INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCES IN

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Review Article ISSN 2229 – 3795

A Review on Different Routing Protocols in Ad-Hoc Network

Sumit Sharma1, Nikhil Marriwala2, C.C.Tripathi3

1,2,3-ECE, Department, Department, UIET, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-INDIA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the review on different routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks. This will
provide us merits and demerits of routing protocol which used in ad hoc wireless network. In this we also
discuss about new routing protocol based on the Swarm Based Intelligence. The motivation for using Ant
like mobile agents for providing routing information to mobile hosts in MANET from the facts that Ant-
like agents do not require high bandwidth overhead compare to other routing protocols which discuss in
this paper. The increase connectivity information provided by Ant can be used to for making better
routing decisions which can improve the network performance without causing high over head.

Keywords: Ad-Hoc Network, DSDV, WRP, DSR, AODV, TORA, ANT

1. Introduction

The basic principle behind ad- hoc networking is multi-hop relaying, which traces its roots back to 500
B.C. Darius I (522-486 B.C.), the king of Persia, devised an innovative communication system that was
used to send message and news from his capital to the remote provinces of his empire by means of a line
of shouting men positioned on tall structures or heights. This system was more than 25 times faster than
normal messengers available at that time [1]. Mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a special type of
wireless network in which collection of mobile network interfaces may form a temporary network without
the aid of any established infrastructure or centralised administration [2]. An Ad-hoc wireless network
consists of a set of mobiles nodes (hosts) that are connected by wireless links. The network topology (the
physical connectivity of the communication network) in such a network may keep changing randomly.
Routing protocols that find a path to be followed by the data packets from a source node to a destination
node used in traditional wired networks cannot be directly applied in ad hoc wireless network due to their
highly dynamic topology, bandwidth-constrained wireless links and resource (energy) - constrained
nodes. A variety of routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks has been proposed in the recent past
[1].
For designing a routing protocol we need to conceder various challenges like (i) Mobility of
nodes-due to highly dynamic the movement of nodes, the on- going session suffers frequent path breaks.
Disruption occur either due to the movement of the intermediate nodes in the path. Such situations do not
arise in wired network where the reliable link is available. So routing protocols for ad hoc network must
be able to perform efficient and effective mobility management. (ii) Bandwidth constraints- in ad hoc
network we have limited bandwidth available communication. To maintaining a consistent dynamic
topology information at all the nodes involves more control overhead which, in turn, results in more
bandwidth wastage. As efficient routing protocols in wired networks required the complete topology
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information, they may not be suitable for routing in ad hoc wireless networking environment. (iii) Error
prone shared Broadcast Radio channel- the broadcast nature of a radio channel poses a unique challenge
in ad hoc wireless networks. The wireless links have time varying characteristics in terms of link capacity
and link error probability. This required that the ad hoc wireless network routing protocol interact with
the MAC layer to find the alternate routes through better quality links. So it is required that ad hoc
wireless network routing protocols find paths with less congestion and (iv) Hidden and exposed terminal-
hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a receiving node due to the simultaneous
transmission of those nodes that are not within the direct transmission range of sender, but are within the
transmission range of receiver. Collision occurs when both nodes transmit packets at same time without
knowing about the transmission of each other [1].

2. Different Types Of Routing Protocols

We have various routing protocols used in ad hoc wireless network. In proactive protocols, every node
maintains the network topology information in the form of routing tables by periodically exchanging
routing information. Routing information is generally flooded in the whole network. Whenever a node
requires a path to a destination, it runs an appropriate path finding algorithm on the topology information
it maintains. The destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) protocol and wireless routing
protocol (WRP) are some examples for the proactive protocols. Reactive protocols do not maintain the
network topology information. They obtain the necessary path when it is required, by using a connection
establishment process. Hence these protocols do not exchange routing information periodically. The
dynamic source routing (DSR), Ad-hoc on-demand distance vector routing (AODV), and temporally
ordered routing (TORA) algorithm are some examples for the protocols that belong to this category [3].
Let’s talk about above mention routing protocols in brief.

2.1 Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Protocol (DSDV)

The DSDV is one of the first protocols proposed for wireless Ad Hoc Networks. It is an enhanced version
of the distributed Bellman-Ford Algorithm, wherein each node maintains a table that contains the
minimum distance and the first node on the shortest path to every destination node in the network. The
Table updates are done with increasing sequence number tags in order to prevent loops, to deal with
count-to-infinity problem, and for faster convergence [4]. Routes to all destinations are available at every
node at all times. The tables are exchanged at regular intervals of time so that an up-to-date view of the
network topology is maintained. The Tables are also forwarded if a node observes a significant change in
local topology.
The table updates can either be incremental or full dumps. Incremental updates taking a single
NPDU, is done when the node does not observe significant changes in the local topology. The table
updates are initiated by the destinations with a new sequence number which is always greater than the
previous one. Upon receiving the table a node may either update its table or may wait for another table
from its next neighbour. Based on the sequence number of the table update, it may forward or reject the
table. The reconfiguration of a path used by an on-going data transfer session is handled as follows: The
end node of the broken link initiates a table update message with the broken link weight assigned to
infinity and with a sequence number greater than the stored sequence number for that destination. Each
node, upon receiving an update with weight infinity, disseminates it to its neighbours in order to
propagate link information to the whole network.
Thus a single link break leads to the propagation of table update information to the whole
network. One of the drawbacks of this protocol is, the updates due to broken links lead to high control
overhead during high mobility. Another drawback is the stale routes: In order to obtain information about
a particular destination node, a node has to wait for a table update message initiated by the same
destination node [4].

2.1.1 Advantages

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• The availability of routes to all destinations at all times implies that much less delay is involved in the
route setup process.
• The mechanism of incremental updates with sequence number tags makes the existing wired network
protocol adaptable to ad hoc network.
• An existing wired network protocol can be applied to ad hoc networks with many fewer modifications.

2.1.2 Disadvantages
• This protocol suffers from excessive control overhead that is proportional to the number of nodes in
the network and is not scalable in ad hoc networks.
• In order to obtain information about particular destination node, a node has to wait for a table update
message.

2.2 Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP):

The wireless routing protocol similar to Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol
(DSDV), inherits the properties of the distributed Bellman- Ford algorithm. To counter the count- to-
infinity problem and to enable faster convergence, it employs a unique method of maintaining
information regarding the shortest distance to every destination node in the network and the penultimate
hop node on the path to every destination node. Since Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP), like DSDV,
maintains an up-to-date view of the network, every node has a readily available route to every destination
node in the network. It Differ from DSDV in table maintenance and in the update procedures.

2.2.1 Advantages

• It has faster convergence and involves fewer table updates.

2.2.2 Disadvantages

• The complexity of maintenance of multiple tables demands a larger memory and greater processing
power from nodes in ad hoc network.
• At highly mobility, the control over head involved in updating tables entries which are not suitable for
highly dynamic and large for ad hoc network.

2.3 Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)

The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) [Johnson 1994, Johnson 1996a, Broch 1999a] is a simple
and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of
mobile nodes. Using DSR, the network is completely self-organizing and self-configuring, requiring no
existing network infrastructure or administration. Network nodes (computers) cooperate to forward
packets for each other to allow communication over multiple “hops” between nodes not directly within
wireless transmission range of one another. As nodes in the network move about or join or leave the
network, and as wireless transmission conditions such as sources of interference change, all routing is
automatically determined and maintained by the DSR routing protocol. Since the number or sequence of
intermediate hops needed to reach any destination may change at any time, the resulting network topology
may be quite rich and rapidly changing. The DSR protocol allows nodes to dynamically discover a source
route across multiple network hops to any destination in the ad hoc network.
Each data packet sent then carries in its header the complete, ordered list of nodes through
which the packet must pass, allowing packet routing to be trivially loop-free and avoiding the need for up-
to-date routing information in the intermediate nodes through which the packet is forwarded. By
including this source route in the header of each data packet, other nodes forwarding or overhearing any
of these packets may also easily cache this routing information for future use [5].

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Route Discovery and Route Maintenance each operate entirely on demand. In particular,
unlike other protocols, DSR requires no periodic packets of any kind at any level within the network. For
example, DSR does not use any periodic routing advertisement, link status sensing, or neighbour
detection packets, and does not rely on these functions from any underlying protocols in the network. This
entirely on-demand behaviour and lack of periodic activity allows the number of overhead packets caused
by DSR to scale all the way down to zero, when all nodes are approximately stationary with respect to
each other and all routes needed for current communication have already been discovered. As nodes begin
to move more or as communication patterns change, the routing packet overhead of DSR automatically
scales to only that needed to track the routes currently in use.
In response to a single Route Discovery (as well as through routing information from other
packets overheard), a node may learn and cache multiple routes to any destination. This allows the
reaction to routing changes to be much more rapid, since a node with multiple routes to a destination can
try another cached route if the one it has been using should fail. This caching of multiple routes also
avoids the overhead of needing to perform a new Route Discovery each time a route in use breaks [5].

2.3.1 Advantage

• This protocol eliminates the need of periodically flood the network with update message which
required in a table driven approach.
• A route established only when it is required and hence the need of find the routes to all other nodes is
eliminated.
• The intermediate nodes also utilize the route cache information efficient to reduce the control over
head.

2.3.2 Disadvantages
• The route maintenance mechanism does not locally repair a broken link.
• Stale route cache information could also result in inconsistencies during the route reconstruction
phase.
• The connection setup delay is higher than in table driven.
• The performance rapidly degrades with increasing mobility.

2.4 Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance Vector routing Protocol (AODV)

In November 2001 the MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Networks) Working Group for routing of the IEFT
community has published the first version of the AODV Routing Protocol (Ad hoc On Demand Distance
Vector). AODV belongs to the class of Distance Vector Routing Protocols (DV). In a DV every node
knows its neighbours and the costs to reach them. A node maintains its own routing table, storing all
nodes in the network, the distance and the next hop to them. If a node is not reachable the distance to it is
set to infinity. Every node sends its neighbours periodically its whole routing table. So they can check if
there is a useful route to another node using this neighbour as next hop. When a link breaks a Count-To-
Infinity could happen. AODV is an ‘on demand routing protocol’ with small delay. That means that
routes are only established when needed to reduce traffic overhead. AODV supports Unicast, Broadcast
and Multicast without any further protocols. The Count-To-Infinity and loop problem is solved with
sequence numbers and the registration of the costs.
In AODV every hop has the constant cost of one. The routes age very quickly in order to
accommodate the movement of the mobile nodes. Link breakages can locally be repaired very efficiently.
To characterize the AODV with the five criteria used by Keshav AODV is distributed, hop-by-hop,
deterministic, single path and state dependent. AODV uses IP in a special way. It treats an IP address just
as an unique identifier. This can easily be done with setting the Subnet mask to 255.255.255.255. But also
aggregated networks are supported. They are implemented as subnets. Only one router in each of them is
responsible to operate the AODV for the whole subnet and serves as a default gateway. It has to maintain
a sequence number for the whole subnet and to forward every package. In AODV the routing table is
expanded by a sequence number to every destination and by time to live for every entry. It is also
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expanded by routing flags, the interface, and a list of precursors and for outdated routes the last hop count
is stored [6]. For unicast routing three control messages are used: RREQ (Route Request), RREP (Route
Reply), RERR (Route Error). If a node wants to send a packet to a node for which no route is available it
broadcasts a RREQ to find one. A RREP includes a unique identifier, the destination IP address and
sequence number, the source IP address and sequence number as well as a hop count initialised with zero
and some flags. If a node receives a RREQ which it does not have seen before it sets up a reverse route to
the sender. If it does not know a route to the destination it rebroadcasts the updated RREQ especially
incrementing the hop count.
If it knows a route to the destination it creates a RREP. The RREP is unicasted to the origin node
taking advantage of the reverse routes. A RREP contains the destination IP address and sequence number,
the source IP address, a time to life, a hop count as well as a prefix only used for subnets and some flags.
When a node receives a RREP it checks if the hop counts in the RREP for the emitter of the message is
lower than the one in its own routing table or the destination sequence number in the message is higher
than the one in its own routing table. If none of them is true it just throws the package away. Otherwise it
updates its routing table and if it is not the destination it re-unicasts the RREP. In mobile network link
breakage is very common. If a node realises that other nodes are not any longer reachable it broadcasts a
RERR containing a list of the unreachable nodes with their IP addresses and sequence number and some
flags. A node who receives a RERR iterates over the list of unreachable destinations checking if a next
hop in its routing table contains one of these nodes.
If yes it updates its routing table. If the receiving node still maintains routes to unreachable nodes
it broadcasts its own RERR containing this information. Routes and link lifetime are extended by sending
a package over it and by hello messages. A hello is a special RRER which is only valid for its neighbours.
A node may broadcast periodically a hello message so that no link breakages are assumed by its
neighbours when they do not hear anything from it for a long time. If a link in an active route breaks a
node can try to repair the rout locally. To do this, it releases a RREQ to find a new route to the destination
on the broken link side not touching the other direction of the route. It exist another special package a
RREP-ACK which is used for unreliable or unidirectional links. Also some other special mechanisms are
used like precursors to track the list of active routes for using in RERR emission [6]. One of the great
advantages of AODV is its integrated multicast routing. In a multicast routing table the IP address and the
sequence number of the group are stored. Also the leaders IP address and the hop count to him are stored
as well as the next hop in the multicasting tree and the lifetime of it.
To join a multicast group a node has to send an RREQ to the group address with the join flag set.
Any node in the multicast tree which receives the RREQ can answer with a RREP. Like this a requester
could receive several RREP from which he can choose the one with the shortest distance to the group. A
MACT (Multicast Activation) Message is send to the chosen tree node to activate this branch. If a
requester does not receive a RREP, the node supposes that there exists no multicast tree for this group in
this network segment and it becomes the group leader. A multicast RREP contains additional the IP of the
group leader and the hop count to the next group member. The group leader broadcasts periodically a
group hello message (a RREP) and increments each time the sequence number of the group. When two
networks segments become connected, two partitioned group trees have to be connected. Every group
member receiving two group hello messages from different leaders will detect a tree connection. Then
this node emits an RREQ with the repair flag set to the group. If a node in the group tree does not receive
any group hello or other group message it has to repair the group tree with a RREQ and has to ensure that
not a RREP from a node in its own sub tree is chosen. If a group member wants to leave the group an it is
a leaf it can prune the branch with a MACT and the flag prune set. If it is not a leaf it must continue to
serve as a tree member [6].

2.4.1 Advantages:

• The routes are established on demand and destination.

• The connection setup delay is less.

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2.4.2 Disadvantages:

• The intermediate nodes can lead to inconsistent routes.

• Multiple RouteReply packets in response to a single RouteRequest packet can lead to heavy control
over head.
• It leads to unnecessary bandwidth consumption.

2.5 Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA):

The Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is a highly adaptive loop-free distributed routing
algorithm based on the concept of link reversal. TORA is proposed to operate in a highly dynamic mobile
networking environment. It is source-initiated and provides multiple routes for any desired
source/destination pair. The key design concept of TORA is the localization of control messages to a very
small set of nodes near the occurrence of a topological change. To accomplish this, nodes need to
maintain routing information about adjacent (one-hop) nodes. The protocol performs three basic
functions: Route creation, Route maintenance, Route erasure During the route creation and maintenance
phases, nodes use a “height” metric to establish a directed acyclic graph (DAG) rooted at the destination.
Thereafter, links are assigned a direction (upstream or downstream) based on the relative height metric of
neighbouring nodes.
This process of establishing a DAG is similar to the query/reply process proposed in Lightweight
Mobile Routing. In times of node mobility the DAG route is broken, and route maintenance is necessary
to re-establish a DAG rooted at the same destination. a node generates a new reference level which results
in the propagation of that reference level by neighbouring nodes, effectively coordinating a structured
reaction to the failure. Links are reversed to reflect the change in adapting to the new reference level.
This has the same effect as reversing the direction of one or more links when a node has no downstream
links. Timing is an important factor for TORA because the “height” metric is dependent on the logical
time of a link failure; TORA as that all nodes have synchronized clocks (accomplished via an external
time source such as the Global Positioning System). TORA’s metric is a quintuple comprising five
elements, namely: Logical time of a link failure, The unique ID of the node that defined the new reference
level, A reflection indicator bit, A propagation ordering parameter, The unique ID of the node [7].
The first three elements collectively represent the reference level. A new reference level is
defined each time a node loses its last downstream link due to a link failure. TORA’s route erasure phase
essentially involves flooding a broadcast clear packet (CLR) throughout the network to erase invalid
routes. In TORA there is a potential for oscillations to occur, especially when multiple sets of
coordinating nodes are concurrently detecting partitions, erasing routes, and building new routes based on
each other. Because TORA uses intermodal coordination, its instability problem is similar to the “count-
to-infinity” problem in distance-vector routing protocols, except that such oscillations are temporary and
route convergence will ultimately occur [7].

2.5.1 Advantages
• By limiting the control packets for route reconfiguration to small region.
• TORA incurs less control over head.

2.5.2 Disadvantages
• Concurrent detection of partitions and subsequent deletion of routes could result in temporary
oscillations and transient loops.
• The local reconfiguration of paths results in non optimal routes.

2.6 Ant-Based Routing

Recently, a new family of algorithms emerged inspired by swarm-intelligence, which provides a novel
approach to distributed optimization problems. The expression “Swarm Intelligence” defines any attempts

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to design algorithms inspired by the collective behaviour of social insect colonies and other animal
societies. Several algorithms which are based on ant colony were introduced in recent years to solve the
routing problem in ad-hoc networks. These algorithms show that the biologically inspired concepts can
provide a significant performance gain over traditional approaches. Ant based routing algorithms in ad-
hoc networks, categorized to flat and hierarchical routing algorithms [3]. Swarm Intelligence (SI) is the
local interaction of many simple agents to achieve a global goal. SI is based on social insect metaphor for
solving different types of problems. Insects like ants, bees and termites live in colonies. Every single
insect in a social insect colony seems to have its own agenda. The integration of all individual activities
does not have any supervisor. In a social insect colony, a worker usually does not perform all tasks, but
rather specializes in a set of tasks.
This division of labour based on specialization is believed to be more efficient than if tasks were
performed sequentially by unspecialized individuals. SI is emerged with collective intelligence of groups
of simple agents. SI offers an alternative way of designing intelligent system, in which autonomy,
emergence and distributed functioning replace control, pre-programming and centralization. This
approach emphasizes on distributions, flexibility, robustness and direct or indirect communication among
relatively simple agents. Self organization in social insects often requires interactions among insects; such
interactions can be direct or indirect. Direct interactions are the obvious interactions, with food or liquid
exchange. Indirect interactions are more subtle, two individuals interact indirectly when one of them
modifies the environment and others respond to the new environment at a later time. Such an interaction
is an example of stigmergy (task related stigmergy). The agents are autonomous entities, both proactive
and reactive and have capability to adapt, co-operate and move intelligently from one location to the other
in the communication network [8].
SI gives raise to intelligent behaviour through complex interaction of thousands of autonomous
swarm members. During food searching process, the individual ants make their decisions on which
direction to go randomly. As ants move they leave behind a chemical substance called pheromone, which
other ants can smell and identify that an ant has been there before (indirect communication). The stronger
the pheromone level, the more likely an ant is to take that route. The concentration of pheromone
decreases over time. Complex group behaviour emerges from the interaction of individuals. Something is
created that is greater than sum of its parts [8].
Have proposed an Ant based protocol for discovering the topology of the MANET networks
for routing purpose. [9] Uses ant-like agents moving from one node to the other in the MANET. As these
agent visit a node, they update the routing tables of the visited node with the topology information they
have gathered in their traversal so far. Ant agents store information of nodes visited by them in a list.
This information is passed to the nodes when an ant agent arrives at that node [10]. Ant Net [11] uses ant
agents for routing in the network. Using Ant Net, nodes in the network frequently send ant agents to
randomly selected destinations in the network. After reaching the destination, the ant agent traverses the
same path going back to the original source node. On the way back to the Source node, the ant agents
update the routing table of the nodes. Launching ant-agents continuously increases the control overhead
even more. In a dynamic network such as MANETs, by the time, the ant agent reaches the source node;
the routing information may have changed [10]. In Ant Colony Based Routing Algorithm (ARA). The
source node in a MANET wishing to communicate with a destination node, broadcasts a forward ant
destined towards the destination node, which is similar to AODV’s RREQ packets. These forward ants
create backward routes at each visited intermediate node towards the source node which originated the
forward ant. When the forward ants reach the destination node, backwards ants are created and sent
towards the source node similar to. Once the communication session has started, data packets maintain
pheromone values on the path. Pheromone value is incremented for every data packet relayed and at the
same time the pheromone value is also evaporated or decreased periodically. When a route fails, due to
mobility of an intermediate node of an ongoing session, the upstream node generates a notification and
sends it towards the source node. When an upstream node receives the route failure notification, it checks
if it has an alternate route and if so, the data packets are sent on that path. If the upstream intermediate
node does not have an alternate path to the destination node, it checks with its neighbours if they could
forward the data packets to the destination. Finally if none of this works, the route failure notification is
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propagated back to the source node, which then broadcasts another set of forward ants towards the source
[10].

3. Future Scope

Dynamic source routing protocol is use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. DSR uses
source routing and does not depend on timer based activities. So it is a fully reactive protocol which
initiates a route discovery process only when it has data to send. Though there are some demerits of this
protocol, it is a robust protocol for use in mobile ad hoc network. The MANETs have many applications
such as in sensor networks, for military purpose, rescue and relief scenarios [10]. The future work could
be investigating different methods to limit the traffic load and compare the ant based algorithm for other
proactive and reactive routing protocols.

5. Conclusion

This paper represents the different types of routing protocols used for transmission in Ad- Hoc wireless
network. Here we are discussing advantages and disadvantages of these routing protocols. It is evident
that new Ant Based routing algorithm may over come maximum demerits of other routing protocols. By
using the Ant Based routing Protocol, the network topological information can be disseminated to the
nodes in the network without incurring high control over head compared to other routing protocols. It also
provides the better routing decisions can be made to reduce the end –to- end packets delays and route
discovery latency.

6. References

[1] C. Siva Ram Murthy and B.S. Manoj “Ad Hoc Wireless Networks Architecture and Protocols”
Pearson Education, 2008.
[2] Sunsook Jung, Nisar hundewale and Alex Zelikovsly “Energy Efficiency of Load Balancing in
MANET Routing Protocols”, International Conference, 25 May 2005.
[3] Hamideh Shokrani and Sam jabbehdari “ A Survey of Ant- Based Routing Algorithms for Mobile
Ad Hoc Networks” International conference on Signal Processing System,2009.
[4] Khaleel Ur Rahman Khan, A Venu Gopal Reddy, Rafi U Zaman, K. Aditya Reddy and T Sri
Harsha “ An Efficient Destination Sequenced Distance vector Routing Protocl for Mobile Ad Hoc
Networks”, International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technology, 2008.
[5] David B. Johnson, David A. Maltz and Josh Broch “DSR: The Dynamic source Routing Protocol
for multi hop wireless ad hoc networks.
[6] Rainer Baumann “AODV presentation at ETH Zurich”,April,2002.
[7] Elizabeth M. Royer “ A Review of Current Routing Protocols for Ad-Hoc Mobile Wireless
networks”, IEEE Personal Communications, April,1999.
[8] Cauvery N. K and K.V. Viswanatha “Enhanced Ant Colony Based Algorithm for Routing in
Mobile Ad-Hoc network”, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 2008.
[9] R.R. Chaudhary, S. Bhandhopadhyay and K. Paul “A Distributed Mechanism for Topology
discovery in Ad Hoc Wireless network using Mobile Agents”, In proceeding of Mobicom, 2000.
[10] Shivanajay Marwaha, Jadwiga Indulska and Marius Portmann “ Biologically Inspired Ant- Based
Routing In Mobile Ad- hoc Networks (MANET): A Survey”, Symposia and Workshops on
Ubiquitous, ieee, 2009.
[11] G. Di Caro and M. Dorigo “AntNet: Distributed stigmergetic control for communications
networks”, Journal of Artifical intelligence research, vol 9,pp.317-365,1998.

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