LABORATORY MANUAL

Experiment-1
Basic safety precautions. Basic functional study of main components used in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering. Introduction and use of measuring instruments–Voltmeter, Ammeter,
Analog/Digital multi-meter, Oscilloscope, Function/Signal Generator.

1. Basic safety precautions

The power levels and the rotating machines used in Electrical Labs can pose significant hazard to
the laboratory users, if not handled properly. The major hazards associated with electricity are
electrical shock and fire. Electrical shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electric
circuit. In addition to the electrical shock hazards, sparks from electrical equipment can serve as
an ignition source for flammable or explosive vapors. Some general guidelines that can be used
to reduce the risk of injury caused by laboratory hazards are as follows:

1. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.

2. Disconnect the power source before servicing or repairing electrical equipment.
3. When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure hands are dry and, when
possible, wear nonconductive gloves and shoes with insulated soles.
4. If it is not unsafe to do so, work with only one hand, keeping the other hand at your side or in
your pocket, away from all conductive material. This precaution reduces the likelihood of
accidents that result in current passing through the chest cavity.
5. If water or a chemical is spilled onto equipment, shut off power at the main switch or circuit
breaker and unplug the equipment.
6. If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment,
cord or person. Disconnect the power source from the circuit breaker or pull out the plug using a
leather belt.
7. Do not make circuit changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
8. Do not wear loose-fitting clothing or jewelry in the lab. Rings and necklaces are usual excellent
conductors in contact with your skin.
9. It is wise in electrical labs to wear pants rather than shorts or skirts. Ties are also dangerous.
10. Powered equipment can be hot! Use caution when handling equipment after it has been
operating.
11. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power.
12. Use wires of appropriate length. Do not allow them to drape over your equipment. Avoid splices,
which create live surfaces. When running a pair of wires to adjacent terminals, twist the wires
together so they don’t dangle. This also neatens your work and will save time.
13. Do not touch anything if your hands are wet. The "one-hand" approach is safest.
14. If you can't keep your hand in your pocket, do not touch any metal object with free hand.
15. Do not pull wires out until you are absolutely sure that the circuit is completely dead. Shocks can
occur if an inductive load (motor or transformer) is disconnected while conducting.
16. All the electrical equipment must be connected to the proper earth line.
17. All high voltage equipment must properly be marked and danger signs displayed.
18. Don't depend on switches to de-energize a circuit. Pull the plug out from the socket/outlet.

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19. If you are working on high voltage circuits, have a co-worker along with you who knows how to
break the circuit to get you free and how to give you mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and closed
chest heart massage.
20. When you are mentally or physically tired, avoid work on energized circuits.
21. High voltage connections must have no sharp points.
22. Permanent or temporary enclosures around high voltage equipment should be used.

There are numerous basic electronic components that are used for building electronic circuits.
Without these components, circuit designs are never complete or didn’t function well. These
components include resistors, diodes, capacitors, integrated circuits, and so on. Some of these
components consist of two or more terminals that are soldered to circuit boards. Some may be
packaged types like integrated circuits in which different semiconductor devices are integrated.
Here is a brief overview of each of these basic electronic components and you can get in-depth
information by clicking links attached to each component.

2. Basic Components

Electronic components are basic discrete devices in any electronic system to use in electronics
otherwise different associated fields. These components are basic elements that are used to design
electrical and electronic circuits. These components have a minimum of two terminals which are
used to connect to the circuit. The classification of electronic components can be done based on
applications like active, passive, and electromechanical.

Fig 1. Major Electronic Components

In designing an electronic circuit following are taken into consideration:

 Basic electronic components: capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.

 Power sources: Signal generators and DC power supplies.
 Measurement and analysis instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Multi-meters, etc.

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2.1 Active Components

These components are used to amplify electrical signals to generate electric power. The functioning
of these components can be done like an AC circuit within electronic devices to protect from
voltage and enhanced power. An active component executes its functions because it is power-driven
through an electricity source. All these components require some energy source that is normally
removed from a DC circuit. Any quality type of active component will include an oscillator, IC
(integrated circuit) & transistor.

2.2 Passive Components

These types of components cannot use mesh energy into the electronic circuit because they don’t
rely on a power source, excluding what is accessible from the AC circuit they are allied to. As a
result, they cannot amplify, although they can increase a current otherwise voltage or current. These
components mainly include two-terminals like resistors, inductors, transformers & capacitors.

2.3 Electromechanical Components

These components use an electrical signal to make some mechanical changes like rotating a motor.
Generally, these components use electrical current to form a magnetic field so that physical
movement can be caused. Different types of switches and relays are applicable in these kinds of
components. The devices which have the process of electrical as well as mechanical are
electromechanical devices. An electromechanical component is operated manually to generate
electrical output through the mechanical movement.

2.4 Passive Electronic Components

These components can store or maintains energy either in the form of current or voltage. Some of
these components are discussed below.

2.4.1 Resistors

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronics component, used to oppose or limit the current.
Resistor works based on the principle of Ohm’s law which states that “voltage applied across the
terminals of a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it”

V=IR
The units of the resistance are ohms
Where R is the constant called resistance

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Fig 2. Resistor Components

Resistors are further classified based on the following specifications such as the power rating, type
of material used, and resistance value. These resistor types are used for different applications.

2.4.2 Fixed Resistors

This type of resistor is used to set the right conditions in an electronic circuit. The values of
resistance in fixed resistors are determined during the design phase of the circuit, based on this there
is no need to adjust the circuit.

2.4.3 Variable Resistors

A device that is used to change the resistance according to our requirements in an electronic circuit
is known as a variable resistor. These resistors comprise a fixed resistor element and a slider that
taps on to the resistor element. Variable resistors are commonly used as a three-terminal device for
calibration of the device. Please refer to this link to know more  Know more about resistors

2.4.4 Capacitors

A capacitor made from two conductive plates with an insulator between them and it stores electrical
energy in the form of an electric field. A capacitor blocks the DC signals and allows the AC signals
and also used with a resistor in a timing circuit. The stored charge is

Q=CV

Where, C is the capacitance of a capacitor and V is the applied voltage.

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Fig 3. Capacitor Components

These capacitors are of different types like film, ceramic, electrolytic, and variable capacitors. For
finding its value number and color-coding methods are used and it also possible to find the
capacitance value with LCR meters. Please refer to this link to know more about capacitors

2.4.5 Inductors

An inductor is also referred to as an AC resistor which stores electrical energy in the form of
magnetic energy. It resists the changes in the current and the standard unit of inductance is Henry.
The capability of producing magnetic lines is referred to as inductance. The inductance of the
inductor is given as

L= (µ.K.N2.S)/I.

Where,‘L’ is inductance,
‘µ’ is Magnetic permeability,
‘K’ is a magnetic coefficient,
‘S’ is the cross-section area of the coil,
‘N’ is the number of turns of the coils,
And ‘I’ is the length of the coil in the axial direction.

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Fig 4. Inductor Components

Other passive electronic components include different types of sensors, motors, antennas,
memristors, etc. To reducing the complexity of this article few of the passive components are
discussed above. Please refer to this link to Know more about inductors.

2.5 Active Electronic Components

These components rely on a source of energy and are able to control the electron flow through them.
Some of these components are semiconductors like diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, various
displays like LCD, LED, CRTs, and power sources like batteries, PV cells, and other AC and DC
supply sources.

2.5.1 Diodes

A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction and usually made with the
semiconductor material. It has two terminals, anode and cathode terminals. These are mostly used in
converting circuits like AC to DC circuits. These are of different types like PN diodes, Zener
diodes, LEDs, photodiodes, etc. Please refer to this link to know more about diodes

Fig 5. Diodes
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2.5.2 Transistors

A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device. Mostly it is used as a switching device and

also as an amplifier. This switching device can be voltage or current controlled. By controlling the
voltage applied to the one terminal controls the current flow through the other two terminals.
Transistors are of two types, namely bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistors
(FET). And further, these can be PNP and NPN transistors. Please refer to this link to Know more
about transistors 

Fig 6. Transistors
2.5.3 Integrated Circuits

An Integrated circuit is a special component that is fabricated with thousands of transistors,

resistors, diodes, and other electronic components on a tiny silicon chip. These are the building
blocks of current electronic devices like cell phones, computers, etc. These can be analog or digital
integrated circuits. Mostly used ICs in electronic circuits are Op-amps, timers, comparators,
switches ICs, and so on. These can be classified as linear and nonlinear ICs depending on its
application. Please refer to this link to Know more about integrated circuits

Fig 7. Integrated Circuits

 

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2.5.4 Display Devices

LCD: A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat display technology, which is mostly used in
applications like computer monitors, cell phone displays, calculators, etc. This technology uses two
polarized filters and electrodes to selectively disable or enable the light to pass from reflective
backing to the eyes of the viewer. Please refer to this link to Know more about LCD.

Fig 8. LCD
The display like 16X2 LCD is the most frequently used module in electrical as well as electronic
circuits. This kind of display includes 2 rows and 16 columns so it is known as an alphanumeric
display. This kind of display is used to show the highest of 32 characters. Please refer to this link to
know more about 16 X 2 LCD.

CRT: Cathode ray tube display technology is mostly used in televisions and computer screens that
work on the movement of an electron beam back and forth on the back of the screen. This tube is an
elongated vacuum tube in which the flattened surface has external components as an electron gun,
electron beam, and a phosphorescent screen. Please refer to this link to Know more about cathode-
ray tube

Fig 9. Cathode Ray Tube

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2.6 Power Sources

The different power sources used in the circuits are DC power supply and batteries.

2.6.1 DC Power Supply

In electronic circuits, the DC power supply is very essential which is used as one kind of power
source. The major electronic components work with DC power supply because it is a consistent
power source. Different power supplies used in the circuit to provide the supply are AC to DC,
SMPS, linear regulators, etc. A wall adapter is used as an alternate to the DC power supply in some
projects which require 5V otherwise 12V.

2.6.2 Batteries

The battery is one kind of electrical energy storage device. This device is used to change the energy
from chemical to electrical to supply the power to various electronic devices like mobile phones,
flashlights, laptops, etc.

These consist of one or more cells and each cell contains an anode, cathode, and electrolyte.
Batteries are available in various sizes which are also divided into primary as well as secondary.
Primary types are used until they discharge the power & throw away them afterward whereas
secondary batteries can also be used even after they discharged. The batteries used in the circuits are
1.5V AA type otherwise 9V PP3 type. Please refer to this link to Know more about Batteries.

Fig 10. Batteries

2.7 Relay

An electromagnetic switch like the relay is used to operate the circuits electronically otherwise
electromechanically. A relay uses less amount of currents to operate so generally they are used to
change low currents within a control circuit. But relays can also be used for controlling high electric
currents. A relay switch can be operated through a less current to switch ON a different circuit.
These are either solid-state or electromechanical relays.

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Fig 11. Relays

An EMR or electromechanical relay includes a coil, frame, contacts, and armature, spring. In the
relay, this frame gives support to different parts & an armature is a moving part. A copper wire or
coil is wounded around a metal rod to produce a magnetic field that moves the armature. The
conducting parts like contacts are used to close and open the circuit.

An SSR or solid-state relay can be built with three circuits like input, output & control circuit. The
input circuit is the same as a coil, the control circuit works like a coupling device among the circuits
like input & output & finally, the output circuit acts like the contacts within an electromechanical
relay. These relays are very popular because they are inexpensive, reliable, and very fast as
compared with electromechanical relays. Please refer to this link to know more about relay.

2.8 LED

The term LED stands for light-emitting diode. It is a semiconductor device used to emit light
whenever a current supply flows through it. In the semiconductor material, the charge carriers like
electrons and holes combine then light can be generated. When light generates in the solid
semiconductor material then these LEDs can be known as solid-state devices.

Fig 12. LED

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The materials used to manufacture the LEDs are InGaN (Indium Gallium Nitride), these are high-
brightness LEDs and available in green, blue, and ultraviolet colors. AlGaInP (Aluminum Gallium
Indium Phosphate), are high-brightness LEDs and available in orange, yellow, and red colors. GaP
(Gallium Phosphide) is available in green and yellow colors.

The applications of LEDs includes from cell phones to the large display boards which are used for
advertising purpose and also used in magical light bulbs At present, the usage of these devices is
increasing quickly because of their extraordinary properties. These devices are extremely tiny in
size & use less power. Please refer to this link to know more about LEDs.

2.9 Microcontroller

A microcontroller is one kind of IC designed to execute a specific task within an embedded system.
It comprises a memory, processor & I/O peripherals on a chip. Sometimes, these are called MCU
(microcontroller unit) otherwise embedded controller.

Fig 13. Microcontroller

These are mainly used in robots, vehicles, medical devices, office machines, home appliances,
vending machines, mobile radio transceivers, etc.
The elements used in the microcontroller are the CPU, memory, program memory, data memory,
I/O peripherals, etc. It supports other elements like ADC, DAC, serial port, and system bus. Please
refer to this link to know more about Microcontroller.

2.10 Switches

A switch is one kind of electrical component, used to connect or disconnect the conducting lane
within the circuit so that electric current can be supplied or interrupted from one conductor to
another. An electromechanical device is the most common kind of switch that comprises one or
more electrical contacts that are movable and connected to other circuits.

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Fig 14. switches

Once the set of contacts in the circuit are connected then there is a flow of current. Similarly, when
the contacts are disconnected then there is no flow of current. The designing of switches can be
done in different configurations and their operation can be done manually like a keyboard button, a
light switch, etc. A switch can also work like a sensing element namely a thermostat to detect the
location of a machine part, level of liquid, temperature, pressure, etc.

The different types of switches available in the market are rotary, toggle, pushbutton, mercury relay,
circuit breaker, etc. Switches must have a particular design while using high-powered circuits to
stop critical arcing once they are unlocked. Please refer to this link to know more about switches.

2.11 Test & Measurement Devices

While connecting or designing electrical or electronic circuits, different parameter testing, as well as
measuring, is very essential like the voltage, frequency, current, resistance, capacitance, etc..
Therefore, the test, as well as measurement devices, are used such as Multimeters, Oscilloscopes,
Signal or Function Generators, Logic Analyzers.

2.11.1 Oscilloscope

The test equipment like oscilloscope is the most reliable one, used to monitor the signals which are
varying continuously. By using this equipment, we can notice the changes within an electrical signal
such as current, over time, and voltage. The applications of Oscilloscopes are Electronic, Industrial
Medical, Automobile, Telecommunication, etc.

These are designed with CRT displays (Cathode Ray Tube) however at present approximately all
these devices are digital including some superior features such as memory & storage. Please refer to
this link to know more about oscilloscope.

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2.11.2 Multimeter

A multimeter is an electronic instrument and it is a combination of Ammeter, Ohmmeter &

Voltmeter. These devices are mainly used to calculate various parameters within the circuits in AC
& DC like the voltage, current, etc.

Previous meters are the analog type that includes a pointing needle whereas the present meters are
digital type, so these are known as DMs or Digital Multimeters. These instruments are obtainable
like handheld & bench devices. Please refer to this link to know more about multimeter.

2.11.3 Signal or Function Generator

As the name suggests, a signal generator is used to generate different kinds of signals troubleshoot,
and test different circuits. The signals which are most frequently generated by the signal generator
are sine, triangle, square, & saw tooth. A function generator is an essential device while designing
electronic circuits along with an oscilloscope and bench power supply. Please refer to this link to
know more about function generator.

2.12 Motors

A motor is an electrical device and the main function of the motor is to convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy. The motor contains rotor, stator, bearings, conduit box, enclosure, and eye
bolt. Electric motors are everywhere,  from common machines to the most complex computers.
These motors are competent for the tasks which they perform when compared to pneumatic or
hydraulic alternatives. Motors are categorized into different types such as AC inductance motors,
DC motors, stepper motor, brushless permanent magnet synchronous motor, brushed DC motor, and
switched reluctance motor.

Fig 15. Motors

2.13 Circuit Breakers

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device which is operated automatically and is used to
protect the electrical circuit from the damage caused by overload or short circuit. The main function
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of the circuit breaker is to interrupt the current flow and to identify a fault condition. It comprises
two contacts such as fixed and moving contact. Moving contact is used to break and make the
circuit using stored energies in the form of spring or compressed air. Fixed contact includes a spring
that holds the moving contact after closing. These devices consist of two coils, closing and tripping
coil. Where closing coil is used to close the circuit and the tripping coil is used to trip the circuit.

Fig 16. Circuit-breaker

2.14 Fuse

A fuse is a material or a piece of wire which is used to protect the components from destruction due
to the excessive current flowing through them. When excessive current flows through the circuit, the
wires get heated up and get damaged. As a result, the current stops flowing. When the fuse melts
due to the overflow of current then, the element of the fuse absorbs some energy. The absorbed
energy is given by I2t.

Fig 17. Fuse

Where, ‘I’ is the peak value of the current interrupted.

‘t’ is the time taken to clear the fault.

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Every type of fuse is designed for an accurate amount of current. A standard fuse comprises main
components such as a set of contacts, metal-fuse elements, connection, and support body. A fuse
element is made of Zinc, copper, silver, aluminum or alloys to afford predictable characteristics.
That may be enclosed by air or material.

2.15 Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that consists of two coils of wire, that are linked by an iron
core. It offers the much-needed capability of changing the current and voltage levels easily. The
main function of the transformer is to increase (step-up) or decrease(step-down) AC voltages. The
transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, that is, mutual
inductance between two circuits, that are linked by a common magnetic flux. A transformer
converts electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit with the help of mutual induction
between the two windings without electrical connection between them, and also converts power
from one circuit to another circuit without changing the frequency but with a different voltage level.

Fig 18. Transformer

In a step-up transformer, a secondary coil contains more winding than the primary coil. Coming to a
step-down transformer, it has more windings in the primary coil than the secondary coil. These are
one of the main reasons we use AC current in our homes and not DC. DC voltages cannot be
changed using transformers. Transformers are available in many sizes in the market today, ranging
from small ones to large one.

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3. APPARATUS REQUIRED

3.1 THEORY
3.1.1 Ammeter
Ammeter is an electronic instruments device used to determine the electric current flowing
through a circuit. Ammeters measuring current in milli-ampere range is known as milli-ammeters.
Common types of ammeters are moving-coil ammeter and moving-iron ammeter. Ammeters are
connected in series to the circuit whose current is to be measured. Hence this electronic
instruments are designed to have as minimum resistance/ loading as possible.

Fig 19. Ammeter- Electronic Instruments

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Moving Coil Ammeter

Moving coil ammeters are used to measure DC Currents. This electronic instruments consists of a
coil suspended by two hair springs. This coil is placed in a magnetic field created by a fixed permanent
magnet. A torque is experienced when current passes through this coil which is proportional to the
current. When the coil turns, the springs will exert a restoring force proportional to the angle turned.
By these two forces, the coil will stop at some point and the angular deflection will be proportional to

the current.
Fig 20. Moving coil ammeter

Moving Iron Ammeter

Moving iron ammeters as electronic instruments can be used for measuring both direct and
alternating currents in electronics lab. In this type of ammeter, a piece of soft iron is used. This
iron piece constitutes of a moving vane and a fixed vane. Current to be checked flows through a
fixed coil placed around the iron piece. This coil produces a magnetic field proportional to the
current. So, the iron pieces will get magnetized with the same polarity. The movable vane turns
away from the fixed vane due to magnetic repulsion. As the iron turns, the spring of the electronic
instruments will exert a restoring force and stop the vane, when both the forces become equal. The
pointer of the ammeter is attached to the movable vane, which will point to the proper current
reading using a calibrated scale.

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Fig 21. Moving Iron Ammeter

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3.1.2 Voltmeter
Voltmeter is an electronic instruments used in an electric circuit to determine the potential
difference or voltage between two different points. Digital and analog voltmeters are available in
electronics lab. They are usually connected in parallel (shunt) to the circuit. Hence they are
designed to have maximum resistance as possible to reduce the loading effect. This device is also

common in electronics lab.

Fig 22. (i) Analog Voltmeter (ii)Digital Voltmeter Analog

Voltmeter

Analog voltmeter is a type of voltmeter and electronic instruments with an extra connection of a series
resistor (high resistance). It consists of a movable coil placed in a magnetic field. The coil ends are
connected to the measuring terminals. As current flows across the coil, it will start turning due to
magnetic force excreted on the coil and thus the hair spring will stop the coil by an equal and opposite
restoring force. Angular rotation will be proportional to the voltage in this electronic instruments.

Digital Voltmeter
Digital voltmeters can measure both AC and DC measurements with high accuracy as an
electronics instrument. It can measure a high voltage up to 1 kV. Main component of a digital
voltmeter is an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC). Voltage to be measured is amplified or
attenuated properly by the circuit and the output is sent to an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
IC. This IC will convert the analog signal input to digital signal output. A digital display driven by
this IC will display the proper voltage value.

Digital Multi Meter (DMM)

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronicmeasuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would
include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog
multimeters use a micro ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value

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in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.
Digital multimeters are now far more common than analog ones, but analog multimeters are still
preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly-varying value. A multimeter can
be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a bench
instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot
electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic
equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Operation:

A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter,

multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a
meter movement, range resistors and switches. For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is
measured with a series resistor connected between the meter movement and the circuit under test.
A set of switches allows greater resistance to be inserted for higher voltage ranges. The product of
the basic full-scale deflection current of the movement, and the sum of the series resistance and
the movement's own resistance, gives the full-scale voltage of the range. As an example, a meter
movement that required 1 mill ampere for full scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500
ohms, would, on a 10-volt range of the multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series resistance. For
analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter movement to
divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1 mA, 500 ohm
movement on a 1 Ampere range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5 ohms.

Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through them. To measure
alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that the average value of current is
non-zero. Since the rectified average value and the root-mean-square value of a waveform need not
be the same, simple rectifier- type circuits may only be accurate for sinusoidal waveforms. Other
wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate RMS and average value. Since practical
rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is poor at low values.

To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current through the device
under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the
battery, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit
found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so full-
scale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is
compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.

Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks. The internal
resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and shunt range resistors; the series
network becomes a voltage divider. Where AC measurements are required, the rectifier can be placed
after the amplifier stage, improving precision at low range.

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Fig 23. Digital Multi meter

Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same principles as analog
instruments for range resistors. For resistance measurements, usually a small constant current is
passed through the device under test and the digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop;
this eliminates the scale compression found in analog meters, but requires a source of significant
current. An auto ranging digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so that the
measurement uses the full precision of the A/D converter. In all types of multimeters, the quality
of the switching elements is critical to stable and accurate measurements. Stability of the
resistors is a limiting factor in the long-term accuracy and precision of the instrument.

Quantities measured
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
• Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.
• Current alternating and direct in amperes.
The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified.
• Resistance in ohms.
Additionally, some multimeters measure:
• Capacitance in farads.
• Conductance in Siemens.
• Decibels.
• Duty cycle as a percentage.
• Frequency in hertz.
• Inductance in henrys.
• Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe,
often a thermocouple.
Digital multimeters may also include circuits for:
• Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts.
• Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions), and transistors (measuring current gain
and other parameters).
• Battery checking for simple 1.5 volt and 9 volt batteries. This is a current loaded voltage scale

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Which simulates in-use voltage measurement.

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Introduction and use of oscilloscope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

THEORY
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate
time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its
reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory
instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode- ray tube shown schematically in Fig.2.1

Fig: 24. Cathode-ray oscilloscopes (CRO) (a) Schematic (b) Details of deflection Plate

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The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity
grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to
generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the
fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of
the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam.
These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of
these two
deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of
electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened
screen.

Fig 25. Block Diagram of Oscilloscope

CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE

Vertical Input A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier.
The lower jack is grounded to the case. Horizontal Input A pair of jacks for connecting an external
signal to the horizontal amplifier. The lower terminal is grounded to the case of the oscilloscope.
External Trigger InputInput connector for external trigger signal. Cal. Out Provides amplitude
calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 mili volts for use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.

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Fig 26. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.

Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable
Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the
controls as follows:
a) Power switch at off
b) Intensity fully counters clockwise
c) Vertical centering in the center of range
d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
e) Vertical at 0.2
f) Sweep times 1

WARNING Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright
spot appears. Bright spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of
high intensity (great brightness) should never be allowed to remain fixed in one
position on the screen for any length of time as damage to the screen may occur.

PROCEDURE
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the
output from the generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. Establish
a steady trace of this input signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the
scope and signal generator controls until you become familiar with the
function of each.
II. Measurements of Voltage: By adjusting the Horizontal Sweep time/cm
and trigger, a steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed on the
screen. The
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trace represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the vertical deflection of the
trace about the line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the

voltage at any instant of time.

Fig 27 (a) Circuit for Procedure (b) Trace Seen on Scope

The relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the
scope and the effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is
VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave). Thus

III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied,

voltage measurements can still be taken from the vertical deflection.
Moreover, the signal is displayed as a function of time. If the time base
(i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such measurements as pulse duration or signal
period can be made. Frequencies can then be determined as reciprocal of
the periods.
IV. Lissajous Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are
input to the horizontal and vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is
formed on the CRT when the ratio of the two frequencies is an integral
fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc. These stationary patterns are known
as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison measurement of
frequencies.
Use two oscillators to generate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in
Fig. You will find it difficult to maintain the Lissajous figures in a fixed
configuration because the two oscillators are not phase and frequency locked. Their
frequencies and phase drift slowly causing the two different signals to change
slightly with respect to each other.

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FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a
variety of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to
common input signals.

Fig 28. Function Generator

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software

used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of
frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by the function
generator are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth shapes. These waveforms can
be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger
source) Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as
function generator ICs.Although function generators cover both audio and RF
frequencies, they are usually not suitable for applications that need low distortion or
stable frequency signals. When those traits are required, other signal generators would
be more appropriate.
Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source
(which may be a frequency
reference) or another function generator. Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example, they may be
used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a
control loop.
Working
Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose
frequency can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps. This triangular wave is
used as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is generated by
repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source.
This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output
voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed
using a OF
DEPARTMENT comparator,
ELECTRICALproducing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current
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and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. Saw tooth
waves can be produced by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but
using a diode over the current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the
diode changes the polarity of the resulting saw tooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or
fast rise and slow fall.
A 50% duty cyclesquare wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor
is being charged or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching
comparator output. Other duty cycles (theoretically from 0% to 100%) can be
obtained by using a comparator and the saw tooth or triangle signal. Most
function generators also contain a non-linear diodeshaping circuit that can
convert the triangle wave into a reasonably accurate sine wave by rounding off
the corners of the triangle wave in a process similar to clipping in audio systems.
A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz RF generators
for higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict sense since they
typically produce pure or modulated sine signals only. Function generators, like
most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means of
modulating the

output waveform, and often the ability to automatically and repetitively "sweep"
the frequency of the output waveform (by means of a voltage-controlled oscillator)
between two operator-determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to
evaluate the frequency response of a given electronic circuit.
Some function generators can also generate white or pink noise. More advanced
function generators are called arbitrary waveform generators (AWG). They use
direct digital synthesis (DDS) techniques to generate any waveform that can be
described by a table of amplitudes.

Fig 29. Function generators output waveforms

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RESULT
We have studied about the construction, working of CRO, function generator
and learn how to measure frequency, voltage with the help of CRO.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connection must be tight.
2. Get the circuit connections checked by the teacher before performing the experiment.
3. Power to the circuit must be switched on in the presence of the teacher.
4. Get the experimental readings checked by the teacher.
5. Don't touch directly the live parts of equipment and circuit.
6. Wear leather shoes in the lab.

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