NAME: MUNEER HUSSAIN DAR

STUDENT: M.Sc. CHEMISTRY

COURSE: EXPERIMENTAL METHODS( PHY18007GE)

ENROLLMENT NUMBER: 20062120037

ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED TO: Dr. SHAKEEL

What is an experiment?

An experiment is a procedure designed to test a hypothesis as part of the scientific method. The
experiment is the foundation of the scientific method, which is a systematic means of exploring the
world around you. An experiment may also aim to answer a "what-if" question, without a specific
expectation about what the experiment reveals, or to confirm prior results. If an experiment is carefully
conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis

The steps of the scientific method:

Make observations.

Formulate a hypothesis.

Design and conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis.

Evaluate the results of the experiment.

Accept or reject the hypothesis.

If necessary, make and test a new hypothesis

Types of Experiments

Natural Experiments: A natural experiment also is called a quasi-experiment. A natural

experiment involves making a prediction or forming a hypothesis and then gathering data by
observing a system. The variables are not controlled in a natural experiment.

Controlled Experiments: Lab experiments are controlled experiments, although we can

perform a controlled experiment outside of a lab setting! A controlled experiment is an experiment
where the independent variable is systematically manipulated while its effects on the dependent
variable are measured. Furthermore, the presence of any extraneous variables are accounted for
and are controlled. In controlled experiments, all variables are held constant, barring the independent
variable that is manipulated.

Field Experiments: A field experiment may be either a natural experiment or a controlled

experiment. It takes place in a real-world setting, rather than under lab conditions. For example,
an experiment involving an animal in its natural habitat would be a field experiment.

Variables in an Experiment
Simply put, a variable is anything we can change or control in an experiment. Common
examples of variables include temperature, duration of the experiment, composition of a material,
amount of light, etc. There are three kinds of variables in an experiment: controlled variables,
independent variables and dependent variables.

Controlled variables, sometimes called constant variables are variables that are kept
constant or unchanging. For example, if we are doing an experiment measuring the fizz released
from different types of soda, we might control the size of the container so that all brands of soda
would be in 12-oz cans. If we are performing an experiment on the effect of spraying plants with
different chemicals, we would try to maintain the same pressure and maybe the same volume
when spraying our plants.

The independent variable is the one factor that we are changing. It is one factor because
usually in an experiment we try to change one thing at a time. This makes measurements and
interpretation of the data much easier. If we are trying to determine whether heating water allows
us to dissolve more sugar in the water then our independent variable is the temperature of the
water. This is the variable we are purposely controlling.

The dependent variable is the variable we observe, to see whether it is affected by our
independent variable. In the example where we are heating water to see if this affects the amount
of sugar we can dissolve, the mass or volume of sugar (whichever we choose to measure) would be
your dependent variable.

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.

A scientific hypothesis is a tentative, testable explanation for a phenomenon in the natural world.
It's the initial building block in the scientific method. The basic idea of a hypothesis is that there is
no predetermined outcome. A key function of a hypothesis is to derive predictions about the
results of future experiments and then perform those experiments to see whether they support
the predictions. A hypothesis is usually written in the form of an if-then statement, which gives a
possibility (if) and explains what may happen because of the possibility (then). The statement
could also include "may," Here are some examples of hypothesis statements:

If sugar causes cavities, then people who eat a lot of candy may be more prone to cavities.

If ultraviolet light can damage the eyes, then maybe this light can cause blindness.

Falsifiability

The Falsification Principle, proposed by Karl Popper, is a way of demarcating science from non-science. It
suggests that for a theory to be considered scientific it must be able to be tested and conceivably proven
false.

However many confirming instances there are for a theory, it only takes one counter observation to falsify
it. For example, the hypothesis that "all swans are white," can be falsified by observing a black swan.

Can a hypothesis be proven?

Upon analysis of the results, an alternative hypothesis can be rejected or supported, but it can never be
proven to be correct.
We must avoid any reference to results proving a theory as this implies 100% certainty, and there is
always a chance that evidence may exist which could refute a theory

The best hypotheses are simple. They deal with a relatively narrow set of phenomena. But
theories are broader; they generally combine multiple hypotheses into a general explanation for a
wide range of phenomena, For example, a hypothesis might state, "If animals adapt to suit their
environments, then birds that live on islands with lots of seeds to eat will have differently shaped
beaks than birds that live on islands with lots of insects to eat." After testing many hypotheses like
these, Charles Darwin formulated an overarching theory: the theory of evolution by natural
selection.

"Theories are the ways that we make sense of what we observe in the natural world. Theories are
structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts."

An example of an untestable statement is, "Dogs are better than cats." That's because the
definition of "better" is vague and subjective. However, an untestable statemaent can be
reworded to make it testable. For example, the previous statement could be changed to this:
"Owning a dog is associated with higher levels of physical fitness than owning a cat." With this
statement, the researcher can take measures of physical fitness from dog and cat owners and
compare the two.

Part of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis has three components, which are also requirements for it to be considered a hypothesis:

A. Independent variable: The independent variable is the one that is expected to cause a change at the
end of the experiment.

B. Dependent variable: The dependent variable is the one that is expected to be changed by the
independent variable at the end of the experiment.

C. Reasoning based on research: The reasoning part of the hypothesis should include an explanation,
based on facts and research.

Types of Hypotheses

Some of the most common types of hypothesis include:

Simple: Combines only independent variable and one dependent variable

Complex: Involves at least two dependent variables and at least two independent variables

Directional: Predicts a positive or negative relationship between the dependent and independent variable

Non-directional: Predicts a relationship between two variables without specifying if it’s positive or
negative (direction of effect).

Null: Proposes that one variable has no effect on the other

Alternative: Claims that a null hypothesis is false i.e one variable has an effect on the other.
 What is a theory?

A theory is a well-established explanation for scientific data. Theories typically cannot

be proven, but they can become established if they are tested by several different scientific
investigators. A theory can be disproven by a single contrary result.

Examples of theories: the kinetic theory of gases, valence bond theory, Lewis theory, molecular
orbital theory

the big bang theory, atomic theory, theory of relativity, quantum field theory

Key Criteria for a Theory

A theory must do all of the following:

 It must be well-supported by many independent pieces of evidence.

 It must be falsifiable. In other words, it must be possible to test a theory at some point.
 It must be consistent with existing experimental results and able to predict outcomes at least as
accurately as any existing theories.

Some theories may be adapted or changed over time to better explain and predict behavior. A
good theory can be used to predict natural events that have not occurred yet or have yet to be
observed.

A hypothesis is a possible answer to a scientific question. A scientific theory is a broad

explanation for events that is widely accepted as true. To become a theory, a hypothesis must be
tested over and over again, and it must be supported by a great deal of evidence.

Value of Disproven Theories

Over time, some theories have been shown to be incorrect. However, not all discarded theories
are useless.

Newtonian mechanics is incorrect in certain frames of reference, Yet, at ordinary speeds,

Newtonian mechanics accurately explains and predicts real-world behavior. Its equations are
much easier to work with, so Newtonian mechanics remains in use for general physics.

In chemistry, there are many different theories of acids and bases. They involve different
explanations for how acids and bases work (e.g., hydrogen ion transfer, proton transfer, electron
transfer). Some theories, which are known to be incorrect under certain conditions, remain useful
in predicting chemical behavior and making calculations.

Theory vs. Law

Both scientific theories and scientific laws are the result of testing hypotheses via the scientific
method. Both theories and laws may be used to make predictions about natural behavior.
However, theories explain why something works, while laws simply describe behavior under given
conditions. Theories do not change into laws; laws do not change into theories. Both laws and
theories may be falsified but contrary evidence.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposition or assumption which requires testing. Theories are the result of
many tested hypotheses.

Theory vs Fact

While theories are well-supported and may be true, they are not the same as facts. Facts are
irrefutable, while a contrary result may disprove a theory.

Theory vs. Model

Models and theories share common elements, but a theory both describes and explains while a
model simply describes. Both models and theory may be used to make predictions and develop
hypotheses.

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