal morpheme give rise to
a verbal stem. Words are built from left to right, by always joining morphemes onto the
right end of a word, so to indicate the stem class of a morpheme, I add one of the symbols
N (for nominal) or V (for verbal) to the right end of morphemes. For example:

• {auk}N is a nominal stem (it means blood)


• {suli}V is a verbal stem (it means to work)

Orthogonal to this categorisation, morphemes can also be classified as one of four


types:

• bases, which must appear at the start of a word; i.e. the left-most position.

• affixes, which can only appear after a base; i.e. in the middle of a word.

• endings, which must appear at the end of a stem. The ending completes the stem,
turning it into a full word.

• enclitics, which can only appear at the end of a completed word; i.e. after the ending,
or at the end of a particle.

4
1.2. Join markers and morpheme class/type

Two (rather obvious) rules of word formation apply:

• A noun or verb must have one, and only one base, and one and only one ending. Both
must always be present to yield a complete, well-formed word.

• A noun or verb can contain zero to many affixes, and it can have zero to many encl-
itics added onto the end. Both affixes and enclitics are optional (for the purpose of
building a syntactically well-formed word).

I encode the type of a morpheme by adding one of the symbols N, V and * onto the left
side of a morpheme. I collectively call these symbols join markers, because they denote the
stem class that the morpheme will join onto. If {morf} is an arbitrary morpheme, then

• {morf}N and {morf}V are both bases. No join marker appear at their left-hand side,
because bases cannot be joined onto anything. They must appear at the head (start)
of a word.

• N{morf}N, N{morf}V, N{morf}V and V{morf}V are all affixes. They join onto
stems of the class indicated by the left-hand join marker, and they yield stems of the
class denoted by the right-hand join marker.

• N{morf} and V{morf} are both endings. No join marker appear at their right-hand
side, because an ending completes the stem, yielding a full word.

• *{morf} is an enclitic. It can be joined onto any complete word (including particles),
and it yields again a complete word. Thus no join marker appears on the right-hand
side.

When I partition a word into a string of morphemes, I may do it in either of two ways:
I can either write each morpheme separately, with spaces in between; or I can write them
as joined on their join markers. Here is an example of both:

{qikmiq}N + N{-qaq}V + V{vuŋa} + *{lu}

{qikmiq}N{-qaq}V{vuŋa}*{lu}

As you can see, the latter is more succinct (and compact), whilst still preserving all infor-
mation about both type and class of the morphemes.

5
1. Preliminaries

1.3 Transformations
The symbols written within the curly braces represent phonemes. A phoneme is an abstrac-
tion over one or several sounds, which the phoneme can come to have once the final word
is pronounced. For example, the phoneme /t/ can take either a d-like sound as in door
(which is the most common), or a t-like sound as in time (whenever it is followed by an
/i/), as well as a few others. Which sound is ultimately chosen is determined by a handful
of sound rules, which are the topic of the entire part I of this book.
Phonemes are written between forward slashes; either a single phoneme like /t/, or a
string of phonemes like

/pisiniaqvikmukaqgusukgaluaqgama/

which is the string of phonemes we would obtain by joining the morphemes of my initial
example. By applying the sound rules to this string of phonemes, we obtain the actual
pronunciation of the word, which is written in hard brackets:

[pisiniɑffimmukɑrusukkaluɑrama]

And finally, given the pronunciation of a word, we can also write it down, by applying the
spelling rules of the New Orthography.1 I have no special symbol to denote the spelling of
a word, but I indicate the final form of a (written) word in italics. Thus:

pisiniarfimmukarusukkaluarama

Morphemes, phonemes, pronunciation and spelling constitute four different levels on


which we may want to describe Greenlandic words. We move from one level to the next
by applying a set of transformation rules (i.e. the sound rules and the spelling rules) to
obtain the final form of the word.
Whenever I apply a rule, I use the symbol ⟹ to denote a one-step transformation.
You can read ⟹ as “yields.” Likewise, if I omit listing each individual step separately,
and instead just apply a number of transformations together, I use the symbol ⟹∗ . You
can read ⟹∗ as “yields in a number of steps.”

1
Which are not numerous, because the New Orthography (for better or worse) aims to follow pronunci-
ation very closely (i.e. so-called phonetic spelling).

6
CHAPTER 2
How to introduce yourself

One of the most obvious things to learn first, when you are studying a new language, is
undoubtedly to learn how to introduce yourself; to state some basic facts about who you
are, where you are from, where you live, and so on. The focus of the present chapter is
to review some fundamental sound rules, but I shall do so in the context of examples of
how to introduce yourself. This will also provide you with some very basic vocabulary,
consisting of some very common bases, affixes and endings that you will likely encounter
countless times in everyday Greenlandic.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to construct just a single word, let alone a whole, mean-
ingful sentence, without using at least 4-5 different sound rules. Yet my aim is here to
introduce as few new rules as possible, to allow you to focus on learning and understand-
ing just a single rule (or maybe two) at a time. The examples will therefore necessarily
be very simple and somewhat artificial for now. I will also have to skip lightly over some
details and defer some explanations to later.

2.1 How to be an N: N{-u}V


One very important affix is N{-u}V, which means to be (an) N.1 Notice that this affix is
written with a minus, ‘−’ in front; it signifies that this affix is sandhi truncative, which
means that it will only attach to a vowel. Thus, if the preceding stem ends in a consonant,
then this consonant is deleted when N{-u}V is added. However, if the stem actually does
end in a vowel, then N{-u}V just attaches to that without further ado.

1
Or is (an) N, or am (an) N, or are (an) N. There is no distinction in Greenlandic.

7
2. How to introduce yourself

Exercise 1: Practice sandhi truncativity and say ‘I am a(n) N’

Try adding N{-u}V to the stems {tuttu}N, {igacuq}N, {inuk}N, to say I am a


reindeer/a cook/a human, respectively. In each case, adding N{-u}V yields a verb
stem, and since all verb stems must have an ending to become complete verbs, you
therefore also have to add an ending after N{-u}V. Use the verbal ending V{vuŋa},
which means I Vb. The solutions to all exercises are given at the end of the chapter.

• {tuttu}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
I am a reindeer

• {igacuq}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
I am a cook

• {inuk}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
I am a human

A note on spelling: /c/ is always spelt s in the new orthography, and /ŋ/ is written
as ng.

2.2 A sound rule for /v/


The ending V{vuŋa} means I Vb, as you saw above. Adding it onto a vowel stem, such as
any stem created by N{-u}V, was entirely unproblematic in the sense that the ending was
not affected in any way by being joined onto a vowel. V{vuŋa} came to be spelt vunga
with an initial v in all cases.
However, not all stems end on a vowel: consonant stems end on one of the consonants
/k/, /q/ or /t/, and this will affect an ending such as V{vuŋa} if it is joined onto a
consonant stem. Specifically, it will affect the initial /v/. There is a very general sound
rule, the fricative rule, that describe how a certain group of consonants (including /v/)
behave, when they come to follow another consonant.
For now, we can skip the full explanation of the rule and just focus on what happens
to /v/: If 𝑐 is a consonant phoneme (either /k/ or /t/), then /𝑐v/ comes to be written as
pp (and pronounced as [pp]). However, if the consonant is /q/, then we have a slightly
different situation: /qv/ comes to be written as rp (but still pronounced as [pp]). In other
words:

8
2.3. A sound rule for vowels

/kv/ ⟹∗ pp
/tv/ ⟹∗ pp
/qv/ ⟹∗ rp ← Note!
With the help of this sound rule you can now also add V{vuŋa} to consonant stems.

Exercise 2: Practice the sound rule for /v/


Use the sound rule for /v/ and add the ending V{vuŋa} to each of the stems below:

• {nuuk}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
I move (to some place)

• {najugaqaq}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
I live (in some place)

• {tikit}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
I arrive (at some place)

2.3 A sound rule for vowels


You may be wondering why /qv/ is spelt as rp rather than pp, even though it is still
pronounced as [pp]. The reason is that /q/ (and also /r/) is a so-called uvular consonant,
and uvular consonants affect the pronunciation of any vowel immediately preceding it.
Specifically, any vowel standing before a uvular consonant is pronounced open. This is a
general sound rule for vowels; thus if 𝑣 is any vowel phoneme, then the combinations
/𝑣q/ and /𝑣r/ would both mean that 𝑣 must have an open (or ‘uvularised’) pronunciation.
And this is why /qv/ is written as rp, even though it is pronounced as [pp]; because in
the combination /𝑣qv/, the vowel 𝑣 must still have an open pronunciation, even though
the uvular /q/ itself comes to be pronounced as a [p], and it is therefore instead written
as an r to remind us of that. /𝑣qv/ is pronounced as [𝑣pp] with an open sound of the
vowel 𝑣.
This ‘openness’ quality of a vowel also affects the spelling; but unfortunately not con-
sistently. Fortunately though, Greenlandic only has three2 vowel phonemes, so this small
lack of consistency is not unmanageable. The three Greenlandic vowel phonemes are /a/,
/i/ and /u/, and their normal (i.e. non-uvularised) pronunciation is
2
Actually four, but we can ignore the last vowel phoneme for now.

9
2. How to introduce yourself

• /a/ ⟹ [a] as in English fat, hat, cat.


• /i/ ⟹ [i] somewhat as in English free or bit.
• /u/ ⟹ [u] as in boot, tooth.

However, when the vowel phonemes are followed by an uvular such as /q/, their
pronunciation change. Here I just use /q/ for illustration, but /r/ would cause the same
change:

• /aq/ ⟹ [ɑq] as in armour, carbon.


• /iq/ ⟹ [ɜq] somewhat as in bird or hair.
• /uq/ ⟹ [ɔq] as in thought.

Now, [a], [i] and [u] (i.e. the non-uvularised pronunciations) are just straightfor-
wardly spelt as a, i and u. For example, the word [uia], her husband, which contains
all three vowel phonemes with non-uvularised pronunciation, is written simply as uia.
However, two of these three vowels are spelt differently when they are uvularised; namely
[ɜ] and [ɔ]:

• [ɜ] is written e.
• [ɔ] is written o.
• However, [ɑ] is still just written as a.3

Thus, whenever you see written words like igasoq, cook, and ateq, name, you have to
remember that these e’s and o’s are really /i/ and /u/ that just have come to have a special
pronunciation, because they are followed by an uvular (here /q/), which is then reflected
in the spelling.4 This is important, because if the /q/ is ever removed, e.g. if you add a
truncative affix like N{-u}V onto these stems, then these vowels will of course revert to
their normal (non-uvularised) pronunciation. And then they will, of course, just be written
as i and u again.

Exercise 3: Practice the vowel rule


A dictionary like the DAKAa does not list words in their morphemic form, as I do
in this book. Instead, nouns are listed in the way they would be written, i.e. after all
sound and spelling rules have been applied. Below are some examples. Use your
knowledge of the vowel rule and add N{-u}V{vuŋa} to each of the nouns, to say
I am an N, and notice how the spelling of the vowels changes:

3
And this is the inconsistency. It would have been more consistent, if either all three or none of them
used a different spelling for the uvularised pronunciation.
4
Actually, the e in ateq is not really an /i/ but a /ə/, which is the fourth vowel I mentioned. However, it
behaves just like an /i/ here, so we can safely treat it as such for now.

10
2.4. How to have an N: N{-qaq}V

• igasoq ⟹∗ igasuuvunga
cook

• ateq ⟹∗
name

• ilisimasalik ⟹∗
person with scientific knowledge (of something)

• qarasaasialerisoq ⟹∗
computer scientist
Nuummioq ⟹∗
A person from Nuuk
a
DAKA is short for Dansk/Kalaallisut, i.e. a Danish/Greenlandic (and Greenlandic/Danish) dicti-
onary. You can access it online at https://iserasuaat.gl/daka/daka , or just by clicking on
the name DAKA anywhere in this book.

2.4 How to have an N: N{-qaq}V


The affix N{-qaq}V means to have an N, and thus, by adding the ending V{vuŋa} onto
the resulting stem, you can say I have an N. This is an incredibly useful, and hence also
common, affix, since you likely often may want to express that you have something; e.g. a
house, a car, a husband, a wife, siblings, children, friends; or simply just a name, since the
Greenlandic equivalent of I have a name is the most common way of expressing my name
is …
There are a few things to note about N{-qaq}V: first of all, it is truncative (it has the
‘−’ symbol in front of it), and secondly, it begins with an uvular phoneme, namely /q/.
This affix will thus only attach to vowels (and hence remove any final consonants standing
in its way); and that vowel will, in turn, become uvularised because it comes to be followed
by a /q/. This affix will therefore in a sense cause the ‘opposite’ transformation of what
you saw N{-u}V do above; i.e. it will uvularise vowels that previously may have had just
the ordinary (non-uvular) pronunciation and spelling.

11
2. How to introduce yourself

Exercise 4: Practice the vowel rule again, and say ‘I have an N’

Add N{-qaq}V{vuŋa} to the following nouns to say I have an N. Use your knowl-
edge of the vowel rule to write the correct form of the final vowel in each stem, and
remember the rule for /qv/ when you join V{vuŋa} onto N{-qaq}V:

• illu ⟹∗
house

• biili ⟹∗
car

• nuliaq ⟹∗
wife

• ui ⟹
husband

• meeraq ⟹∗
child

• najugaq ⟹∗
place to live/address

• ateq ⟹∗
name

• ukioq ⟹∗
year

There is one other thing to note about N{-qaq}V. Like all other affixes, this affix is of
course added to the stem, rather than the final form of the word (even though the stem and
the final form of all the nouns in the previous example actually coincide). This is important,
because the stem of a noun does not include information such as number. In other words,
{miiraq}N means child, but not e.g. one child; and when you add N{-qaq}V{vuŋa} onto
this stem, you obtain a word that means I have child, and not I have one child. The resulting
word can mean both I have a child and I have children, and this is the case for all the
previous examples. You use the same word, whether you have one or several cars, houses,
wives, husbands, children, addresses, names or years etc. Without further information, we
cannot tell whether the noun should be understood as singular or plural, and thus whether

12
2.5. Weak q-stems and endings

you have one or several children. I shall return to this point in a little while.

2.5 Weak q-stems and endings


All nouns and verbs in Greenlandic must have an ending. In the case of nouns, the ending
tells us the number of the noun (i.e. whether it is singular or plural), and also the function
of the noun in the sentence (e.g. whether the noun is subject, object, a place where the
action described by the verb happens, and so on). Hitherto, all the nouns you have seen,
such as illu, inuk, najugaq, ukioq etc. have been in their ‘most common’ singular form;
this form is also called the unmarked absolutive singular in Grammaric. It just so happens
that the ending that denotes ‘unmarked absolutive singular’ is N{∅}, which is a morpheme
consisting of nothing (i.e. the empty string). This is precisely why I said that the final form
of all nouns you have seen so far, has coincided with the stem of the word; because adding
an empty string N{∅} onto a stem obviously yields just the stem.
However, nouns can have many other endings besides the unmarked absolutive singu-
lar. Here are some:

• N{mi}, in/at/on N (unmarked locative singular)


• N{mut}, to N (unmarked allative singular)
• N{mit}, from N (unmarked ablative singular)

You can safely ignore the fancy Grammaric name in parentheses for now. The impor-
tant thing here is the form and meaning of these endings. As you can see, they all begin
with a consonant, namely /m/; so they are consonant initial endings.
You have also seen three different types of nouns (or rather, noun stems):

• Vowel stems such as illu that end in a vowel


• k-stems such as inuk that end in /k/
• q-stems such as ukioq that end in /q/

Most 5 of the q-stems you have seen so far are called weak q-stems. This means that
they will automatically throw away their final /q/ before consonant initial endings6 such
as N{mi}, N{mut} and N{mi}, regardless of whether the ending is truncative or not. As
you can see, none of these endings are truncative (they do not have the ‘−’ symbol in
front of them); they are additive, meaning they will attach to both vowels and consonants.
Yet the weak q-stems will still throw away their final /q/ before them, and thus in a sense
behave like vowel stems. This will of course again trigger a reversal of the vowel rule, since
the final /q/, that caused uvularisation of the preceding vowel, no longer is present.

5
But not all: ateq is not a weak q-stem.
6
Only ending, not affixes!

13
2. How to introduce yourself

Exercise 5: Use the vowel rule with weak q-stems

A good number of Greenlandic city names are weak q-stems. Add the endings
N{mi}, N{mut} and N{mit} to say in/to/from that city, and use you knowledge of
the vowel rule to choose the correct spelling for the final vowel. To create whole
sentences, you can use {city name}N{mi} najugaqarpunga to express I live in
(city name); and {city name}N{mut} nuuppunga to say I move to (city name):

• Qaanaaq ⟹∗

• Maniitsoq ⟹∗

• Qaqortoq ⟹∗

• Narsaq ⟹∗

• Tasiilaq ⟹∗

• Isortoq ⟹∗

2.6 A sound rule for k-stems


There is an important, and very general, sound rule in Greenlandic, which says that when-
ever we have two different consonant phonemes 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 in combination, 𝑐1 𝑐2 , then we
always end up with two of the second type, 𝑐2 𝑐2 . Abstractly expressed:

𝑐1 𝑐2 → 𝑐2 𝑐2

This rule has wide-ranging implications, but for now we shall just consider it in the con-
text of k-stems with nouns. The rule says that whenever we have a k-stem like {inuk}N,
and we add an ending like N{mut}, we get a consonant cluster /km/, which by this rule
becomes [mm], and which is also spelt as mm. The second consonant is /m/, and by this
rule, we end up with two consonants of the second type. /km/ becomes mm. Thus

{inuk}N{mut} ⟹ /inukmut/ ⟹ [inummut] ⟹ inummut

which means to the human. This rule is important, because many morphemes, both affixes
and ending, are additive and consonant initial; and whenever any of these are added to a
consonant stem, the combination will therefore trigger this rule.

14
2.6. A sound rule for k-stems

Exercise 6: The consonant rule with k-stems


A number of Greenlandic towns are k-stems. Use your knowledge of the new sound
rule for k-stems and add the endings N{mi}, N{mut} and N{mi} as in exercise 5:

• Nuuk ⟹∗

• Nanortalik ⟹∗

• Upernavik ⟹∗

• Arsuk ⟹∗

• Kulusuk ⟹∗

You can again use najugaqarpunga resp. nuuppunga to create whole sentences.

Exercise 7: City names with plural

The plural forms of N{mi}, N{mut}, N{mit} are, respectively, N{ni} (in/on/at Ns),
N{nut} (to Ns) and N{nit} (from Ns). Thus e.g. illumut means to the (single) house,
but illunut means to the (several) houses. The consonant rule of course still applies;
so if you end up with /kn/, then the combination becomes [nn].
Some Greenlandic towns have names in plural; and thus to say in, to, from such a
city, you therefore have to use the plural forms of these endings. However, since
endings are added to stems (and not to complete words), you therefore need to know
the stem form of these city names (i.e. without the plural marker), in order to add
these new, plural endings onto it. Here are some examples: some of them are k-
stems, and others are weak q-stems, and I have added the stem form in parenthesis.
Add the plural version of the endings to the stem forms:

• Sisimiut ({Sisimiuq}N) ⟹∗

• Paamiut ({Paamiuq}N) ⟹∗

• Aasiaat ({Aasiak}N) ⟹∗

• Qasigiannguit ({Qasigiannguaq}N) ⟹∗

• Kapisillit ({Kapisilik}N) ⟹∗

15
2. How to introduce yourself

2.7 Modifiers to incorporated nouns


As you saw earlier, the affix N{-qaq}V attaches to a noun stem and yields a verbal stem
meaning to have (noun stem). This is also called noun incorporation in Grammaric, and we
say that the noun stem has been incorporated into the verbal stem.
As I also mentioned, the incorporated noun stem does not contain any marker for
number. If I say e.g. illoqarpunga, then it can mean either that I have just a single house,
or several houses. The word literally just means I have house.
Now suppose I want to say that I have a red house. The word red is a noun in Green-
landic, aappaluttoq, and it is also a weak q-stem. I can use this word as a so-called modifier
of an incorporated noun, by giving it an ending of a new type: N{mik} in singular, and
N{nik} in plural.7 And by using either the singular or the plural ending, I can signify
whether the incorporated noun (in this case, the house illu) is singular or plural. Thus
• Aappaluttumik illoqarpunga means I have a (single) red house.

• Aappaluttunik illoqarpunga means I have (several) red houses.


This construction is particularly common, because N{-qaq}V is such a common affix.
For example, you use it whenever you want to say your name or your age:
• To express my name is N, you literally say I have a name using ateq and N{-qaq}V,
and then you specify what the name is by adding N{mik} to the name itself. You
use the singular ending, because there is only a single name.

• To express I am N years old, you literally say I have (several) years using ukioq and
N{-qaq}V, and then you specify the number of years by adding N{nik} to the num-
ber. You use the plural ending, because you presumably are more than a single year
old (although if you were just a single year old, you would of course use the singular
ending N{mik} instead).

2.8 Text
You are now ready for the last exercise of this chapter: a text in Greenlandic. It ties together
everything you have learned so far, and specifically it reuses many of the glossaries and
constructions you have hitherto seen in the previous exercises of this chapter.

7
These endings belong to a class called the instrumental case; thus N{mik} is the unmarked singular
instrumental, and N{nik} is the unmarked plural instrumental.

16
2.8. Text

Exercise 8: Translate the text


Aluu, Stianimik ateqarpunga. 36-nik ukioqarpunga. Qarasaasialerisuuvunga.
Aamma tarnip pissusiinik ilisimasaliuvunga. Aalborgiminngaanneerpunga,
kisianni 2011-mi Kalaallit Nunaannut nuuppunga. 2011-mit 2016-imut
Nuummi najugaqarpunga. Taava 2016-imi Aalborgimut uterpunga. Kisianni
ullumikkut Reykjavímmi najugaqarpunga. 2021-mi maanga nuuppunga.

Glossary:
• aamma, and, also, furthermore
• tarnip pissusiinik ilisimasalik, psychologist
• Aalborg, a city in Northern Jutland, Denmark
• N{miŋŋaanniiq}V, is from N; comes from N
• kisianni, but, however
• Kalaallit Nunaannut, to Greenland
• taava, then
• {utiq}V, returns (to some place)
• ullumikkut, now, today, nowadays
• Reykjavík, the capital city of Iceland
• maanga, hither (to here)

One last detail: You may have noticed an /i/ that appears at the end of some of the
loan-word in exercise 8, such as Aalborgimut and 2016-imi. It does not mean anything,
but is just added to loan-words (including names such as mine), if the word does not al-
ready end on a vowel, or one of the consonant sounds [t], [k] or [q]; because that is the
shape of all Greenlandic words. The /i/ is thus used to ‘greenlandize’ foreign words. As
you may also notice, 2011-mit and 2021-mi do not have this greenlandizing /i/. This
is because Greenlandic uses the Danish numerals for numbers larger than 12, and 2011
(totusindogelleve) and 2021 (totusindogenogtyve) actually do end on a vowel in Danish,
so the extra /i/ is not needed.

17
2. How to introduce yourself

Solutions to the Exercises

Solution 1: Practice sandhi truncativity and say ‘I am a(n) N’

• {tuttu}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ tuttuuvunga
• {igacuq}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ igasuuvunga
• {inuk}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ inuuvungaa
a
inuuvunga also means I am alive.

Solution 2: Practice the sound rule for /v/


• {nuuk}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ nuuppunga
• {najugaqaq}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ najugaqarpunga
• {tikit}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ tikippunga

Solution 3: Practice the vowel rule


• igasoq ⟹∗ igasuuvunga
• ateq ⟹∗ atiuvunga a
• ilisimasalik ⟹∗ ilisimasaliuvunga
• qarasaasialerisoq ⟹∗ qarasaasialerisuuvunga
• Nuummioq ⟹∗ Nuummiuuvunga
a
The sentence I am a name does of course not make much sense. But it is a valid sentence.

Solution 4: Practice the vowel rule again, and say ‘I have an N’

• illu ⟹∗ illoqarpunga
• biili ⟹∗ biileqarpunga
• nuliaq ⟹∗ nuliaqarpunga

18
2.8. Text

• ui ⟹∗ ueqarpunga
• meeraq ⟹∗ meeraqarpunga
• najugaq ⟹∗ najugaqarpunga
• ateq ⟹∗ ateqarpunga
• ukioq ⟹∗ ukioqarpunga

Solution 5: Use the vowel rule with weak q-stems

• Qaanaaq ⟹∗ Qaanaami, Qaanaamut, Qaanaamit


• Maniitsoq ⟹∗ Maniitsumi, Maniitsumut, …
• Qaqortoq ⟹∗ Qaqortumi, …
• Narsaq ⟹∗ Narsami
• Tasiilaq ⟹∗ Tasiilami
• Isortoq ⟹∗ Isortumi

Solution 6: The consonant rule with k-stems


• Nuuk ⟹∗ Nuummi, Nuummut, Nuummit
• Nanortalik ⟹∗ Nanortalimmi, Nanortalimmut, …
• Upernavik ⟹∗ Upernavimmi, …
• Arsuk ⟹∗ Arsummi
• Kulusuk ⟹∗ Kulusummi

Solution 7: City names with plural

• Sisimiut ({Sisimiuq}N) ⟹∗ Sisimiuni, Sisimiunut, Sisimiunit


• Paamiut ({Paamiuq}N) ⟹∗ Paamiuni, Paamiunut, …
• Aasiaat ({Aasiak}N) ⟹∗ Aasianni
• Qasigiannguit ({Qasigiaŋŋuaq}N) ⟹∗ Qasigiannguani
• Kapisillit ({Kapisilik}N) ⟹∗ Kapisilinni

19
2. How to introduce yourself

Solution 8: Translate the text


Hi, my name is Stian. I am 36 years old. I am a computer scientist. I am also a
psychologist. I come from Aalborg, but in 2011 I moved to Greenland. I lived in
Nuuk from 2011 to 2016. Then, in 2016 I returned to Aalborg. However, now I live
in Reykjavík. I moved hither in 2021.

20
CHAPTER 3
Travelling to Greenland

In the previous chapter I mentioned that I moved to Greenland in 2011. In this chapter, I
will elaborate more on that story, by describing my journey from my previous hometown,
Aalborg, in Northern Jutland, to Nuuk, the capital of Greenland. Apart from that, the aim
of this chapter is to introduce a few more affixes and endings, and to add another case
to the so-called fricative rule that you saw in the previous chapter. You will also get a
glimpse of the important concept of mood for verbs, and a new type of sandhi behaviour
called epenthesis.

3.1 Review
Let us just briefly review what you learnt in the previous chapter:

• Morphemes have different preferences for what they will join onto: The additive
morphemes like N{mi}, N{mut} etc. will join onto both consonant and vowel pho-
nemes. This is the default behaviour, and additive morphemes are therefore written
without any special symbol in front. In contrast, truncative morphemes like N{-u}V
and N{-qaq}V will only join onto vowel phonemes and therefore they remove any
final consonant phoneme of the preceding stem that stands in their way.

• There are different types of noun stems: vowel stems, k-stems and q-stems. Within
the latter group, most q-stems are weak q-stems, meaning that they will automati-
cally throw away their final /q/ before consonant-initial endings (not affixes!), re-
gardless of whether the ending itself is additive or truncative.

21
3. Travelling to Greenland

Figure 3.1: The view from Kangerlussuaq Airport, while I waited for the plane to Nuuk. The large
aircraft (center) is the Atlantic aircraft, nicknamed Norsaq.

• The vowel rule stipulates that vowels have an open pronunciation before uvulars (/r/
and /q/), and that /i/ and /u/ are also spelt differently when they have become
uvularised, namely as e and o respectively.

• The consonant rule, 𝑐1 𝑐2 → 𝑐2 𝑐2 , is responsible for assimilating all consonant clus-


ters, such that you always end up with a double consonant sounds of the second
type. This is the rule that transforms /Nuukmut/ into Nuummut and /Aasiakni/
into Aasianni and so on.

• Lastly, you got a partial glimpse of the fricative rule, which (amongst other things)
determines that /qv/ comes to be spelt as rp; and for all other consonant phonemes
𝑐 that /𝑐v/ comes to be spelt pp. This rule is particularly important when joining
v-initial endings such as V{vuŋa} onto the various types of verbal stems.

22
3.2. A new ending

This is already quite a list of abstract rules that you need to manage, just to be able to
understand and construct even the most basic words and sentences.

3.2 A new ending


The ending V{vuŋa} means I Vb as you have seen. But what if the subject of the sentence
is someone else than I, such as for example he? In that case, you need a different end-
ing: in this case the ending V{vuq}, which means he/she/it Vb’s (there is no difference in
Greenlandic between he, she and it). This ending is also called the 3rd person (intransitive)
indicative.

Exercise 9: The 3rd person indicative

Rewrite the text from exercise 8 to the 3rd person by using V{vuq} instead of
V{vuŋa}, such that it now instead means His name is Stian. He is 36 years old. He
is a computer scientist … and so on. Here is the original text:
Stianimik ateqarpunga. 36-nik ukioqarpunga. Qarasaasialerisuuvunga. Aamma
tarnip pissusiinik ilisimasaliuvunga. Aalborgiminngaanneerpunga, kisianni
2011-mi Kalaallit Nunaannut nuuppunga. 2011-mit 2016-imut Nuummi
najugaqarpunga. Taava 2016-imi Aalborgimut uterpunga. Kisianni ullumikkut
Reykjavímmi najugaqarpunga. 2021-mi maanga nuuppunga.

The shape of endings


You may have noticed a certain similarity between the endings V{vuŋa} and V{vuq}.
They both begin with the phoneme string /vu/.
This is no coincidence: the string /vu/ is actually a special morpheme {vu}, called the
(intransitive) indicative mood marker, and it denotes that the verb is a statement of some
kind. This is precisely what is meant by the Grammaric word indicative, hence the name.
V{vuŋa} and V{vuq} both belong to a group of endings called the indicative mood, which
is used for expressing statements. Greenlandic also have several other moods (i.e. groups
of verbal endings) for expressing e.g. questions, orders, wishes etc., and these use different
mood markers, as you will see later.
Conversely, V{vuŋa} and V{vuq} also differ in the second half of the ending: the first
ends with the string /ŋa/, whilst the second ends with a /q/. These are also morphemes,
{ŋa} and {q}, and they denote the person who performs the action; thus {ŋa} denotes I
(also called the 1st person singular), and {q} denotes he/she/it (also called the 3rd person

23
3. Travelling to Greenland

singular). As you will see later, this nice regularity makes it easy to learn whole new sets
of endings (i.e. moods), once you know the person markers, because you can often just
exchange one mood marker for another, but leave the person markers unaltered.

Dictionary entries
Dictionaries such as the DAKA do not list stems and affixes as morphemes as I do. Instead,
verbs (and verbal affixes) are listed with endings, using (usually) the 3rd person indicative
ending.1 In my opinion, it is a deeply impractical (and even counter-productive) way of
doing it, because it means that some affixes, due to the changes caused by the sound rules,
may be listed 3-4 times. And without knowledge of the sound rules (which certainly are
not common knowledge in the teaching of Greenlandic as a foreign language), it can be
extraordinarily difficult to figure out when each of the different forms should be used.
However, now that you know the 3rd person indicative ending V{vuq}, you will hopefully
find it easier to use a dictionary like the DAKA, and understand what needs to be replaced
if you want to say a word with a different ending than precisely the 3rd person indicative.

3.3 Verbalisation of the allative N{mut} and N{nut}


You have seen the endings N{mut} and N{nut}, which mean to N (singular) and N{to Ns}
(plural), respectively. They belong to a group of noun endings called the allative case,
which I abbreviate as N{ALL}, and the common factor is that they mean to/onto/into and
so on; some sense of movement from one area to another.
Allative case endings can be verbalised, meaning that we can transform them into a
verbal stem, by adding a special morpheme N{ALL}{-kaq}V onto them. The morpheme
is special in the sense that it contradicts the rule that we normally cannot add new affixes
on top of an ending, and furthermore it only attaches to allative endings, which is what
the part N{ALL} indicates. By using N{ALL}{-kaq}V with N{mut} and N{nut}, we thus
get two new morphemes, N{mukaq}V and N{nukaq}V, that mean go to N and go to Ns.

Exercise 10: Going to places

Use the 3rd person indicative ending V{vuq} and the verbalisation of the allative
endings N{mut} and N{nut} to say he goes to (city name). Remember that some
city names are weak q-stems, and some are inherently plural and therefore require
the use of the allative plural ending N{nut}. You may want to check your answers

1
In the AITWG I dubbed this way of describing the language Graphemism (from the Grammaric word
grapheme, the unit of spelling).

24
3.4. An affix for ability: V{sinnaa}V

to exercise 7 on page 15 for help.

• Nuuk ⟹∗

• Paamiut ⟹∗

• Arsuk ⟹∗

• Qaqortoq ⟹

• Illoqqortoormiut ⟹∗

• Aasiaat ⟹∗

• Qasigiannguit ⟹∗

• Isortoq ⟹∗

• Uummannaq ⟹∗

• Kapisillit ⟹∗

I should also mention two other places, you probably might want to go to:

• Kangerlussuaq is the name of a small town on the west coast where the atlantic
airport is located. All flights from Copenhagen go to Kangerlussuaq, and you then
continue on with smaller flights to your final destination. Kangerlussuaq is singular,
but it is not a weak q-stem, so the ending N{mut} attaches directly to the final /q/.
He goes to Kangerlussuaq is therefore Kangerlussuarmukarpoq.

• Kalaallit Nunaannut means to Greenland. It is a so-called noun phrase, because it


consists of several coordinated nouns, but in this case we only need to worry about
the ending on the final noun. As you can see, it carries an allative ending, so he goes
to Greenland is therefore straightforward Kalaallit Nunaannukarpoq.

3.4 An affix for ability: V{sinnaa}V


Hitherto you have only seen verbal stems that express that someone does something.
However, you might equally well want to express that you have the ability to do some-
thing; i.e. to say I can Vb. This is precisely what the affix V{sinnaa}V means. For ex-
ample, {aallaq}V means travel (to some place), so aallarpoq means he travels, but aal-
larsinnaavoq means he can travel.

25
3. Travelling to Greenland

Exercise 11: Rewrite the sentences to say ‘can’

Rewrite the following sentences to express that the subject (either ‘I’ or ‘he’) can
perform the action, by injecting V{sinnaa}V before the ending. Remember that
you are now adding the ending onto a vowel stem, to its form may change by the
fricative rule.

• Nuummut aallarpunga ⟹∗ Nuummut aallarsinnaavunga


I travel to Nuuk

• Kalaallit Nunaannukarpoq ⟹∗
He goes to Greenland

• kalaallisut oqarpoq ⟹∗
He says something in Greenlandic

• Københavnimut qimuttuitsorpunga ⟹∗
I travel by train to Copenhagen

• timmisartumut ilaavoq ⟹∗
he is a passenger on an aeroplane i.e. he travels by plane

• Kangerlussuarmut tikippunga ⟹∗
I arrive in Kangerlussuaq

3.5 The fricative rule again


A good many affixes and endings begin with the phoneme /g/, for example the affix
V{galuaq}V and the ending V{gama}. Here the fricative rule shows up again in another
guise: this time it says that whenever a /g/ is joined onto a consonant phoneme /k/ or /t/
(but not /q/!), then /𝑐g/ becomes kk. Abstractly written:

/𝑐g/ ⟹∗ kk

where 𝑐 ≠ /q/.2 This is yet another immensely common sound change.

2
What happens when /g/ is joined onto a /q/ is handled by another rule, so we shall save that case for
later.

26
3.6. Necessarily truncative morphemes

Exercise 12: The fricative rule for /g/

The ending V{gama} means when (or because) I Vb’ed. Unlike V{vuŋa}, which
is just used to state a fact, V{gama} is used to express some kind of (past) cause
or condition for another verb, such as for example because I worked I was tired.
Add V{gama} to one of the following stems, and V{vuŋa} to the other, to create
complete sentences:

• {suli}V {qasu}V ⟹∗
(work, be tired ⟹ because I worked, I was tired)

• {tikit}V {isiq}V ⟹∗
(arrive, go inside ⟹ when I arrived, I went inside)

• {nuuk}V {aallaq}V ⟹∗
(move, travel ⟹ because I moved, I travelled)

The fricative rule and the consonant rule


You have seen /𝑐v/ become pp and /𝑐g/ become kk because of the fricative rule. But you
also know that by the consonant rule, /𝑐1 𝑐2 / ⟹∗ [𝑐2 𝑐2 ]. You may therefore be wondering
how these two rules fit together: why does /kv/ and /tg/ not become [vv] and [gg] by
the consonant rule, instead of [pp] and [kk]?
The explanation is that they actually do. /kv/ and /tv/ do indeed both become [vv] by
the consonant rule; and likewise do /kg/ and /tg/ indeed become /gg/. However, both [v]
and [g] belong to a group of consonants called voiced fricatives, and what the fricative rule
actually says is that when a voiced fricative is doubled, it must become devoiced. One of the
devoiced sounds corresponding3 to [v] is [p], so by the fricative rule, [vv] becomes [pp].
And likewise, one of the devoiced sounds corresponding to [g] is [k], so [gg] becomes
[kk]. Hitherto, I have just preferred to describe it as a one-step transformation, rather
than two steps, to make it easier for you to actually use the rule.

3.6 Necessarily truncative morphemes


Here is a simple rule to make your task of learning Greenlandic a little easier: all mor-
phemes that begin in a double consonant are truncative. To learn affixes like N{-qaq}V
3
Corresponding in the sense that they have the same place of articulation: Both [v] and [p] are pro-
nounced on the lips.

27
3. Travelling to Greenland

and N{-u}V, you have to actively remember that these affixes are truncative. It is one
more piece of information you have to memorise, along with their form, meaning, and
what type of stem they join onto, and what type of stem they give rise to.
On the other hand, whenever you see a morpheme (either an affix or an ending) that
starts with a double consonant /𝑐𝑐/, then by this rule you know that it is truncative. It
is given directly by the shape of the morpheme. There is no reason to add that little
‘−’ in front of it, and consequently I shall not do so. Thus I write e.g. V{ŋŋit}V rather
than V{-ŋŋit}V, because this affix (which by the way means not Vb) begins in a double
consonant.

The slightly longer explanation


The explanation for this is a little technical, but it is worth for you to know: All syllables
in all Greenlandic words (excluding Danish loan words) are of the form

(𝑐)𝑣(𝑣)(𝑐)

where 𝑐 is a consonant phoneme, 𝑣 is a vowel phoneme, and anything in parentheses can


be omitted. Thus, the shortest possible syllable consists of a single vowel. The vowel can
also be double, 𝑣𝑣, but it must be two of the same kind of vowel, if they are to belong to the
same syllable. In other words, uia (her husband) consists of three short syllables, [u-i-a];
but Nuuk is a single syllable. Also, there can be at most one consonant at the beginning
and the end of a syllable, like in Nuuk, but not more than that.
Now consider what happens if we combine two syllables. According to this pattern of
the structure of syllables, they would have to look like this:

(𝑐)𝑣(𝑣)(𝑐)|(𝑐)𝑣(𝑣)(𝑐)

I have simply doubled the pattern and added a | to mark the boundary between the
two syllables As you can see, there can at most be two consonant phonemes standing next
to each other, at the boundary. There is simply no way in which you can combine any two
legal instances of the pattern (𝑐)𝑣(𝑣)(𝑐) such that you would ever end up with more than
two consonants standing next to each other.
This means that whenever you join a morpheme {𝑐𝑐𝑣…}, beginning in a double con-
sonant /𝑐𝑐/, onto any kind of stem, then the result still must conform to this pattern of
syllables. Consequently, if the stem itself ends in a consonant, {…𝑣𝑐}, then it must be
removed, because otherwise there wold be three consonants standing next to each other,
which is disallowed by the syllable pattern.

28
3.6. Necessarily truncative morphemes

Exercise 13: How to say ‘not’ with V{ŋŋit}V

The affix V{ŋŋit}V negates the meaning of the stem it attaches to. In other words,
it means not Vb. Just as you naturally may want to say that you do something (or
can do something), you may equally well also want to be able to express that you
do not (or cannot) do something.
In this exercise, you rewrite verbs to negate their meaning by joining V{ŋŋit}V
onto the stem. However, for a technical reason, you shall also add yet another affix
after V{ŋŋit}V, which is one of the following:
• V{galuaq}V, which means actually Vb (but …). It can be a little difficult
to describe the meaning, so an example will have to do: sulivunga means I
worked, but suligaluarpunga means I actually worked (but…) something else
happened, that contradicts the overt meaning of the stem {suli}V. Maybe I
did not get much work done, or maybe you did not see me at work, which is
why you might disbelieve that I actually worked.
• V{-vik}V, which means totally/completely. In combination with V{ŋŋit}V
it means not at all.
Add the appropriate combination of V{ŋŋit}V and V{galuaq}V or V{-vik}V to
the following verbs, to match the given translation:
• Nuummukarpunga ⟹∗
(I went to Nuuk ⟹ I didn’t actually go to Nuuk)
• qimuttuitsorpunga ⟹∗
(I went by train ⟹∗ I didn’t actually go by train)
• aallarpunga ⟹∗
(I travelled ⟹∗ I did not travel at all)
• oqarpunga ⟹∗
(I said something ⟹∗ I did not say anything at all)
• tikippunga ⟹∗
(I arrived ⟹∗ I didn’t actually arrive)
• paasivakkaa ⟹∗
(I understood them ⟹∗ I did not understand them at all)
A note on spelling: /ŋŋ/ is spelt nng (and not ngng).
a
The stem is {paasi}V and the ending is V{vakka}

29
3. Travelling to Greenland

A different type of verb and ending


The last word in exercise 13, paasivakka, had a different ending than any you have hith-
erto seen. The stem, {paasi}V means ⟨agent⟩ understands ⟨patient⟩, so there are two ‘roles’
built into the meaning of this verbal stem: one (the ⟨agent⟩) who does the understanding,
and one (the ⟨patient⟩) who is understood. The first will normally be the subject of the
final verb, and the other will be the object. Verbs that have two such inbuilt roles, are called
transitive in Grammaric, and they normally also require an ending with two person mark-
ers; one denoting the subject, and one denoting the object. Thus e.g. V{vakka} means I
Vb them.4 I shall have much more to say about transitive verbs and endings later on.

3.7 The contemporative mood and sandhi epenthesis


You have so far only seen a small handful of different endings for verbs: V{vuŋa} and
V{vuq} both belong to one group called the indicative mood (denoted by the mood marker
{vu}); whilst V{gama} belongs to a different mood called the causative mood (denoted by
the mood marker {ga}). Indicative is for direct statements, and causative is for past cause
or reason.
Now, here is a third kind of ending: V{(l)luŋa}. It also means I Vb, just like V{vuŋa}
(so as you will notice, both contain the same person marker, {ŋa}), but it is used when
you do several things in the same sentence. One verb (the main verb) will then carry an
indicative ending, and the other verbs will carry an ending of this new kind. V{(l)luŋa}
belongs to a set called the contemporative mood, denoted by the mood marker {(l)lu}, and
instead of translating it as I Vb, it can often just be translated as Vb’ing.

Sandhi epenthesis
There is one other detail to note about V{(l)luŋa}: The (l) in parentheses only appears,
when V{(l)luŋa} is added to a vowel stem. When instead it is added to a consonant stem,
(l) just disappears.
This type of morpheme is thus in a way the opposite of truncative: it only joins onto
consonant stems, and if the stem does not have a final consonant, the morpheme just
injects one itself; in this case an extra /l/. Such ‘sound injection’ is called epenthesis in
Grammaric, and I therefore call morphemes with this behaviour (sandhi) epenthetic, and I
denote them by writing the extra consonant in parentheses, as in V{(l)luŋa}.
4
In contrast to an ending like V{vuŋa}, that only means I Vb, because it only contains one person marker,
namely {ŋa}.

30
3.8. Text

Exercise 14: Play a bit with epenthesis

Rewrite the following sentences to use the contemporative mood ending


V{(l)luŋa} instead of the indicative V{vuŋa}, and use instead aallarpunga as main
verb:

• timmisartumut ilaavunga ⟹∗
I’m a passenger on a plane ⟹ I travel, (I) being a passenger on a plane, i.e. I
travel by plane

• qimuttuitsorpunga ⟹∗
I go by train ⟹ I travel, (I) going by train

• Nuummukarpunga ⟹∗
I go to Nuuk ⟹ I travel, (I) going to Nuuk

A note on spelling: /ql/ is spelt rl (and pronounced [ɬɬ]).

3.8 Text
At last, I have once again written a longer piece of text (and with much longer words),
using the rules and constructs you have seen in this chapter. This piece is about how I
first travelled to Greenland.

Exercise 15: Translate the text


2011-mi upernaakkut Kalaallit Nunaannut aallarpunga. Kisianni Aalborgimit
toqqaannartumik Kalaallit Nunaannukarsinnaanngikkaluarpunga.
Taamaammat majip (ulluisa) 16-ianni Københavnimukarpunga
qimuttuitsorlunga. Aatsaat majip (ulluisa) 17-ianni Kalaallit
Nunaannukarsinnaavunga.
Ulloq taanna Københavnimit Kangerlussuarmut aallarpunga, timmisartumut
ilaallunga. Qulingiluanut Kastrupimit timmisartoq ’Norsaq’ aallarpoq. Tiimit
sisamat ingerlasariaqarpoq. Kiisami Kangerlussuarmut tikippunga.
Kangerlussuarmut tikikkama nalunaaqutaq aamma qulingiluanngorpoq,
kisianni Kastrupimi ataasinngorpoq. Nalunaaqutaq aqqanermut timmisartoq
Kangerlussuarmit Nuummut aallarpoq. Nuummut tikikkama timmisartup

31
3. Travelling to Greenland

naalagaa højtalerikkut kalaallisut oqarpoq: ’Nuummut tikilluaritsi!’. Oqaatsit


paasisinnaanngivippakka.

Glossary:

• upernaakkut, in the spring


• toqqaannartumik, directly
• taamaammat, therefore
• aatsaat, not until
• majip (ulluisa)a 16-ianni, on the 16th of May
• ulloq taanna, on that (aforementioned) day
• (nalunaaqutaq)b qulingiluanut, at 9 o’clock
• Kastrup, the name of Copenhagen Airport (or, the town where it is located)
• Tiimit sisamat ingerlasaqariaqarpoq, the trip was four hours
• kiisami, finally
• (nalunaaqutaq) qulingiluanngorpoq, it was 9 o’clock
• (nalunaaqutaq) ataasinngorpoq, it was 1 o’clock
• (nalunaaqutaq) aqqanermut, at 11 o’clock
• timmisartup naalagaa, the captain of the aircraft
• Højtalerikkut, on the speaker. Højtaler is borrowed from Danish.
• oqaatsit, (the) words
a
ulluisa is often omitted.
b
nalunaaqutaq (clock) is sometimes omitted.

32
3.8. Text

Solutions to the Exercises

Solution 9: The 3rd person indicative

Stianimik ateqarpoq. 36-nik ukioqarpooq. Qarasaasialerisuuvoq. Aamma


tarnip pissusiinik ilisimasaliuvoq. Aalborgiminngaanneerpoq, kisianni 2011-mi
Kalaallit Nunaannut nuuppoq. 2011-mit 2016-imut Nuummi najugaqarpoq.
Taava 2016-imi Aalborgimut uterpoq. Kisianni ullumikkut Reykjavímmi
najugaqarpoq. 2021-mi maanga nuuppoq.

Solution 10: Going to places

• Nuuk ⟹∗ Nuummukarpoq (singular, k-stem)


• Paamiut ⟹∗ Paamiunukarpoq (plural, weak q-stem)
• Arsuk ⟹∗ Arsummukarpoq (singular, k-stem)
• Qaqortoq ⟹ Qaqortumukarpoq (singular, weak q-stem)
• Illoqqortoormiut ⟹∗ Illoqqortoormiunukarpoq (plural, weak q-stem)
• Aasiaat ⟹∗ Aasiannukarpoq (plural, k-stem)
• Qasigiannguit ⟹∗ Qasigiannguanukarpoq (plural, weak q-stem)
• Isortoq ⟹∗ Isortumukarpoq (singular, weak q-stem)
• Uummannaq ⟹∗ Uummannamukarpoq (singular, weak q-stem)
• Kapisillit ⟹∗ Kapisilinnukarpoq (plural, k-stem)

Solution 11: Rewrite the sentences to say ‘can’

• Nuummut aallarpunga ⟹∗ Nuummut aallarsinnaavunga


• Kalaallit Nunaannukarpoq ⟹∗ Kalaallit Nunaannukarsinnaavunga
• kalaallisut oqarpoq ⟹∗ kalaallisut oqarsinnaavoq
• Københavnimut qimuttuitsorpunga ⟹ ∗ Københavnimut qimuttuit-
sorsinnaavunga
• timmisartumut ilaavoq ⟹∗ timmisartumut ilaasinnaavoq
• Kangerlussuarmut tikippunga ⟹∗ Kangerlussuarmut tikissinnaavunga

33
3. Travelling to Greenland

Solution 12: The fricative rule for /g/

• {suli}V {qasu}V ⟹∗ suligama qasuvunga


• {tikit}V {isiq}V ⟹∗ tikikkama iserpunga
• {nuuk}V {aallaq}V ⟹∗ nuukkama aallarpunga

Solution 13: How to say ‘not’ with V{ŋŋit}V

• Nuummukarpunga ⟹∗ Nuummukanngikkaluarpunga
• qimuttuitsorpunga ⟹∗ qimuttuitsunngikkaluarpunga
• aallarpunga ⟹∗ aallanngivippunga
• oqarpunga ⟹∗ oqanngivippunga
• tikippunga ⟹∗ tikinngikkaluarpunga
• paasivakka ⟹∗ paasinngivippakka

Solution 14: Play a bit with epenthesis

• timmisartumut ilaavunga ⟹∗ aallarpunga timmisartumut ilaallunga


• qimuttuitsorpunga ⟹∗ aallarpunga qimuttuitsorlunga
• Nuummukarpunga ⟹∗ aallarpunga Nuummukarlunga

Solution 15: Translate the text


I travelled to Greenland in the spring of 2011. However, I could not actually go
directly from Aalborg to Greenland. Therefore, I went to Copenhagen by train on
the 16th of May. Not until the 17th of May could I go to Greenland
On that day I travelled from Copenhagen to Kangerlussuaq, going by aeroplane.
The aircraft ‘Norsaq’ departed from Kastrup at 9 o’clock. The trip was four hours.

34
3.8. Text

Finally, I arrived in Kangerlussuaq. When I arrived Kangerlussuaq, it was also 9


o’clock, however in Kastrup it was 1 o’clock.a The flight from Kangerlussuaq to
Nuuk departed at 11 o’clock. When I arrived in Nuuk, the captain of the aircraft said
in Greenlandic on the speakers: Nuummut tikilluaritsi! I did not at all understand
the words.
a
The trip is four hours, and the timezone difference is also four hours.

35
CHAPTER 4
Coming to Nuuk

Nuuk is the capital of Greenland, and also the largest town in the country. When I moved
there in 2011, there were some 16.000 inhabitants, which is likely less than most other
capitals in the world (but Greenland is a very sparsely populated country).
This chapter continues the story of my travel to Nuuk, where I had been offered a
position as educational psychologist in the municipal School Administration. The aim of
this chapter is to teach you just a single new sound rule, the ð-rule, an immensely common
affix, V{ðuq}N, and also to provide you with some further insights into the system of
verbal endings and the whole issue of mood and mood markers.

4.1 Review
We begin again by reviewing the rules you have seen thus far:

• Affixes and endings have three different joining strategies (or ‘sandhi’): they can be
additive, truncative or epenthetic.

– Additive morphemes like N{mut} and V{sinnaa}V join onto both vowel- and
consonant stems without further ado.
– Truncative morphemes like N{-u}V and N{-qaq}V will only join onto vowels,
and if the previous stem end in a consonant, it is removed. Morphemes begin-
ning in a double consonant, like V{ŋŋit}V are necessarily truncative, because
of the syllable structure, so I write them without any special symbol to indicate
truncativity.

37
4. Coming to Nuuk

– Epenthetic morphemes like V{(l)luŋa} will only join onto consonants, so if


the previous stem ends in a vowel, the morpheme injects the extra consonant
written in parentheses.

• Vowels have an open (uvularised) pronunciation before uvulars (/r/ and /q/), and
open /i/ and open /u/ are spelt as e and o, respectively.

• By the consonant rule, all consonant clusters 𝑐1 𝑐2 are assimilated to 𝑐2 𝑐2 .

• By the fricative rule, [vv] becomes [pp], [gg] becomes [kk], and [ll] becomes [ɬɬ],
and they are spelt pp, kk, ll respectively. However, if the first consonant is a /q/,
that has been assimilated by the consonant rule, i.e. /qv/ or /ql/, they are instead
spelt rp and rl, respectively.

4.2 Spelling of assimilated /q/


Here is a rule I have indicated indirectly several times, but not yet stated clearly: whenever
a /q/ is assimilated by the consonant rule, it is always spelt as r. In other words, whenever
you have a consonant cluster of the form /q𝑐/ where 𝑐 is any consonant, then it comes to
be pronounced as [𝑐𝑐] by the consonant rule. But since the underlying (now assimilated)
/q/ still affects a preceding vowel by the vowel rule, then this assimilated /q/ is written
as r, to remind us that the preceding vowel is uvularised.1 You have already seen several
examples of this, e.g. whenever you have joined a non-truncative morpheme onto a q-stem,
but here is another for good measure:

{kaŋiqluk}N{(q)cuaq}N{mut}
⟹ /kaŋiqlukcuaqmut/
⟹∗ [kaŋɜɬɬuccuɑmmut]
⟹∗ kangerlussuarmut

{kaŋiqluk}N means fjord, and N{(q)cuaq}N means big/great/huge N, so the name


Kangerlussuaq literally means the great fjord. Notice also that N{(q)cuaq}N is not a weak
q-stem.

4.3 A sound rule for /ð/


A number of endings and a good deal of very common affixes begin in a strange conso-
nant phoneme /ð/; for example the immensely common affix V{ðuq}N that means one
1
And there must necessarily always be a vowel preceding a consonant cluster /q𝑐/ because of the syllable
structure.

38
4.3. A sound rule for /ð/

who Vb’s. It is ‘strange’ because it has no associated pronunciation of its own. Instead,
it always changes into another phoneme (which then determines its pronunciation), but
which phoneme it changes into depends on the context. It is determined by the following
rule:
/𝑣ð/ → /𝑣c/
/𝑐ð/ → /𝑐t/
where 𝑐 is any consonant phoneme, and 𝑣 any vowel phoneme as usual. In other words,
the rule says that /ð/ becomes /c/ whenever it follows a vowel, but it becomes /t/ whenever
it follows a consonant.2
• In the former case, /c/ is pronounced as [ʃ] (an sh-like sound, as in she), and [ʃ] is
always spelt as s, just like an ordinary [s] is.3
• In the latter case, we then end up with a consonant cluster /𝑐t/, which then of
course by the consonant rule becomes [tt] and is also spelt tt (or rt, if the assimilated
consonant is /q/).
Thus, you can also just choose to learn a ‘short-circuited’ version of this rule, namely that
/𝑐ð/ is spelt tt (or rt if 𝑐 = /q/); and /ð/ is spelt s whenever it follows a vowel.

Exercise 16: V{ðuq}N, the one who Vb’s

V{ðuq}N (a weak q-stem) is perhaps the most natural way to turn any verb stem
meaning ⟨someone⟩ does (something) into a noun stem meaning one who does (some-
thing). It appears in everything from the names of colours to job titles. Add it to
the following stems, using the empty nominal ending N{∅}, to produce a new noun
with the corresponding meaning:

• {iga}V ⟹∗
(cooks food ⟹ one who cooks food = a cook)

• {atuaq}V ⟹∗
(reads, goes to school ⟹ one who reads, goes to school = school pupil )

• {suli}V ⟹∗
(works ⟹ one who works = a worker/employee)

2
I hope the font difference is clear enough that you can distinguish between /𝑐/, which is a symbol I use
to represent an arbitrary consonant phoneme; and /c/, which is a specific consonant phoneme, namely the
one that is pronounced as [ʃ].
3
Actually, a good number of speakers (especially the younger) do not even distinguish between [ʃ] and
[s]; they just say [s] in both cases.

39
4. Coming to Nuuk

• {aakpaluk}V ⟹∗
(is red ⟹ one/something that is red = the colour red)

• {miki}V ⟹∗
(is small ⟹ one/something that is small = small)

• {utaqqi}V ⟹∗
(waits for somebody ⟹ one who waits for somebody)

• {nuuk}V ⟹∗
(moves ⟹ one who moves)

• {qaquq}V ⟹∗
(is white ⟹ one/something that is white = the colour white)

Exercise 17: The habitual affix V{ðaq}V

Greenlandic verbal bases can roughly be divided into two categories:


• Bases describing a state of being, like {miki}V, is small.
• Bases describing an event that happens once and has a beginning and an end,
like {tikit}V, arrives.
Now consider a sentence such as I worked in the School Administration. Supposedly,
I went to work there more than just one single time (in fact, I did so every weekday
for five years). To express that, you need to add an affix to the stem, indicating that
the event happened repeatedly. The most common such affix is V{ðaq}V, which
precisely expresses that the event happened more than once. You can perhaps trans-
late it as habitually Vb.a
Add V{ðaq}V to the following stems to indicate that they occur repeat-
edly/habitually. Use the ending V{vuŋa} to obtain a complete verb:
• Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivimmi {suli}V ⟹∗
(In the School Administration, work ⟹ I worked in the School Administration)
• Nuummi {atuaq}V ⟹∗
(In Nuuk, go to (primary) school ⟹ I went to (primary) school in Nuuk)
• Ullaakkut {kaffisuq}V ⟹∗
(In the morning, drink coffee ⟹ I (habitually) drink coffee in the morning)

40
4.3. A sound rule for /ð/

• Qallunaatut {uqaluk}V ⟹∗
(Danish, speak ⟹ I speak Danish)
a
Although it sounds somewhat artificial, since English does not consistently distinguish between
one-time and recurring events.

Exercise 18: V{ðaq}N with other affixes

V{ðaq}V is also often combined with V{ðuq}N to create a noun meaning one that
(habitually) Vb; or with another affix, V{(f)fik}Na which means place where one Vb.
Many of these combinations have been lexicalised, i.e. added to the dictionary with
a specific meaning.
Combine the following morphemes to create a noun with the corresponding mean-
ing, and use the ‘empty’ singular ending N{∅} to create a complete noun:

• {tiŋmi}V + V{ðaq}V{ðuq}N ⟹∗
(fly ⟹ one that (habitually) flies = aeroplane)

• {uqaluk}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗
(speak ⟹ place where one (habitually) speaks = lectern, pulpit)

• {timiqsuq}V + V{ðaq}V{ðuq}N ⟹∗
(do sports ⟹ athlete, sportsman)

• {timiqsuq}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗
(do sports ⟹ stadium, gym)

• {tikit}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗
(arrive ⟹ airport terminal (for arrivals))

• {sinik}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗
(sleep ⟹ place where one (habitually) sleeps = bedroom)

• {mit}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗
(land (like a bird) ⟹ place where one (habitually) lands = airport)
a
The morphemic form is actually V{(v)vik}N, so this affix is one of a few, very rare examples
where /vv/ does not become [pp] as usual by the fricative rule. Instead, this affix prefers a different,
devoiced sound (that also corresponds to /v/); namely [ff].

41
4. Coming to Nuuk

4.4 Noun phrases


Words like aappaluttoq and mikisoq correspond to what we in English would call adjec-
tives; i.e. red, small and so on. Words we would use to describe some quality or character-
istic of another noun.
But in Greenlandic, aappaluttoq and mikisoq are themselves nouns. There is no sep-
arate class of adjectives in Greenlandic; the adjectival meaning is instead expressed with
verbal stems like {aakpaluk}V and {miki}V, which can then be transformed into nouns
by adding V{ðuq}N. So how would you then use these words to describe another noun,
such as illu?
You could of course just use {miki}V as a verb and say illu mikivoq, but it means the
house is small, and not just a small house. It is a full sentence (there is a verb, mikivoq
and a subject, illu), which is not what we are interested in here. We just want a group of
nouns, that as a whole could function as e.g. the subject of a sentence, or as something we
go into, or come out of, etc. Such a group of ‘coordinated’ nouns is called a noun phrase in
Grammaric. Here is how to do it:
1. Add V{ðuq}N to the adjectival, verbal stem; e.g. mikisoq.
2. Place you new ‘adjectival noun’ after the noun you want it to describe; e.g. illu
mikisoq.
3. Give both nouns the same ending; i.e. illu mikisoq (the small house) both have the
N{∅} ending; illumut mikisumut (to the small house) both have the N{mut} ending;
illuni mikisuni (in the small houses) both have the (plural) N{ni} ending, and so on.

Exercise 19: Create noun phrases and sentences

Add V{ðuq}N and the appropriate endings, N{∅}, N{mit}, N{mut} and V{vuŋa}
to the following stems to obtain a sentence matching the translation:
• {tiŋmiðaqðuq}N, {aakpaluk}V, {niu}V ⟹∗
(aeroplane, is red, disembarks ⟹ I disembarked from the red aeroplane)
• {tikitðaqfik}N, {miki}V, {isiq}V ⟹∗
(terminal (arrivals), is small, enter ⟹∗ I entered into the terminal)
• {iŋlu}N, {qaquq}V, takulerpara ⟹∗
(house, is white, I noticed it ⟹ I noticed the white house)

42
4.5. Persons, mood markers and participial endings

Note in the last sentence, that I have ‘pre-constructed’ the verb takulerpara (I noticed
it) for you here, because it requires one of these endings with two person markers, which
I have also previously mentioned but not yet explained in detail. For now, it suffices to
note that the endings is V{vara} and means I Vb him (or her or it).

4.5 Persons, mood markers and participial endings


As you saw in the previous chapter, you can use the so-called contemporative mood to
express that a person does several things in the same sentence; e.g. as in aallarpunga
timmisartumut ilaallunga. The mood marker of the contemporative mood is {(l)lu}, so for
example instead of our usual intransitive indicative 1st person singular ending V{vuŋa},
we now get V{(l)luŋa}.
However, there is a catch: you can only use the contemporative mood if it is the same
person who does several things in the sentence. So what if you have two different persons
doing something? Consider for example the sentence he said (that) I was a passenger on
the plane. Clearly, he ≠ I, so we cannot use the contemporative mood.
Instead, you need to use a different mood, called the participial mood. This is fortu-
nately very easy, now that you know about mood markers: the participial mood marker is
{ðu}, so instead of V{vuŋa} and V{(l)luŋa}, we now get the ending V{ðuŋa}, meaning
(that) I Vb.4
But we can also take this one step further, since you have also seen another intransitive
indicative ending; namely the 3rd person singular ending V{vuq}, meaning he Vb’s. So
what do you now think the corresponding participial ending is? If you guessed V{ðuq},
then you are absolutely right.5
And we can go further still, but let me first introduce a bit of terminology and some
notational short-hand:

• The first (1.) person is I in singular (sg); and we in plural (pl). I abbreviate them as
1.sg and 1.pl.

• The second (2.) person is you in both singular and plural in modern English; but
in Shakespearean times, the singular was called thou, whilst the plural was you. I
abbreviate the singular thou as 2.sg and the plural you as 2.pl.
4
It may often, but not always, make sense to have “that” in the English translation of a participial sentence.
5
Be careful not to confuse V{ðuq} with the nominalising affix V{ðuq}N. Even though they look the
same (especially when the noun carries the empty ending N{∅}), they have different meanings. Most notably,
the former is a verb, and the latter is a noun.

43
4. Coming to Nuuk

• The third (3.) person is he6 in singular, and they in plural; so I abbreviate them as
3.sg and 3.pl respectively.
Henceforth I can therefore just refer to V{vuŋa} as indicative 1.sg, and V{ðuq} as
participial 3.sg. And now that you understand how the two moods are related, you can
learn both of them at the same time. For every new ending you learn from one set, you
get another one for free. For example, the indicative 2.sg ending is V{vutit} (thou Vb);
and the indicative 1.pl ending is V{vugut} (we Vb). But now you can also mechanically
determine their participial counterparts.
In sum, here are the intransitive indicative and participial endings you now should
know:
1.sg V{vuŋa} V{ðuŋa} (I Vb)
2.sg V{vutit} V{ðutit} (thou Vb)
3.sg V{vuq} V{ðuq} (he Vb’s)
1.pl V{vugut} V{ðugut} (we Vb)

Exercise 20: Use the participial mood

Here are some pairs of sentences. Combine each pair into a single sentence, by
rewriting the second sentence to use the participial mood:

• Takulerpara. Arnaq utaqqivoq. ⟹∗


(I noticed it. A woman waited (for somebody). ⟹ I noticed (that) a woman
waited (for somebody).)

• Oqarfigaanga. Suleqatigiippugut. ⟹∗
(He said (something) to me. We work together. ⟹ He said to me (that) we
work together)

• Oqarpoq. Nuniaffimmi najugaqarputit. ⟹∗


(He said (something). You live in Nuniaffik ⟹ He said you live in Nuniaffik)

• Illinuna. Stianimik ateqarputit. ⟹∗


(It is you. Your name is Stian ⟹ It is you whose name is Stian)

Glossary:

• {taku}V, ⟨agent⟩ sees ⟨patient⟩. With V{-liq}V, begins to see, notices.

6
And she and it, but we ignore them, since that distinction does not exist in Greenlandic.

44
4.6. Transitive endings

• V{-liq}V, begins to Vb. It indicates the start/onset of the behaviour/event


described by the stem it is affixed to.
• V{-qatigiik}V, Vb together (only with ending in plural).
• *{una}, it is …, or, when used as a question is it …? Note: this is an enclitic.

4.6 Transitive endings


Most of the verbal endings you have seen thus far have only contained a single per-
son marker; endings like V{vuŋa}, V{ðutit}, V{(l)luŋa} and so on. These are called
intransitive endings in Grammaric; so this is why I have spoken of e.g. V{vuŋa} as being
the intransitive indicative 1.sg ending.
However, you have also now begun to see a few verbal stems describing actions that
logically involve two parties; a ‘doer’ of the action, and a ‘doee’ who the action is directed
at, or performed upon. I call the ‘doer’ of such an action the ⟨agent⟩, and the ‘doee’ or
recipient is the ⟨patient⟩. As an example, you saw the base {taku}V in the glossary for
exercise 20. It means see, but logically there must be someone doing the seeing, and some-
one being seen, so I translate this stem as ⟨agent⟩ sees ⟨patient⟩. Here are some further
examples:

• {paasi}V, ⟨agent⟩ understands ⟨patient⟩


• {aa}V, ⟨agent⟩ fetches ⟨patient⟩
• {uqnik}V, ⟨agent⟩ approaches ⟨patient⟩

Such stems usually require endings with two person markers; one to tell us who the
⟨agent⟩ is, and one to denote who the ⟨patient⟩ is. These endings are correspondingly
called transitive endings, and you have already seen a few of them; for example:

• V{vara}, I Vb him (indicative 1.sg/3.sg)


• V{vakka}, I Vb them (indicative 1.sg/3.pl)

It is not important here what the person markers actually are. The main thing to notice
is that they both start with /va/. This is a morpheme {va}, which is the mood marker
for transitive indicative (like {vu} for intransitive indicative). Most moods use the same
mood marker for both intransitive and transitive endings, but the indicative and participial
moods are two exceptions.
Notice also the notation: With transitive endings I write 𝑥1 /𝑥2 to indicate the two
persons; e.g. ‘1.sg/3.pl’ as I did above. Thus, 𝑥1 is the person taking the ⟨agent⟩ role, and
𝑥2 is the person taking the ⟨patient⟩ role. This also means that whenever you see 𝑥1 /𝑥2

45
4. Coming to Nuuk

in the translation for an ending, you know that it is a transitive ending (and conversely, if
I only mention a single person, then you know it is intransitive).

A first glimpse of /ə/


In exercise 20 you saw a word, oqarfigaanga, with a strange-looking ending. It is actually
V{vaaŋa} (indicative 3.sg/1.sg), but as you can see, it seems like /v/ has disappeared from
the mood marker {va}. And indeed it has.
I have previously mentioned that Greenlandic also has a fourth vowel phoneme; this
is called /ə/ (‘schwa’), and the stem of oqarfigaanga actually ends on this vowel. In other
words, it is a ə-stems, {uqaqfigə}V, meaning ⟨agent⟩ tells ⟨patient⟩ (something).
The vowel phoneme /ə/ has no sound of its own, but it causes trouble in a variety of
contexts, including here; i.e. right before an indicative ending. I shall return to this issue
later, but for now it suffices for you to know the following (partial) rule: Whenever you add
a transitive indicative ending to a ə-stem, remove both /ə/ and /v/ from the mood marker
{va}. You simply delete the combination /əv/.

Exercise 21: Transitive indicative on ə-stems


Add the transitive indicative ending to the following ə-stems:

• {uqaqfigə}V + V{vaatit} ⟹∗
(⟨agent⟩ tells ⟨patient⟩ (something) + he Vb’s you (indicative 3.sg/2.sg))

• {apirə}V + V{vaaŋa} ⟹∗
(⟨agent⟩ asks ⟨patient⟩ (something) + he Vb’s me (indicative 3.sg/1.sg))

With this last difficulty out of the way, you are now ready for the main text of this
chapter. Here I describe my arrival in Nuuk and my first encounter with one of my new
colleagues, a lady named Arnannguaq.

Exercise 22: Translate the text


Nuummut tikikkama timmisartumit aappaluttumit niuvunga. Tikittarfimmut
mikisumut iserpunga kuffertiga aallugu.
Iserlunga takulerpara arnaq kalaaleq utaqqisoq. Ornikkakku aperaanga
qallunaatut oqalulluni: “Stianiuna?”
“Aap” akivunga, “Stianimik ateqarpunga.”

46
4.6. Transitive endings

“Kutaa, uanga Arnannguamik ateqarpunga. Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivimmi


sulisarpunga. Pisortannguarput oqarfigaanga suleqatigiissasugut.”
“Aamma oqarfigaatit sumi najugaqassasunga?”
“Aap, oqarpoq Nuniaffimmi najugaqassasutit.”
Taava Arnannguaq uangalu mittarfimmit anivugut Nuniaffimmukalerlutalu.

Glossary:
• kufferti, suitcase, borrowed from Danish
• N{ga}, my N
• V{gakku}, when I Vb’ed her (causative 1.sg/3.sg)
• V{(l)luni}, (she) Vb’ing (contemporative 4.sg, but think of it as 3.sg)
• aap, yes
• {aki}V, answer/reply
• kutaa, hello/good day, borrowed from Danish
• uanga, I, can be used for emphasis of 1.sg
• {pisuqtaq}N, boss/chief
• N{ŋŋuaq}N, dear/little, often used for (unironic) endearment
• N{(q)vut}, our N
• V{ssa}V, shall Vb, denotes future
• V{(l)luta}, (we) Vb’ing (contemporative 1.pl)
• *{lu}, and (enclitic)

47
4. Coming to Nuuk

Solutions to the Exercises

Solution 16: V{ðuq}N, the one who Vb’s

• {iga}V ⟹∗ igasoq
• {atuaq}V ⟹∗ atuartoq
• {suli}V ⟹∗ sulisoq
• {aakpaluk}V ⟹∗ aappaluttoq
• {miki}V ⟹∗ mikisoq
• {utaqqi}V ⟹∗ utaqqisoq
• {nuuk}V ⟹∗ nuuttoq
• {qaquq}V ⟹∗ qaqortoqa
a
This is also the name of a town in South Greenland, Qaqortoq.

Solution 17: The habitual affix V{ðaq}V

• Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivimmi {suli}V ⟹∗


Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivimmi sulisarpunga
• Nuummi {atuaq}V ⟹∗ Nuummi atuartarpunga
• Ullaakkut {kaffisuq}V ⟹∗ ullaakkut kaffisortarpunga
• Qallunaatut {uqaluk}V ⟹∗ Qallunaatut oqaluttarpunga

Solution 18: V{ðaq}N with other affixes

• {tiŋmi}V + V{ðaq}V{ðuq}N ⟹∗ timmisartoq


• {uqaluk}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗ oqaluttarfik
• {timiqsuq}V + V{ðaq}V{ðuq}N ⟹∗ timersortartoq
• {timiqsuq}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗ timersortarfik
• {tikit}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗ tikittarfik
• {sinik}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗ sinittarfik
• {mit}V + V{ðaq}V{(f)fik}N ⟹∗ mittarfik

48
4.6. Transitive endings

Solution 19: Create noun phrases and sentences

• {tiŋmiðaqðuq}N, {aakpaluk}V, {niu}V


⟹∗ timmisartumit aappaluttumit niuvunga
• {tikitðaqfik}N, {miki}V, {isiq}V
⟹∗ tikittarfimmut mikisumut iserpunga
• {iŋlu}N, {qaquq}V, takulerpara ⟹∗ illu qaqortoq takulerpara

Solution 20: Use the participial mood

• Takulerpara. Arnaq utaqqivoq. ⟹∗ Takulerpara arnaq utaqqisoq


• Oqarfigaanga. Suleqatigiippugut. ⟹∗ Oqarfigaanga suleqatigiittugut
• Oqarpoq. Nuniaffimmi najugaqarputit.
⟹∗ Oqarpoq Nuniaffimmi najugaqartutit
• Illinuna. Stianimik ateqarputit. ⟹∗ Illinuna Stianimik ateqartutit

Solution 21: Transitive indicative on ə-stems


• {uqaqfigə}V + V{vaatit} ⟹∗ oqarfigaatit
• {apirə}V + V{vaaŋa} ⟹∗ aperaanga

Solution 22: Translate the text


When I arrived in Nuuk, I disembarked from the red aeroplane. I went into the
small terminal, fetching my suitcase.
Coming in, I noticed a Greenlandic woman waiting for somebody. When I ap-
proached her, she asked me, speaking in Danish: “Is it Stian?”
“Yes” I replied, “my name is Stian.” “Hello, my name is Arnannguaq. I work in the

49
4. Coming to Nuuk

School Administration. Our (dear) boss told me that we shall be working together.”
“Did she also tell you where I shall stay (have address)?”
“Yes, she said (that) you shall stay (have address) in Nuniaffik.”
Then Arnannguaq and I went out of the airport and began going to Nuniaffik.

50
CHAPTER 5
Geography of Nuuk

Immediately after I arrived in Nuuk, I moved into a temporary apartment (or rather, a
room) in Nuniaffik, which is in the district of Nuussuaq, approximately midway between
the ‘old town’ of Nuuk proper, and the latest expansion, called Qinngorput. In this chapter,
I will tell you a bit more about the geography of Nuuk, and also introduce two new (but
fortunately quite simple) sound rules, as well as some new endings for both nouns and
verbs.

5.1 Review
We begin, as usual, with a review of what you already know. But as there are quite a
number of rules now, I have separated them into four distinct topics:

Sandhi rules:
• Affixes and endings display three distinct types of sandhi or ‘joining’ behaviour:
They can be additive, truncative or epenthetic (‘sound injecting’).

• Affixes beginning in a double consonant like V{ŋŋit}V and V{ssa}V are necessarily
truncative, because of the syllable structure.

Sound rules:
• The ð-rule: /𝑐ð/ → /𝑐t/, whilst /𝑣ð/ → /𝑣c/. Or less abstractly, that /ð/ becomes
/t/ when added to a consonant, but /c/ (pronounced [ʃ] and spelt s) on a vowel.

• The vowel rule: Vowels have an open pronunciation before uvulars (/r/ and /q/).

51
5. Geography of Nuuk

Atuarfeqarnermut
Ingerlatsivik

Nuussuaq Nuniaffik

Nuup Qeqqa

Qinngorput

Figure 5.1: A map of Nuuk and the three major city areas: Nuup Qeqqa, Nuussuaq and the newest
expansion, Qinngorput. I have also added the location of Nuniaffik, where I (initially) stayed, and
also the location of Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivik where I went to work.

52
5.2. A sound rule for /g/

• The consonant rule: All consonant clusters 𝑐1 𝑐2 are assimilated to 𝑐2 𝑐2 .

• The fricative rule: [vv] → [pp]1 ; [gg] → [kk]; and [ll] → [ɬɬ].

Spelling rules:
• Open (uvularised) /i/ and /u/ (that is, [ɜ] and [ɔ]) are spelt as e and o; but an open
/a/ (that is, [ɑ]) is still just spelt a, like the non-uvularised [a].

• [ɬɬ] is spelt ll (or rl as noted below).

• Whenever a /q/ is assimilated by the consonant rule, it is always spelt as r. So all


clusters /q𝑐/, which become [𝑐𝑐] by the consonant rule, are spelt as r𝑐.

• [ŋ] is spelt ng, but double [ŋŋ] is just spelt nng (and not ngng)

Grammar:
• Verbal endings consist of a mood marker and one or two person markers. The mood
markers you have seen thus far are

– {vu}/{va} (indicative)
– {(l)lu} (contemporative)
– {ðu} (participial)
– {ga} (causative)

• The mood marker indicates the type of expression: direct statement (indicative);
Vb’ing or several things in the same sentence (contemporative); (that) … Vb when
the two subjects differ (participial); and when/because … Vb’ed for past cause/reason
(causative).

• Intransitive endings have a single person marker, whilst transitive endings have two
person markers; one denoting the ⟨agent⟩ and the other denoting the ⟨patient⟩.

5.2 A sound rule for /g/


You have seen several examples of g-initial morphemes being joined onto k-stems and t-
stems, where /tg/ and /kg/ both become [kk] by first applying the consonant rule, and
then applying the fricative rule. However, hitherto I have deliberately avoided giving you
any examples or exercises that would require you to join a g-initial morpheme onto a
q-stem, because that combination has its own, specialised sound rule:

/qg/ → /r/
1
Or, in rare cases like V{(v)vik}N, /vv/ → [ff]

53
5. Geography of Nuuk

In other words, whenever you have the combination /qg/, they merge and become a
single /r/. Thus, in this case, you do not have to worry about consonant assimilation and
the fricative rule: The g-rule is unconditional and thus quite simple; /qg/ always become
/r/, with no exceptions.

5.3 The iterative mood


Here is a new verbal ending: V{gaaŋama}, meaning whenever I Vb. It belongs to a new
mood, called the iterative mood, and as you maybe have guessed, the mood marker is
{gaaŋa}, and the person marker is {ma} (1.sg), just like with causative V{gama}.
Whenever you say whenever, you obviously also need a main clause (sentence), where
you describe what happens, whenever you Vb; for example, whenever I wake up, I drink
coffee. Here I drink coffee is the main clause, and since this is something that happens
repeatedly (namely whenever I wake up), the verb in the main clause of course needs an
affix to mark it as a recurrent/repeated action; usually the affix V{ðaq}V that you also saw
in exercise 17.

Exercise 23: Use the iterative mood


Here are some pairs of verbal bases: Add V{gaaŋama} to the first, and V{ðaq}V
+ V{vuŋa} to the second to form complete sentences:

• {itiq}V, {kaffisuq}V ⟹∗
wake up, drink coffee ⟹ whenever I wake up I drink coffee

• {sinnaqtuuq}V, {bussiq}V ⟹∗
oversleep, take the bus ⟹ whenever I oversleep, I take the bus

• {suliffimnukaq}Va , {pisuk}V ⟹∗
go to my workplace, walk ⟹ whenever I go to my workplace, I walk
a
This stem is of course made with the allative verbalisation N{ALL}{-kaq}V. The allative ending
is N{mnut}, to my N, added onto the noun suliffik, built from {suli}V, work, and V{(f)fik}N, place
where one Vb’s.

54
5.4. The go-to affix V{gi’jaqtuq}V

5.4 The go-to affix V{gi’jaqtuq}V


Here is a useful, but slightly peculiar affix: V{gi'jaqtuq}V, meaning go (somewhere) to Vb.
The peculiarity is that this affix has an idiosyncratic sandhi rule; that is, a special rule for
joining onto other stems, which only holds for this particular affix. The rule is:
{…𝑐}V + V{gi'jaqtuq}V → {…𝑐gijaqtuq}V
{…𝑣}V + V{gi'jaqtuq}V → {…𝑣jaqtuq}V
In other words, whenever this affix joins onto any vowel stem {…𝑣}V, the prefix /gi/
disappears; but on a consonant stem {…𝑐}V, /gi/ is present. It is an annoying extra detail
you need to learn, since this rule only holds for this single affix; but at least it is not difficult,
and fortunately there are not many affixes with idiosyncratic sandhi rules like this.

A spelling rule for /ij/


In order to use the affix V{gi'jaqtuq}V, you also need to know another spelling rule (which
is fortunately a general rule, so you will encounter it in many other contexts as well). The
rule is simply that [ij] is spelt as just i, which is quite natural, since a [j] after an [i]
becomes almost inaudible anyway. But as you can probably imagine, this spelling rule
will be needed with the affix V{gi'jaqtuq}V.

Exercise 24: Explore the forms of V{gi'jaqtuq}V

Add V{gi'jaqtuq}V to the following stems, to explore the many possible forms,
this affix can end up having in a completed word. How many different forms are
there? Use indicative 3.sg V{vuq} (for intransitive verbs) or 3.sg/3.sg V{vaa} (for
transitive verbs) to create complete sentences:
• {kaffisuq}V ⟹∗
drink coffee ⟹ he goes (somewhere) to drink coffee
• {sinik}V ⟹∗
sleep ⟹ he goes (somewhere) to sleep
• {ilitniaqtit}V ⟹∗
⟨agent⟩ teaches ⟨patient⟩ ⟹ he goes (somewhere) to teach him (something)
• {iga}V ⟹∗
cook food ⟹ he goes (somewhere) to cook food
• {suli}V ⟹∗
work ⟹ he goes (somewhere) to work

55
5. Geography of Nuuk

• {taku}V ⟹∗
⟨agent⟩ sees ⟨patient⟩ ⟹ he goes (somewhere) to see him

Note on spelling: [ij] is spelt i.

5.5 A sound rule for [a]


Here is a rule for the sound [a], but let me first emphasise that it deals with the sound [a],
and not (necessarily) the phoneme /a/. The reason for this distinction will soon become
apparent. The rule is:

[a𝑣] → [aa]

or, in other words: any vowel sound 𝑣, that follows the sound [a], will itself become [a].
The vowel phoneme /a/ does of course have the sound [a]2 but the sound [a] can also
arise in other ways. That is why this rule has to be expressed at the level of sounds, rather
than phonemes. But in any case, it is a simple rule without any special conditions.

Exercise 25: Use the a-rule


You have already seen the affix N{-u}V, meaning is an N. The affix is truncative,
so it can easily come to follow an /a/; either if the stem ends on [a], or if it is the
last vowel in the stem. Add it to the following stems, using your knowledge of the
a-rule, and add the ending V{vuq} to produce complete words:

• {ila}N ⟹∗
part/member ⟹ he is a part/member (of something)

• {aqnaq}N ⟹∗
woman ⟹ she is a woman

• {tacca}N ⟹∗
that ⟹ it is that; that is

2
[a] may of course subsequently be uvularised to [ɑ] by the vowel rule, but that happens later in the
process, so we do not need to deal with that here.

56
5.6. Plural of nouns and verbs

A detail about the a-rule


In the text of this chapter, you will see the word ilai meaning its (several) parts. This might
look like an exception to the a-rule, but the exception is only apparent: the word is actually
pronounced [ilaaj ] with a long [aa] sound, and just a slight [j]-like sound at the end, as
a last remnant of the underlying /i/ phoneme. This /i/ is actually a morpheme, N{-i},
which denotes his (several) Ns, or just 3.sg/pl for short, and in making the new orthography
it was decided that this special /i/ phoneme should still be written as i, whenever it occurs
as the final phoneme in a word, even though it is not pronounced as [i], but as [a] as
stipulated by the a-rule. So, as I said, the exception is only apparent.

5.6 Plural of nouns and verbs


The ‘empty’ ending N{∅} is used to mark just the singular form of a noun that may appear
e.g. as the subject of a verb. For example, the sentence arnaq igavoq means the woman
cooks food. The verb igavoq means he/she/it cooks food, as you know, and arnaq means (the)
woman. The noun arnaq thus functions as a specification of who the unspecified he/she/it
mentioned in the verb ending V{vuq} is.
Here arnaq carries the empty ending N{∅}, because she is singular. And igavoq carries
the 3rd person, singular ending V{vuq} to match the singular subject specification arnaq.
But what if we instead wanted to make the sentence plural and say the women cook food?
Then we would have to alter both the noun and the verb: the noun must instead carry
an ending to mark that it is plural, and the verb must have a new ending with a person
marker for 3rd person plural. This is fortunately quite easy:

• The plural ending for nouns is N{t} for vowel stems and weak q-stems; and N{-it}
for k-stems and some (non-weak) q-stems, most notably N{-innaq}N just N and
{utuqqaq}N an old/elderly person.

• The intransitive indicative 3.pl ending is V{(v)vut}, they Vb.3

Exercise 26: Practice plural

Here are some nominal and verbal stems. Add the plural ending N{t} or N{-it} to
the nominal stem(s), and the indicative 3.pl ending V{(v)vut} to the verbal stem to
create full sentences:

3
Here the nice correspondence with the participial mood partly breaks down, because the corresponding
3.pl participial ending is just V{ðut} (and not *V{(ð)ðut}). This is because /v/ is a type of consonant that
can become doubled, whilst /ð/ is not. The cause of the doubling is here the person marker {t}.

57
5. Geography of Nuuk

• {aqnaq}N, {iga}V ⟹∗
woman, cooks food ⟹ the women cook food

• {iŋlu}N, {aŋi}V ⟹∗
house, is big ⟹ the houses are big

• {inuk}N, {sinik}V ⟹∗
person, sleeps ⟹ the people sleep

• {ausiak}N, {miki}V ⟹∗
(spider, is small) ⟹ the spiders are small

• {inuk}N, 17.000 + N{-innaq}N, {najugaqaq}V ⟹∗


person, 17.000 + just, lives ⟹ just 17.000 people live (somewhere)

Note: N{-innaq}N is one of the few, rare q-stems that also take N{-it} as its plural
ending, and in the last example you (of course) has to add a plural ending to both
{inuk}N and N{-innaq}N.

5.7 Verbalisation of the locative: Being in N


You have already seen one kind of verbalisation of a set of noun endings, namely the special
affix N{ALL}{-kaq}V which can only be added onto the so-called allative case endings,
i.e. N{mut}, N{nut} and so on. Here is another very useful verbalisation.
The endings N{mi}, N{ni} that you use to express in/on/at etc. also have a fancy,
Grammaric name: This set of endings is called the locative case, and it too can be verbalised,
using the special affix N{LOC}{it}V. With N{mi} and N{ni} we thus get two new affixes,
N{miit}V, is in/at/on N (singular), and N{niit}V, in in/at/on Ns (plural).

Exercise 27: Use N{LOC}{it}V

Verbalise the following nouns (in the locative case) by adding N{LOC}{it}V. Use
the indicative 3.sg ending V{vuq} to create complete verbs:

• Nuummi ⟹∗
in Nuuk ⟹ it is in Nuuk

• Nuussuarmi ⟹∗

58
5.7. Verbalisation of the locative: Being in N

in Nuussuaq ⟹ it is in Nuussuaq

• Qinngutsinni ⟹∗
in Qinngorput ⟹ it is in Qinngorput

You can also use the locative verbalisation on an entire noun phrase consisting of
several words, as long as the final word carries a locative ending. Here are some
examples of so-called possessive noun phrases, where one noun ‘owns’ the next, like
the construction X of the Y in English. Add N{LOC}{it}V and V{vuq} as before,
but add it only onto the last word, carrying a locative ending.

• Nuussuup kitaani ⟹∗
in the area west of Nuussuaq ⟹ it is in the area west of Nuussuaq

• Nuussuup kangiani ⟹∗
in the area east of Nuussuaq ⟹ it is in the area east of Nuussuaq

• Nuniaffiup saninnguani ⟹∗
in the area right beside Nuniaffik ⟹ it is in the area right beside Nuniaffik

• Nuup kangerluata qinnguani ⟹∗


in the bottom of the fjord of Nuuk ⟹ it is in the bottom of the fjord of Nuuk

More about possession


You have seen two different kinds of endings for nouns:

• Endings like N{mi}, N{ni}, N{mut}, N{nut}, N{∅}, N{t} and so on. These are are
called the unmarked case endings (of locative, allative, absolutive and so on).

• Endings like N{ga} (my N ), N{(q)vut} (our N ), N{mnut} (to my N ), N{-i} (his Ns)
that are used to denote that someone owns the noun. These are called the possessive
(or ‘marked’) case endings.

The point is that for each of the sets locative, allative, ablative, absolutive etc., you
have two unmarked endings (one for singular, and one for plural), and then you also have
endings for each possible person who can own the noun. Thus for example N{∅} and N{t}
are the unmarked absolutive endings, whilst N{(q)vut} is the 1.pl/sg possessive absolutive
ending; i.e. the absolutive ending meaning ‘first person, plural owns singular N’ or, less

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5. Geography of Nuuk

formally, our N. Similarly, N{mut} and N{nut} are the unmarked allative endings, and
N{mnut} is the 1.sg/sg possessive allative ending; i.e. the ending meaning to my N.
By using these possessive endings, you can create possessive noun phrases, consisting
of several words. For example, Kalaallit Nunaat is one such noun phrase, consisting of
Kalaallit (the Greenlanders’) and Nunaat (their (singular) land). The latter word is built
from the base {nuna}N (land) and the absolutive 3.pl/sg ending N{-at} (their N ).
Possessive endings are extensively used in Greenlandic, so I will have much more to
say about them later on.

5.8 Comparing things


Adjectives in English are words that describe nouns, like big, small, white etc., but as you
know, Greenlandic does not have a separate word class of adjectives. Instead, these at-
tributes are described by verbal stems, and you have, in fact, already seen a number of
so-called ‘adjectival’ verbal stems like {aŋi}V, is big; {miki}V, is small; {qaquq}V, is
white and so on. With these, you can e.g. say the house is big (illu angivoq); but what if
you want to express that the house is bigger than the car, for example? Or this house is
the biggest of the houses in the town?
Changing the adjective big to the forms bigger, biggest is called comparation in Gram-
maric, and in Greenlandic you achieve the same effect by using affixes. Here are two you
can use:
• V{niru}V, is more Vb (than something). This is the one you would use to express e.g.
bigger. And if you optionally also want to express what the subject is more Vb than,
then the noun you are comparing the subject against must appear in the ablative
case; i.e. N{mit}, N{nit} etc.

• V{nicarə}V, ⟨patient⟩ is the most Vb of the ⟨agents⟩. This affix yields a transitive
verb, so it must have a transitive ending. Furthermore, you are here comparing the
object against a group of subjects, so the ending must have a plural subject. This
is the affix you would use to express that the house (object) is the biggest of all the
houses in town (subjects)

Exercise 28: Comparation

Here are sets of two nouns and an adjectival verbal stem. Use the first noun as
subject, and add the unmarked ablative singular ending N{mit} to the second. Use
V{niru}V and V{vuq} on the verbal stem to create the Greenlandic sentence cor-
responding to the translation:

60
5.9. There is N: N{-qaq}V

• illu, biili, {aŋi}V ⟹∗


house, car, is big ⟹ the house is bigger than the car

• Nuup Qeqqa, mittarfik, {uŋasik}V ⟹∗


Nuuk city center, airport, is distant ⟹ Nuuk city center is more distant than
the airport

• Nuuk, Aalborgi, {miki}V ⟹∗


Nuuk, Aalborg, is small ⟹∗ Nuuk is smaller than Aalborg

Now try with V{nicarə}V: For each of the points below, the first noun is the object,
and the second is the subject (in plural). Leave them unaltered, but add V{nicarə}V
to the verbal stem, and use the 3.pl/3.sg ending V{vaat}, they Vb him. Remember
that this is a ə-stem, so delete /əv/ when you add the ending:

• Nuuk, Kalaallit Nunaata illoqarfiisa, {aŋi}V ⟹∗


Nuuk, the towns of Greenland, is big ⟹∗ Nuuk is the biggest of the towns of
Greenland

• Qinngorput, Nuup ilaasa, {uŋasik}V ⟹∗


Qinngorput, the parts (‘areas’) of Nuuk, is distant ⟹∗ Qinngorput is the most
distant of the areas of Nuuk

• illuga, illut, {miki}V ⟹∗


my house, the houses, is small ⟹ my house is the smallest of the houses

5.9 There is N: N{-qaq}V


You have previously seen the affix N{-qaq}V meaning has an N. However, if this affix
is used with a 3.sg ending (i.e. he has (an) N ) without any further specification of who
‘he’ is, then this affix can also mean there is (an) N. For example, arnaqarpoq does not
necessarily mean he has a woman; if we are not given any further indication of who ‘he’
is then it could also simply mean there is a woman. This is a very useful (and common)
construction; especially in combination with another noun in the locative case (i.e. N{mi},
N{ni} etc.) to specify where the N is located.

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5. Geography of Nuuk

Exercise 29: Use N{-qaq}V in the sense ‘there is N’

Here are some pairs of nouns. Use the locative case and N{-qaq}V{vuq} to create
sentences corresponding to the translation:

• igaffik, arnaq ⟹∗
kitchen, woman ⟹ there is/are woman/women in the kitchen

• aqqusineq, biili ⟹∗
road, car ⟹ there is/are car(s) on the road

• immikkoortoq kingulleq, oqaluttuaq ⟹∗


previous chapter, story ⟹ there is a story in the previous chapter

• Nuniaffiup saninngua, unittarfik ⟹∗


area right beside Nuniaffik, (bus) stop ⟹ there is a bus stop right beside
Nuniaffik

Note: aqqusineq and kingulleq are both non-weak q-stems; and Nuniaffiup sanin-
ngua is a possessive noun phrase, so add {ni} onto saninngua and leave Nuniaffiup
unaltered.

5.10 Text
The main text of this chapter contains some sentence constructions that deserve a few
extra comments to make sense:

Impersonal sentences
The base {taa}V means ⟨agent⟩ calls ⟨patient⟩ (something). With V{ðaq}V and indicative
3.pl/3.sg ending V{vaat} you obtain a word meaning they (habitually) call it (something).
If ‘they’ are not further specified by an explicit noun in the sentence, then the meaning is
impersonal, somewhat like the impersonal use of ‘you’ or ‘one’ in English.
Consider for example the sentence One does not simply walk into Mordor. Here ‘one’
refers to anybody and nobody in particular; the meaning is impersonal. And the same
impersonal meaning is expressed in Greenlandic by using the 3.pl (‘they’) as subject.

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5.10. Text

That-clauses of that-clauses
Recall that you use the participial mood to express sentences of the form that (subject) Vb,
such as for example you told (that) I travelled to Nuuk. Here you told (something) is the so-
called main clause, and I travelled is the ‘that-clause’ (or subordinate clause in Grammaric).
We would therefore use the participial mood on {aullaq}V, so the sentence becomes
oqaluttuarputit Nuummut aallartunga
Recall also that the participial only can be used if the two persons doing something in
the sentence are different. Here ‘you’ ≠ ‘I’, so this is fine. But what if instead the sentence
was I told (that) I travelled to Nuuk? Here ‘I’ is the subject of both the main clause and the
subordinate clause, so we cannot use the participial mood.
Instead we must use the contemporative mood, because we have the same person doing
several things in the same sentence (here ‘telling’ and ‘travelling’). Thus the sentence now
becomes
oqaluttuarpunga Nuummut aallarlunga
Consider now the sentence you recall (that) I told (that) I travelled to Nuuk. This
sentence combines the two previous cases: you recall (something) is the main clause, and I
told (something) is the subordinate clause, so it should use the participial ending V{ðuŋa}
since ‘you’ ≠ ‘I’. But I told (something) is itself also a main clause for the subordinate clause
(that) I travelled to Nuuk, so I travelled should use the contemporative ending V{(l)luŋa}
since ‘I’ am the subject of both clauses.
The base {iqqaima}V means ⟨agent⟩ recalls ⟨partient⟩, and the indicative 2.sg/3.sg
ending is V{vat}, you Vb it. Now try to construct the sentence you recall that I told that I
travelled to Nuuk before you check the answer in the footnote:
4

Exercise 30: Translate the text


Nuuk Kalaallit Nunaata illoqarfiisa annersaraat (anginersaraat). Kisianni
illoqarfik angisuunngivippoq: Kalaallit Nunaannut aallarama, inuit
17.000-innaat Nuummi najugaqarput, Aalborgimili inuit 200.000-it
najugaqarput. Taamaammat Nuuk Aalborgimit assut minneruvoq
(mikineruvoq).
Nuup ilai pingasuupput. Tassaapput: Nuup Qeqqa, Nuussuaq, Qinngorpullu.
Nuup Qeqqa Nuussuup kitaaniippoq, Qinngorpullu Nuussuup kangianiippoq

4
eqqaamavat oqaluttuartunga Nuummut aallarlunga.

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5. Geography of Nuuk

Qinngorput Nuup kangerluata qinnguaniippoq, taamaammat taasarpaat


‘Qinngorput’
Immaqa eqqaamasinnaavat immikkoortumi kingullermi oqaluttuartunga
Nuniaffimmi najugaqassallunga. Nuniaffik Nuussuarmiippoq, aqqusinermut
qanilluni.
Ajoraluartumik suliffiga (Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivik) ungasilaarpoq, Nuup
Qeqqaniilluni. Suliartoraangama ullaakkut pisuttarpunga, sinnartooraangamali
bussertariaqartarpunga inortuiumananga. Ajoraluartumik sinnartoorajuppunga,
qujanartumilli Nuniaffiup saninnguani unittarfeqarpoq.

Glossary:
• *{li}, but (this enclitic is an alternative to kisianni)
• taamaammat, thus/therefore
• assut, very/much
• Nuup ilai, Nuuk’s parts (or ‘areas’)
• {piŋasuq}N, the number three (only with plural endings)
• immaqa, maybe/perhaps
• {iqqaima}V, ⟨agent⟩ recalls/remembers ⟨patient⟩
• V{vat}, thou Vb it (indicative 2.sg/3.sg)
• {qanik}V, is close (to something in allative case)
• V{(l)luni}, contemporative 4.sg (but think of it as 3.sg)
• ajoraluartumik, unfortunately. A lexicalised word, built from {ajuq}V, is
bad/broken + V{galuaq}V + V{ðuq}N + N{mik}.
• V{-laaq}V, somewhat Vb
• ullaakkut, in the morning
• V{ðariaqaq}V, has to Vb
• inortuiumananga, in order (for me) not to be late
• V{gajuk}V, Vb often
• qujanartumik, fortunately/thankfully. A lexicalised word, built like
ajoraluartumik but with {quja}V, is thankful, as base instead.
• {unikðaqfik}N, (bus) stop, built from {unik}V, stops + V{ðaq}V +
V{(f)fik}N.
• N{-qaq}V + any 3.sg ending: there is N <–

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5.10. Text

Solutions to the Exercises

Solution 23: Use the iterative mood


• {itiq}V, {kaffisuq}V ⟹∗ iteraangama kaffisortarpunga
• {sinnaqtuuq}V, {bussiq}V ⟹∗ sinnartooraangama bussertarpunga
• {suliffimnukaq}V, {pisuk}V ⟹∗ suliffinnukaraangama pisuttarpunga

Solution 24: Explore the forms of V{gi'jaqtuq}V

• {kaffisuq}V ⟹∗ kaffisoriartorpoq
• {sinik}V ⟹∗ sinikkiartorpoq
• {ilitniaqtit}V ⟹∗ ilinniartikkiartorpaa
• {iga}V ⟹∗ igajartorpoq
• {suli}V ⟹∗ suliartorpoq
• {niu}V ⟹∗ takujartorpaa

There are thus four different forms: -kiartor- on k-stems and t-stems, -riartor- on
q-stems, -jartor- on a-stems and u-stems, and -artor- on i-stems.

Solution 25: Use the a-rule


• {ila}N ⟹∗ ilaavoqa
• {aqnaq}N ⟹∗ arnaavoq
• {tacca}N ⟹∗ tassaavoq
a
You actually saw this word in chapter 3, exercise 11, where I presented it as a verbal stem
{ilaa}V. But now you know that it actually is {ila}N{-u}V.

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5. Geography of Nuuk

Solution 26: Practice plural

• {aqnaq}N, {iga}V ⟹∗ arnat igapput


• {iŋlu}N, {aŋi}V ⟹∗ illut angipput
• {inuk}N, {sinik}V ⟹∗ inuit sinipput
• {ausiak}N, {miki}V ⟹∗ aasiaat mikipput a
• {inuk}N, 17.000 + N{-innaq}N, {najugaqaq}V
⟹∗ inuit 17.00-innaat najugaqarput
a
So the town name Aasiaat literally means spiders.

Solution 27: Use N{LOC}{it}V


• Nuummi ⟹∗ Nuummiippoq
• Nuussuarmi ⟹∗ Nuussuarmiippoq
• Qinngutsinni ⟹∗ Qinngutsinniippoq
• Nuussuup kitaani ⟹∗ Nuussuup kitaaniippoq
• Nuussuup kangiani ⟹∗ Nuussuup kangianiippoq
• Nuniaffiup saninnguani ⟹∗ Nuniaffiup saninnguaniippoq
• Nuup kangerluata qinnguani ⟹∗ Nuup kangerluata qinnguaniippoq

Solution 28: Comparation

• illu, biili, {aŋi}V ⟹∗ illu biilimit angineruvoq


• Nuup Qeqqa, mittarfik, {uŋasik}V
⟹∗ Nuup Qeqqa mittarfimmit ungasinneruvoq
• Nuuk, Aalborgi, {miki}V ⟹∗ Nuuk Aalborgimit mikineruvoq
• Nuuk, Kalaallit Nunaata illoqarfiisa, {aŋi}V
⟹∗ Nuuk Kalaallit Nunaata illoqarfiisa anginersaraat
• Qinngorput, Nuup ilaasa, {uŋasik}V
⟹∗ Qinngorput Nuup ilaasa ungasinnersaraat
• illuga, illut, {miki}V ⟹∗ illuga illut mikinnersaraat

Note: Both V{niru}V and V{nicarə}V contain a morpheme V{nəq}N, which can

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5.10. Text

delete a final /ə/ from a stem. The bases {aŋi}V, {miki}V are actually ə-stems,
{aŋə}V and {mikə}V, so you may also see the forms anneruvoq, annersaraat,
minneruvoq, minnersaraat, where /ə/ has been deleted, and /n/ has assimilated
the consonant in the verbal base.

Solution 29: Use N{-qaq}V in the sense ‘there is N’

• igaffik, arnaq ⟹∗ igaffimmi arnaqarpoq


• aqqusineq, biili ⟹∗ aqqusinermi biileqarpoq
• immikkoortoq kingulleq, oqaluttuaq ⟹∗ immikkoortumi kingullermi oqa-
luttuaqarpoq
• Nuniaffiup saninngua, unittarfik ⟹ ∗ Nuniaffiup saninnguani unit-
tarfeqarpoq

Solution 30: Translate the text


Nuuk is the largest of the cities of Greenland. But the town is not at all big: When
I travelled to Greenland just 17.000 people lived in Nuuk, but 200.000 people lived
in Aalborg. Thus, Nuuk is much smaller than Aalborg.
Nuuk consists of three parts: Nuup Qeqqa, Nuussuaq and Qinngorput. Nuup Qeqqa
lies west of Nuussuaq, and Qinngorput lies east of Nuussuaq. Qinngorput is located
in the bottom (innermost part) of the fjord of Nuuk; thus ‘they’ call it ‘Qinngorput.’a
Perhaps you recall (that) I told in the previous chapter (that) I should stay/live in
Nuniaffik. Nuniaffik is in Nuussuaq, close to the road.
Unfortunately, my workplace (Atuarfeqarnermut Ingerlatsivik) is somewhat dis-
tant, being located in Nuup Qeqqa. Whenever I went to work, I walked in the
morning, but whenever I overslept I had to take the bus to avoid being late. Un-
fortunately, I often overslept, but fortunately there was a bus stop right beside
Nuniaffik.
a
From {qiŋŋuq}N, bottom/innermost part of a fjord + N{(q)vut}, our N.

67
CHAPTER 6
The new apartment

The room in Nuniaffik was only a temporary place where I could stay, until my furniture
and other possessions arrived in Greenland. And fortunately, because it was a very small
room. But after about a month, a new (and larger) apartment was ready for me, so I had
to move once again. Not far, though, because the new apartment was located right on the
other side of the road across from Nuniaffik, in Atertaq, close to the small grocery store
Brugseneeraq. Quite convenient.
This chapter continues the story of the previous chapters, describing the move to my
new (and permanent) apartment in Atertaq. It also introduces a new, important sound
rules; the schwa-rule, which accounts for the behaviour of the mysterious fourth vowel
phoneme, /ə/, that shows up in several different guises in both nominal and verbal stems.
This rule is the last of the major, important sound rules in Greenlandic, and with that in
place, you should finally be able to understand all the common sound changes that occur
whenever you join morphemes together.

6.1 Review
As always, we begin with a short review of what you have learned so far, with sandhi and
sound rules again presented in order of application:

Sandhi rules:
• Affixes and endings display three distinct types of sandhi or ‘joining’ behaviour:
They can be additive (no symbol); truncative (denoted by −) or epenthetic (denoted
by a consonant in parentheses).

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6. The new apartment

Figure 6.1: A view of the iconic Mt. Sermitsiaq behind Nuuk, taken near my new apartment in
Atertaq.

• Affixes beginning in a double consonant like V{ŋŋit}V and V{ssa}V are necessarily
truncative, because of the syllable structure.

Sound rules:
• The ð-rule: /𝑐ð/ → /𝑐t/, whilst /𝑣ð/ → /𝑣c/ (/c/ is pronounced [ʃ]).

• The g-rule: /qg/ merge to a single /r/: i.e. /qg/ → /r/

• The a-rule: Any vowel [𝑣] following [a] will itself become [a]; i.e. [a𝑣] → [aa].

• The vowel rule: Vowels have an open pronunciation before uvulars (/r/ and /q/).

• The consonant rule: All consonant clusters [𝑐1 𝑐2 ] are assimilated to [𝑐2 𝑐2 ].

• The fricative rule: [vv] → [pp] or (rarely) [ff]; [gg] → [kk]; and [ll] → [ɬɬ].

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6.1. Review

Spelling rules:
• Open (uvularised) /i/ and /u/ (that is, [ɜ] and [ɔ]) are spelt as e and o; but an open
/a/ (that is, [ɑ]) is still just spelt a, like the non-uvularised [a].
• [ɬɬ] is spelt ll (or rl as noted below).
• Whenever a /q/ is assimilated by the consonant rule, it is always spelt as r. So all
clusters /q𝑐/, which become [𝑐𝑐] by the consonant rule, are spelt as r𝑐.
• [ŋ] is spelt ng, but double [ŋŋ] is just spelt nng (and not ngng).
• [ʃ] (i.e. /c/) is spelt s, as is ordinary [s].
• [ij] is just spelt i, since [j] becomes inaudible after an [i] anyway (but it is still
there!).

Note also the order of the sandhi, sound and spelling rules; I have written them in the
order in which you must apply them, since some rules naturally must be applied before
others to yield the correct result. For example, the a-rule must be used before the vowel
rule, to ensure that e.g. [a𝑣q] becomes [ɑɑq]. This is usually quite obvious, so you need
not be overly concerned about memorising the exact order; just beware that the order
sometimes does matter. You will see further examples of this in the present chapter.

Grammar:
• Verbal endings consist of a mood marker and one or two person markers. Here are
the mood markers with their Grammaric names and meanings:
– Indicative: {vu}/{va}, statements.
– Contemporative: {(l)lu}, multiple (parallel or consecutive) actions by the same
person; also that … Vb.
– Participial: {ðu}, that … Vb, when subject differs from subject of main clause.
– Causative: {ga}, when/because for (past) cause or reason.
– Iterative: {gaaŋ}, whenever for repeated condition, and with V{ðaq}V on the
main verb.
• Intransitive endings have a single person marker, whilst transitive endings have two
person markers; one denoting the ⟨agent⟩ and the other denoting the ⟨patient⟩.
• Nominal endings are divided into sets, called cases, based on their usage/meaning,
and they come in two types: unmarked and possessive (or ‘marked’). The unmarked
endings only contain a case marker; but the possessive endings also contain a per-
son marker that denotes the person who owns the noun. Here are the cases, their
Grammaric names, and the usages you have seen so far:

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6. The new apartment

– Absolutive: Subject of intransitive verbs, and object of transitive verbs.


Unmarked: N{∅} (sg) and N{t}1 (pl).
Possessive: N{ga} (1.sg/sg); N{(q)vut} (1.pl/sg); N{-i} (3.sg/pl).
– Instrumental: Modifier of nouns incorporated with e.g. N{-qaq}V.
Unmarked: N{mik} (sg) and N{nik} (pl).
– Allative: to N.
Unmarked: N{mut} (sg) and N{nut} (pl).
Possessive: N{mnut} (1.sg/sg).
– Ablative: from N.
Unmarked: N{mit} (sg) and N{nit} (pl).
– Locative: in/at/on N.
Unmarked: N{mi} (sg) and N{ni} (pl).

6.2 A sound rule for /ə/


At last, we are come to the rule for the mysterious fourth vowel /ə/ in Greenlandic, the
schwa. Just like /ð/, this phoneme has no default sound of its own, but instead chooses
the sound of one of the other vowels, depending on context. Here is the general rule:

/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐]
/ə𝑣/ → [a𝑣]
In other words: Whenever /ə/ is followed by any consonant phoneme /𝑐/, it takes the
sound [i]; and whenever /ə/ is followed by any vowel phoneme /𝑣/, it takes the sound [a].
However, /ə/ can also occur as the final phoneme in a word, and in that case, there are a
few extra possibilities:

/𝑣tə/ → [𝑣t]
/𝑐ə/ → [𝑐i] where /𝑐/ ≠ /t/
In other words: If /ə/ is last and follows a single /t/, it disappears; but if it follows any
other consonant than a single /t/, then it also takes the sound [i]. Note that this implies
that /ə/ also will take the sound [i] if it follows a double consonant; even if it is a double
/t/. It can only disappear before a single /t/.
1
And N{-it} for k-stems and some non-weak q-stems.

72
6.2. A sound rule for /ə/

The ə-rule and the a-rule


There is one (rather obvious) detail about the ə-rule; you may already have guessed it, but
I’ll spell it out in detail in any case: The ə-rule must be applied before the a-rule. Can you
see why?
Consider the combination /ə𝑣/ where 𝑣 is any vowel phoneme. By the ə-rule, this
yields [a𝑣]. But, by the a-rule, any vowel 𝑣 that follows an [a] sound must itself become
[a]; and thus [a𝑣] yields [aa]. You have to take one extra step to obtain the correct result.

Exercise 31: Examples of the ə-rule

Here are some ə-stems with affixes and/or endings. In particular, there is also a
new absolutive possessive ending, N{-a}, his N (3.sg/sg). Use the ə-rule (and all of
the other sound rules as necessary) to produce the correct form of the final word:

• {aŋutə}N{t} ⟹∗
man, ABS.pl ⟹ men

• {aŋutə}N{-qaq}V{vuq} ⟹∗
man, there is/are N ⟹ there is/are a man/men

• {aŋutə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
man, I am an N ⟹ I am a man

• {aŋutə}N{∅} ⟹∗
man, ABS.sg ⟹ man

• {inə}N{t} ⟹∗
room, ABS.pl ⟹ rooms

• {inə}N{-qaq}V{vuq} ⟹∗
room, there is/are N ⟹ there is/are a room/rooms

• {inə}N{-a} ⟹∗
room, ABS 3.sg/sg ⟹ his room

• {inə}N{-i}a ⟹∗
room, ABS 3.sg/pl ⟹ his rooms

• {inə}N{∅} ⟹∗
room, ABS.sg ⟹ room

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6. The new apartment

• {siunniqsuqðə}N{t} ⟹∗
counselor, ABS.pl ⟹ counselors

• {siunniqsuqðə}N{∅} ⟹∗
counselor, ABS.sg ⟹ counselor

• {siunniqsuqðə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
counselor, I am an N ⟹ I am a counselor

• {piqutə}N{∅} ⟹∗
(piece of) furniture, ABS.sg ⟹ (a piece of) furniture

• {piqutə}N{t} ⟹∗
(piece of) furniture, ABS.pl ⟹ furniture

• {piqutə}N{kka} ⟹∗
(piece of) furniture, ABS 1.sg/pl ⟹ my furniture

• {atuagautə}N{kka} ⟹
(owned) books, ABS 1.sg/pl ⟹ my books (books owned by me)b
a
Remember that the marker N{-i} is still spelt as i when it is final, even when it has been assim-
ilated by the a-rule.
b
As opposed to books written by me.

A note about historic details


As you can see, /ə/ can either appear as i or as a (or not appear at all); and in fact, some of
the i’s you have hitherto seen in morphemes are actually /ə/. For example, the morphemic
form of house is actually {əŋlu}N, and not {iŋlu}N; and the verbalisation of the locative
case is in fact N{LOC}{ət}V.
However, this is mainly relevant for historic reasons, and not something you need to
be overly concerned about remembering; whether you learn the morpheme meaning house
as {əŋlu}N, {iŋlu}N, or even as {illu}N, does not actually matter. You can almost always
safely ‘precompute’ the final form of any stem up to (but excluding) the last syllable and
still obtain the correct result, because – with a few special exceptions – adding a morpheme
onto a stem can at most alter the final syllable of the stem.
Almost, but not always. Because there are a few exceptions, although they are rare:
they concern noun stems ending in /əq/, or (even rarer) /ək/, and with these, some
changes can happen, that can affect even more than the last syllable. You will hear more

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6.3. Verbal ə-stems with indicative mood

about these changes later; but for now, just beware whenever you see a noun stem ending
in /ə𝑐/. One thing you can be sure of is that whenever you see one of these stems ending
in /əq/, then it is not a weak q-stem.2

More about nominal ə-stems


Exercise 31 gave you some examples of the different types of ə-stems: the /tə/ stems
like {aŋutə}N; the stems where the single, last consonant is something else than /t/,
such as {inə}N; and lastly the stems that have a double consonant before /ə/, such as
{siunniqsuqði}N. Here are a few points to keep in mind about them:

• The /tə/ stems are by far the most common type of nominal ə-stem. In fact, every
(singular) noun listed in the DAKA as ending on /t/ is in fact a ə-stem! Or stated
otherwise: there is no such thing as a nominal t-stem. Thus, whenever you see a noun
that appears to end on a t in its singular form, then you can be sure that it actually
is a ə-stem where /ə/ just has disappeared.3

• Stems like {inə}N are quite rare, although several of them are frequently used. Be-
sides {inə}N they include {tipə}N (smell), {nipə}N (voice), {icə}N (eye), {timə}N
(body), {niqə}N (meat) and {puəðə}N (seal). You could simply memorise this list
and it would likely cover most of the ə-stems (apart from the tə-stems) that you will
encounter in the foreseeable future.

• Stems like {siunniqsuqðə}N, with a double consonant before /ə/, are also quite
rare. Most of them are formed with a single affix, V{ðə}N, which means one who
Vb for someone (else), so if you see a noun with something like this meaning, and
which seems to end on i before a double consonant, then it is probably a ə-stem.

6.3 Verbal ə-stems with indicative mood


In chapter 5 you encountered a few verbal ə-stems, most notably those created with the
comparation affix V{nəqcarə}V, and in a previous chapter you also saw {apirə}V, ⟨agent⟩
asks ⟨patient⟩ (something).
These verbal ə-stems alter the indicative mood marker, such that the final form of the
verb becomes ‘contracted’; i.e. we get aperaanga by adding the ending V{vaaŋa} onto
{apirə}V. As you may recall, I gave you this heuristic pseudo-rule, that you could just
delete /əv/ when you add the ending onto a verbal ə-stem. This rule is not quite correct,
2
But the converse does not hold: not all non-weak q-stems end in /əq/. For example, N{(q)cuaq}N is
not a weak q-stem, but it does not end in /əq/, so it is a counter-example.
3
This does not always hold for borrowed words, but that is a detail.

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6. The new apartment

and now that you know the ə-rule we can finally do away with it. Here is the real rule for
adding indicative endings onto ə-stems:

{…ə}V + {vu} / {va} → {…ə}V + {u} / {a}

In other words, /ə/ just deletes /v/ from the mood marker – both from intransitive
{vu} and transitive {va}. Now by the ə-rule, /ə/ becomes [a] because it is followed by
a vowel; namely either /u/ or /a/. And then we of course in both cases get [aa] by the
a-rule. Quite simple, now that you know the ə-rule and the a-rule, right?
However, there is one small complication: if you ever end up with a triple [aaa], then
this is reduced to just [aa] because of the syllable structure. Greenlandic does not allow a
vowel sound to be longer than two, so [aaa] → [aa].

Exercise 32: Indicative endings on verbal ə-stems

Practice adding indicative endings onto verbal ə-stems by writing the final form
of the following combinations. Note also a new affix, V{-qə}V, meaning Vb very
/greatly/much, which is commonly used for emphasis:

• {nuannarə}V{vara} ⟹∗
⟨agent⟩ likes/enjoys ⟨patient⟩, 1.sg/3.sg ⟹ I like/enjoy it

• {nuannarə}V{vaa} ⟹∗
⟨agent⟩ likes/enjoys ⟨patient⟩, 3.sg/3.sg ⟹ he like/enjoy it

• {mikə}V{-qə}V{vuq} ⟹∗
is small, Vb very, 3.sg ⟹ it is very small

• {aŋə}V{-qə}V{(v)vut} ⟹∗
is big, Vb very, 3.pl ⟹ they very big

A detail
It is actually not all verbal ə-stems that behave in this way, although most of them still
do. For example, the bases {aŋə}V (is big) and {mikə}V (is small) are actually ə-stems,
but they do not alter the indicative mood marker; i.e. they behave just as ordinary i-stems.
However, most ə-stems still behave according to this special rule, and all of those that do
are listed in the DAKA with ‘contracted’ indicative endings; i.e. -aa for the transitive verbs,
and -aaq for the intransitive.

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6.4. A sound rule (and spelling rule) for /t/

Part of the problem is probably that nobody can actually remember anymore which
of the i’s in a word are actually /ə/, and which are true /i/ phonemes. Thus, a /ə/ that
historically has taken the sound [i], may come to behave more like a true /i/ and lose the
ability to alternate between [i], [a] and no sound. Yet in both of the aforementioned cases,
we know that the final vowel actually is (or, at least historically was) a /ə/, because, as you
saw in the previous chapter, it can still disappear in certain contexts, such as before the
comparation morpheme V{nəq}N, and other morphemes derived from it; e.g. V{nəru}V
(Vb more) and V{nəqcarə}V (⟨patient⟩ is the most Vb’ing of ⟨agents⟩). Thus, you saw e.g.
anneruvoq, minneruvoq (it is bigger, it is smaller), from {aŋə}V, {mikə}V, even though
we say angivoq, mikivoq, and not *angaaq, *mikaaq.

6.4 A sound rule (and spelling rule) for /t/


Here is a rule I have hitherto ignored, because it mostly does not affect the way words are
spelt, but only pronunciation: Normally, /t/ takes the pronunciation [t], which sounds
like the ‘d’ in door. But whenever it is followed by an [i] sound, /t/ instead takes the
sound [ts ], which is probably more like the sound you would normally associate with
the letter t; it sounds approximately like ‘t’ in time, teeth, with perhaps a slightly more
pronounced blow of air through your teeth. The rule is thus

[ti] → [ts i]

and (as you perhaps can imagine) this rule must be applied after the ə-rule, but before the
vowel rule; because a /ə/ that has taken the sound [i] will also trigger this rule, and the
rule remains in effect even if [i] is later uvularised to [ɜ]. In other words, for example
[tiq] will become [ts ɜq].
It sounds complicated, but it is actually quite easy: Just remember to pronounce /t/
as [ts ] whenever it is followed by either [i] or [ɜ]. The rule is unambiguous, so [ts i] and
[ts ɜ] are not even spelt differently; they are just spelt as ti and te respectively. Thus e.g.
{timə}N{∅} (body) is pronounced [ts imi], but it is just spelt timi.
However, there is one annoying complication, which is due to the new orthography:
a double [ts ts i] (and [ts ts ɜ] also) is spelt as tsi (and tse). Thus, the spelling rule is that

[ts ts i] → tsi
[ts ts ɜ] → tse
except if the first consonant is an assimilated /q/. In that case it is just spelt as rti (and rte).
In other words, you have to apply the spelling rule of assimilated /q/ before you apply this
rule. Thus e.g. {əlitniaqtət}{vaa}V (he teaches him) is pronounced [ilinniɑts ts ippaa],
but it is spelt ilinniartippaa.

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6. The new apartment

Exercise 33: The t-rule and the ə-rule


The t-rule and its associated spelling rule can be somewhat confusing; not least
in cases where it is combined with the ə-rule, because it can alter how a word is
pronounced and spelt. Here are a few examples; write the final form of the words,
and try also to pronounce them, and observe how the sounds change:

• {uqalukðə}N{∅} ⟹∗
interpreter, ABS.sg ⟹ an interpreter

• {uqalukðə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
interpreter, is an N, I Vb ⟹ I am an interpreter

• {najuqðə}N{∅} ⟹∗
(lay) representative, ABS.sg ⟹ a (lay) representative

• {najuqðə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗
(lay) representative, is an N, I Vb ⟹ I am a (lay) representative

6.5 A new verbal stem type: t(ə)-stems


There is one last type of verbal stems we have not yet covered; the so-called t(ə)-stems.
These are all formed by a special morpheme, {ut(ə)} or one of its variants, but they are
numerous enough to be considered a separate type of verbal stems.
Hitherto, you have seen the two major groups of vowel stems and consonant stems.
Each of these can then be subdivided into more specific groups based on the final pho-
neme of the stem; i.e. ə-stems, t-stems, k-stems and so on. The special feature of this new
type of t(ə)-stems is that they behave like a mixture of these other stem types; specifically,
they sometimes behave like t-stems, and sometimes like ə-stems. Fortunately, it is easy to
predict when they behave like what.
Here is the rule: Suppose 𝑆 is any string of phonemes, such that {𝑆} is an additive
morpheme, and {-𝑆} is a truncative morpheme. Then

{…t(ə)} + {𝑆} → {…t𝑆}


{…t(ə)} + {-𝑆} → {…tə𝑆}
In other words: Additive (and epenthetic) morphemes are added to /t/, but truncative
morphemes are added to /ə/. Or in yet other words, t(ə)-stems behave as consonant stems

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6.6. Numerals

before additive morphemes, but as vowel stems before truncative morphemes, which is
what this epenthetic (ə) in parentheses is mean to to signify.

Exercise 34: Add morphemes to t(ə)-stems

{nassiut(ə)}V is a t(ə)-stem, meaning ⟨agent⟩ sends ⟨patient⟩ (to somebody). Write


the final form of the word obtained by adding the following morphemes, using all
necessary sound rules, and notice how the stem changes appearance depending on
the sandhi type of the following morpheme.a

• V{vaa} ⟹∗
indicative 3.sg/3.sg ⟹ he sends it (to somebody)

• V{ssa}V{vaa} ⟹∗
shall (future), indicative 3.sg/3.sg ⟹ he shall send it (to somebody)

• V{nəqaq}V{(v)vut} ⟹∗
⟨patient⟩ was/is Vb’ed, indicative 3.pl ⟹ they were sent (to somebody)

• V{qqu}V{vara} ⟹∗
⟨agent⟩ bids ⟨patient⟩ Vb, indicative 1.sg/3.sg ⟹ I bid (someone) send it (to
somebody)

• V{ðariaqaq}V{vakka} ⟹∗
must Vb, indicative 1.sg/3.pl ⟹ I must send them (to somebody)

Note on spelling: [uva] is just spelt ua in the new orthography, because /v/ tends
to become inaudible between [u] and [a]. The same happens between [u] and [i],
so [uvi] is also just spelt ui.
a
Specifically, if the morpheme is truncative, you will see a ti, but if it is additive, you will only
see an assimilated consonant.

6.6 Numerals
The Greenlandic numerals, i.e. the words for one, two, three, etc. are (perhaps not surpris-
ingly) nouns. Thus, you can also use them, just like any other nouns, by adding affixes
and endings to them. The only speciality you need to be aware of here, is that some of the
numerals only make sense with plural endings, which is rather obvious if the number is

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6. The new apartment

greater than one. In other words, you will often see the numerals (greater than one) with
plural endings, but if you want to add affixes to them, you still need to know their mor-
phemic form, which usually corresponds to the singular, even though the singular form
of e.g. the number ‘three’ might not make much sense. Here are the numerals from one to
twelve:

1. {atausiq}N (singular) ⟹∗ ataaseq


2. {maqluq}N (dual) ⟹∗ marluk
3. {piŋasuq}N ⟹∗ pingasut
4. {sisamaq}N ⟹∗ sisamat
5. {tatlimaq}N ⟹∗ tallimat
6. {aqvinəq}N (singular, non-weak q-stem) ⟹∗ arfineq
7. {aqvinəq-maqluq}N (dual) ⟹∗ arfineq-marluk
8. {aqvinəq-piŋasuq}N ⟹∗ arfineq-pingasut
9. {quləŋiluaq}N, {qulaaluaq}N ⟹∗ qulingiluat, qulaaluat
10. {qulə(k)}N (‘weak’ k-stem) ⟹∗ qulit
11. {aqqanəq}N (singular, non-weak q-stem) ⟹∗ aqqaneq
12. {aqqanəq-maqluq}N (dual) ⟹∗ aqqaneq-marluk

For numbers greater than twelve, the Danish numerals are usually used. Now, as you
can see, there are a few peculiarities to keep in mind with these numerals:

• {atausiq}N, one; {aqvinəq}N, six; and {aqqanəq}N, eleven are all singular. The
number system is based on counting fingers (and toes), so {atausiq}N is the first
finger on the first hand; {aqvinəq}N is the first finger on the second hand, and so
on.

• marluk, two is actually an old dual form, even though the dual number system has
all but disappeared in Greenlandic.4 . The dual marker was {k}, and it also appeared
before case endings; thus e.g. in the instrumental case, we get {maqluq}N{knik}
⟹∗ marlunnik. If this seems confusing, just think of it in this way: {maqluq}N
behaves as if it were a k-stem {maqluk}N when you add endings to it; but as a
(weak) q-stem {maqluq}N when you add affixes to it.

• {piŋasuq}N, three; {sisamaq}N, four; {tatlimaq}N, five are just plain, weak q-
stems. They are always used with plural endings (since they are plural in meaning).

• The words for seven, eight and twelve are compound words (as indicated by the
hyphen, although they can optionally also be written without a hyphen), formed
from the word for the other hand, and the word for two, three. You just treat them as
4
But you can still see it in Inuktitut and other, more western inuit languages

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6.6. Numerals

a single stem; i.e. you only add affixes and endings to the last word in the compound.
This also means that the compounds formed with {maqluq}N take dual endings,
just like marluk.
• The two forms for the word nine, {quləŋiluaq}N and {qulaaluaq}N, can be used
interchangeably.
• The word for ten is qulit, but it was (historically) a /ək/-stem, even though /ə/ today
behaves just like an ordinary /i/.5

Exercise 35: Use the numerals


Here are a number of sentences in English, involving the use of numerals. Write the
corresponding sentence in Greenlandic (and use the glossary for help). Remember
that N{-qaq}V{vuq} means there is/are N, and modifiers to the incorporated noun
are added in the instrumental case, i.e. N{mək}, N{nək}.


There are three rooms


There is just one apartment


There are two mountains


I saw three mountains

• sinittarfimmi
in the bedroom there are just two beds

• inissiartaami
in the new apartment there is just one kitchen

• inersuarmi
in the living room there are five chairs

• inissiartaara
my new apartment has just one bathroom

5
But you can see it once was a /ə/ in the second word for nine, where /ŋ/ had disappeared, which yielded
/quləiluaq/ ⟹ [qulailuaq] ⟹ [qulaaluaq] by the ə-rule and the a-rule.

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6. The new apartment


the small apartment has just two rooms


I stayed/lived just one month in Nuniaffik

Glossary:
• {inə}N, room
• {inəkciaq}N, apartment
• N{-innaq}N, just N. Note: non-weak q-stem. Add this to the numeral.
• {qaqqaq}N, mountain
• {taku}V, ⟨agent⟩ sees ⟨patient⟩
• V{vakka}, I Vb them (indicative 1.sg/3.pl)
• {sinəkðaqvik}N, bedroom
• {sinəkvik}N, bed
• {igavvik}N, kitchen
• N{taaq}N, a new N
• {inəqcuaq}N, living room
• {issiavik}N, chair
• {uvvaqvik}N, bathroom
• N{-araq}N, a small N
• {qaummatə}N, month

6.7 Text
Here at last is the text of the chapter. As usual, I have tried to use as many glossaries from
the previous exercises as possible

Exercise 36: Translate the text


Immikkoortumi kingullermi oqaluttuarpunga Nuniaffimmi inissiaqarlunga.
Imaluunniit oqassagaluarpunga inissiaaraqarlunga: Inissiara mikeqaaq,
marluinnarnik ineqarluni. Sinittarfeqarpoq uffarfeqarlunilu. Qujanartumik
qaammat ataasiinnaq Nuniaffimmi najugaqartariaqarpunga. Taava
inissiartaamut annerusumut (anginerusumut) nuuppunga.
Inissiartaara aqquserngup akianiippoq, pisiniarfiup ‘Brugseneeqqap’
eqqaaniilluni. Pingasunik ineqarpoq: tassaapput inersuaq igaffilik, sinittarfik

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6.7. Text

uffarfillu. Aamma qamani aneersuartarfeqarpoq; tassannga qaqqaq ‘Sermitsiaq’


takuneqarpoq. Isikkivik assut nuannaraara.
Kalaallit Nunaannut aallarama soorunami kuffertimik ataasiinnarmik
nassarsinnaavunga. Pequtikka atuagaatikkalu tamarmik uannut umiarsuarmik
nassiunneqarput. Umiarsuaq tikimmat pequtit pivakka, aatsaallu
inissiartaannut isertersinnaallunga.

Glossary:
• imaluunniit, or.
• V{ssa}V{galuaq}V, should.
• aqquserngup akiani, on the other side of the road.
• pisiniarfiup `Brugseneeqqap' eqqaani, in the vicinity of the store ‘Brugse-
neeraq’ (‘the little grocery store’).
• N{-lək}N, equipped with N. The meaning is equivalent to the combination
N{-qaq}V{ðuq}N.
• qamani, outside (of the house).
• {aniiqcuaqðaqvik}N, balcony
• tassanga, thence (from there).
• {icəkkivik}N, view.
• assut, very much.
• soorunami, of course.
• {nassaq}V, bring (something). Note: if explicitly mentioned, the (something)
must carry an instrumental case ending.
• tamarmik, all of them (as subject of a sentence).
• {umiaqcuaq}N, ship. With instrumental ending: by ship.
• uannut, to me.
• V{(m)mat}, when it Vb’ed (causative 3.sg).
• {pi}V, ⟨agent⟩ gets ⟨patient⟩.
• {isəqtəq}V, move into (something). Note: if explicitly mentioned, the (some-
thing) must carry an allative case ending.

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6. The new apartment

Solutions to the Exercises

Solution 31: Examples of the ə-rule

• {aŋutə}N{t} ⟹∗ angutit (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])


• {aŋutə}N{-qaq}V{vuq} ⟹∗ anguteqarpoq (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])
• {aŋutə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ angutaavunga (/ə𝑣/ → [a𝑣])
• {aŋutə}N{∅} ⟹∗ angut (final /𝑣tə/ → [𝑣t])
• {inə}N{t} ⟹∗ init (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])
• {inə}N{-qaq}V{vuq} ⟹∗ ineqarpoq (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])
• {inə}N{-a} ⟹∗ inaa (/ə𝑣/ → [a𝑣])
• {inə}N{-i} ⟹∗ inai (/ə𝑣/ → [a𝑣])
• {inə}N{∅} ⟹∗ ini (final /𝑐ə/ → [𝑐i] when 𝑐 ≠ /t/)
• {siunniqsuqðə}N{t} ⟹∗ siunnersortit (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])
• {siunniqsuqðə}N{∅} ⟹∗ siunnersorti (final /𝑐𝑐ə/ → [𝑐𝑐i])
• {siunniqsuqðə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ siunnersortaavunga (/ə𝑣/ → [a𝑣])
• {piqutə}N{∅} ⟹∗ pequt (final /𝑣tə/ → [𝑣t])
• {piqutə}N{t} ⟹∗ pequtit (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])
• {piqutə}N{kka} ⟹∗ pequtikka (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])
• {atuagautə}N{kka} ⟹∗ atuagaatikka (/ə𝑐/ → [i𝑐])

Solution 32: Indicative endings on verbal ə-stems

• {nuannarə}V{vara} ⟹∗ nuannaraara
• {nuannarə}V{vaa} ⟹∗ nuannaraa
• {mikə}V{-qə}V{vuq} ⟹∗ mikeqaaq
• {aŋə}V{-qə}V{(v)vut} ⟹∗ angeqaat a
a
In V{(v)vut}, /v/ is doubled to /vv/, but since /v/ is deleted by /ə/ there is nothing to double.
In other words, even /(v)v/ is deleted by this rule.

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6.7. Text

Solution 33: The t-rule and the ə-rule


• {uqalukðə}N{∅} ⟹∗ [ɔqaluts ts i] ⟹∗ oqalutsi
• {uqalukðə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ [ɔqaluttaavuŋa] ⟹∗ oqaluttaavunga
• {najuqðə}N{∅} ⟹∗ [najɔts ts i] ⟹∗ najorti
• {najuqðə}N{-u}V{vuŋa} ⟹∗ [najɔttaavuŋa] ⟹∗ najortaavunga

Solution 34: Add morphemes to t(ə)-stems

• V{vaa} ⟹∗ nassiuppaa
• V{ssa}V{vaa} ⟹∗ nassiutissavaa
• V{nəqaq}V{(v)vut} ⟹∗ nassiunneqarput
• V{qqu}V{vara} ⟹∗ nassiuteqquaraa
• V{ðariaqaq}V{vakka} ⟹∗ nassiuttariaqarpakka
a
Remember, V{qqu}V is necessarily truncative, because of the syllable structure.

Solution 35: Use the numerals


• pingasunik ineqarpoq
• ataasiinnarmik inissiaqarpoq
• marlunnik qaqqaqarpoq (dual)
• qaqqat pingasut takuakka (NB: [uva] ⟹ ua)
• sinittarfimmi marluinnarnik siniffeqarpoq
• inissiartaami ataasiinnarmik igaffeqarpoq
• inersuarmi tallimanik issiaveqarpoq
• inissiartaara ataasiinnarmik uffarfeqarpoq
• inissiaaraq marluinnarnik ineqarpoq
• qaammat ataasiinnaq Nuniaffimmi najugaqarpunga

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6. The new apartment

Solution 36: Translate the text


In the previous chapter I told that I had an apartment in Nuniaffik. Or (perhaps) I
should say that I had a tiny apartment: My apartment was very small, having just
two rooms. There was a bedroom and a bathroom. Fortunately, I had to stay just
one month in Nuniaffik. Then I moved to a larger, new apartment.
My new apartment was located on the other side of the road, in the vicinity of the
store ‘Brugseneeraq’ (the little grocery store). It had three rooms: they were: living
room with kitchen, bedroom and a bathroom. Outside there was also a balcony;
thence the mountain Sermitsiaq could be seen. I was very fond of the view.
When I travelled to Greenland I could of course bring only one suitcase. All my
furniture and books were brought by ship. When the ship arrived I received my
furniture, and finally I could move into my new apartment.

86
Bibliography

Fortescue, M., Jacobson, S., and Kaplan, L. (2010). Comparative Eskimo Dictionary With
Aleut Cognates. Alaska Native Language Center, Fairbanks, Alaska, 2 edition.

87
APPENDIX A
Glossary

Through the chapters of this book I have introduced many bases and affixes as glossaries
for the various exercises. Here follows a complete list, together with a translation. I use
the following alphabetisation:

abcdðeəfghijklmnŋopqrstuvwxyzæøå

Particles and similar ‘frozen’ words and phrases are written using the new orthogra-
phy; but otherwise, bases and affixes are given in a morphemic form that generally is
close to the one used by Fortescue et al. (2010) in their Comparative Eskimo Dictionary.
However, I have decided to transcribe historical /ə/ that has become either/i/ or /a/ as
that respective vowel, except when it appears in the final syllable of a morpheme, where
it might affect the final form of the word depending on the following morphemes. Or,
conversely, where the presence of a true /i/ otherwise might affect a following /t/.

A.1 Bases and particles

A Arsuk, a small town in South Greenland


near the (now closed and desolate) cryolite
aamma, and, also, furthermore. mine Ivigtût. The name may derive from the
aappaluttoq, {aukpalukðuq}N, the colour word for pamper/spoil.
red; something that is red. ateq, {atəq}N, name. Strong q-stem with
Aasiaat, spiders, a town in West Greenland. metathesis.
The name is the plural form of {ausiak}N.

89
A. Glossary

B West Greenland where the Atlantic air-


port is located. The final morpheme is
biili, car, borrowed from Danish. N{(q)cuaq}N, see its entry for notes on
sandhi.
I Kapisillit, salmon, a small town/settlement
igasoq, {igaðuq}N, a cook, i.e. one who near Nuuk. The name is plural, the final
cooks food. morpheme is N{-lək}N; see its entry for
notes on sandhi.
ilisimasalik, {əlisimaðalək}N, person with
scientific knowledge (of something), with kisianni, but, however
(something) given in the instrumental case. kufferti, suitcase, borrowed from Danish.
The final morpheme is N{-lək}N; see it for
Kulusuk, a small town in East Greenland
notes on sandhi.
near Tasiilaq.
Illoqqortoormiut, the big-house dwellers, a
town in Northeast Greenland. The name is
plural, the final morpheme is N{miuq}N. M
illu, {əŋlu}N, house maanga, hither.

inuk, {inuk}N, human; person. It can also Maniitsoq, the uneven, town just north of
refer more specifically to a member of the Nuuk.
ethnic group of inuit. Lastly, it is also a (uni- meeraq, {miiraq}N, child. Weak q-stem
sex) name. with gemination of /r/ to [qq].
Isortoq, the unclear/turbid. A small town
on the East coast, near Tasiilaq. The name
refers to the colour of the waters around the
N
town. najugaqar-, {najugaqaq}V, live/have ad-
dress/residency (in some place), with (place)

K given in the locative case.


Nanortalik, the place with polar bears. A
kalaaleq, {kalaaliq}N, Greenlander. Weak small town in South Greenland. The last
q-stem with gemination of /l/ to [ɬɬ], and morpheme is N{-lək}N, see its entry for
final /i/ assibilates /t/ to /s/, hence e.g. notes on sandhi.
kalaallisut with equalis N{tut}.
Narsaq, plain, town in south Greenland.
Kalaallit Nunaat, Land of the Kalaallit, the
name for Greenland in Greenlandic. Posses- nuliaq, {nuliaq}N, wife. Final /aq/ drops
sive noun phrase, built from {kalaaliq}N before vowel-initial endings.
and {nuna}N. nuup-, {nuuk}V, move (to some place).
Kangerlussuaq, the great fjord, a town in Nuuk, headland, the capital of Greenland.

90
A.2. Affixes

Nuummioq, {Nuukmiuq}N, a citizen of


Nuuk.
T
taava, then.

P tarnip pissusiinik ilisimasalik, psycholo-


gist. Noun phrase built from {taqnə}N /
Paamiut, a town in West Greenland, south {taqnəq}N / {taqnək}N, {piccusiq}N and
of Nuuk. The name is plural, the final mor- {əlisimaðalək}N.
pheme is N{miuq}N.
Tasiilaq, East Greenlandic form of the word
pissuseq, {piccusiq}N, behaviour. Weak q- tasiusaq, meaning something that looks like
stem with gemination of /s/ to [ts ts ]. a lake. The largest town on the East coast.
tikip-, {təkit}V, ⟨agent⟩ arrives at ⟨patient⟩.
Q Non-patient preserving.
Qaanaaq, a town in Northwest Greenland tuttu, {tuntu}N, raindeer/caribou.
near the Thule Airbase.
Qaqortoq, the white, town in south Green-
land.
U
ui, {ui}N, husband.
qarasaasialerisoq, {qarasausialirəðuq}N,
ukioq, {ukiuq}N, year, winter.
computer scientist, literally one that works
with computers. ullumikkut, now, today, nowadays.
Qasigiannguit, the little spotted seals, a town Uummannaq, heart-like, a city in North-
in West Greenland. The name is plural, the west Greenland. The name derives from an
final morpheme is N{ŋŋuaq}N. See its en- iconic, heart-shaped mountain behind the
try for notes on sandhi. city.
Upernavik, spring/summertime settlement, a
S town in North West Greenland.

Sisimiut, the fox-hole dwellers, a town in uter-, {utəq}V, return (to some place), with
Central West Greenland. The name is plu- (place) given in the allative case.
ral, the final morpheme is N{miuq}N.

A.2 Affixes

C gemination of /s/ to [ts ts ]

V{ccusiq}N, the act of being Vb’ing; Vb’ness;


abstract noun/concept. Weak q-stem with L
91
A. Glossary

N{-lək}N, one equipped with N; one that has stem before consonant-initial endings, but
N. Semantically, this affix is equivalent to final /aq/ drops before vowel-initial end-
the combination N{-qaq}V{ðuq}N. It dis- ings and N{-u}V, and it takes N{-up} and
plays a remnant of k-metathesis, so the erga- N{-it} in ergative and plural.
tive, plural and absolutive 2.sg/sg forms are
-llip, -llit, but otherwise it behaves like an
ordinary k-stem. Q
N{-qaq}V, has N. With 3.sg ending and un-
K specified subject, it can also mean there is N.
N{(q)cuaq}N, big/bad N. The meaning
N{ALL}{-kaq}V, go to, verbalisation of the can be big/great without negative conno-
allative case. tations. It behaves as a strong q-stem
before consonant-initial endings, but final
M /aq/ drops before vowel-initial endings and
N{-u}V, and it takes N{-up} and N{-it} in
N{miuq}N, one who lives in N; a citizen of
ergative and plural.
N.

Ŋ S
N{ŋŋuaq}N, dear/little, often used for V{sinnau}V, can Vb.
(unironic) endearment. On spatial noun
stems it means right/just, e.g. qulinnguani,
right/just above it. It behave as a weak q-
U
N{-u}V, is (an) N.

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