Jim Lambers

MAT 606
Spring Semester 2015-16
Lecture 10 Notes

These notes correspond to Sections 4.1-4.3 in the text.

The One-Dimensional Wave Equation

Vibrating-String Problem
Newton’s second law applied to an arbitrary segment [x, x + ∆x] of a vibrating string yields

∆xρutt = T [ux (x + ∆x, t) − ux (x, t)] + ∆xF (x, t) − ∆xβut (x, t) − ∆xγu(x, t),

where u(x, t) is the displacement of the string from equilibrium, ρ is the density, T is the tension,
F (x, t) is the external force, −βut is the frictional force against the string, and −γu is the restoring
force. Dividing by ∆x and letting ∆x → 0 yields the telephone or telegraph equation

utt = c2 uxx − βut − γu + F (x, t),

where c2 = T /ρ and β, γ and F (x, t) have been relabeled after dividing by ρ. This equation
describes the transverse vibration of the string. It should be noted that because of the second
derivative with respect to time, the wave equation has two initial conditions, imposed on u(x, 0)
and ut (x, 0), which are the initial position and initial velocity, respectively.
The net force on the segment [x, x + ∆x] due to the tension is

T sin θ2 − T sin θ1 ≈ T [ux (x + ∆x, t) − ux (x, t)],

where θ1 and θ2 are the angles that the string makes with the x-axis at x and x + ∆x, respectively.
The approximations by ux follow from right-triangle trigonometry. If the rod has a variable density
ρ(x), then the term of the wave equation arising from the net force due to tension is (c2 (x)ux )x ,
rather than c2 uxx .

Intuitive Interpretation of the Wave Equation

The wave equation states that the acceleration of the string is proportional to the tension in the
string, which is given by its concavity.

Applications
Other applications of the one-dimensional wave equation are:

• Modeling the longitudinal and torsional vibration of a rod, or of sound waves. In this case,
the coefficient c2 is called Young’s modulus, which is a measure of the elasticity of the rod.

• Modeling electric current along a wire. This model actually yields the transmission-line
equations, which are then manipulated to obtain two wave equations, one for the voltage
and one for the current. The coefficients c2 is inversely proportional to the capacitance and
self-inductance per unit length.

1
The D’Alembert Solution of the Wave Equation
The solution of the Cauchy problem for the wave equation in one space dimension,

utt = c2 uxx , −∞ < x < ∞, t > 0,

u(x, 0) = f (x), ut (x, 0) = g(x), −∞ < x < ∞,

is known as d’Alembert’s solution. We will now derive this solution.
We first introduce the change of variables

ξ = x + ct, η = x − ct.

Then we have

ux = uξ ξx + uη ηx
= uξ + uη ,
uxx = (ux )ξ + (ux )η
= uξξ + 2uξη + uηη ,
ut = uξ ξt + uη ηt
= cuξ − cuη
utt = c(ut )ξ − c(ut )η
= c2 uξξ − 2c2 uξη + c2 uηη .

Substituting these expressions for uxx and utt into the wave equation yields the very simple PDE

uξη = 0.

By integrating with respect to ξ, and then with respect to η, we obtain the general solution

u(ξ, η) = Φ(η) + ψ(ξ)

where the functions Φ(η) and ψ(ξ) are chosen so as to satisfy the initial conditions.
Substituting this expression into the initial conditions yields the equations

Φ(x) + ψ(x) = f (x),

−cΦ (x) + cψ 0 (x) = g(x).
0

This system of equations has the solutions

1 x x
Z Z
1 1 1
Φ(x) = f (x) − g(s) ds, ψ(x) = f (x) + g(s) ds
2 2c x0 2 2c x0

for some x0 . It follows that

x+ct
f (x + ct) + f (x − ct)
Z
1
u(x, t) = Φ(x − ct) + ψ(x + ct) = + g(s) ds.
2 2c x−ct

2
More on the D’Alembert Solution
Earlier, we learned that the solution of the initial value problem
utt = c2 uxx , −∞ < x < ∞, t > 0,
u(x, 0) = f (x), ut (x, 0) = g(x), −∞ < x < ∞
is given by D’Alembert’s solution
Z x+ct
1 1
u(x, t) = [f (x − ct) + f (x + ct)] + g(s) ds.
2 2c x−ct

We now examine how this solution can be interpreted.

The Space-Time Interpretation of D’Alembert’s Solution

First, we consider the case of a zero initial velocity, which has initial conditions
u(x, 0) = f (x), ut (x, 0) = 0, −∞ < x < ∞.
Then, the solution is
1
u(x, t) = [f (x − ct) + f (x + ct)].
2
It follows that at any point (x0 , t0 ), the solution is equal to the average of the initial displacement
u(x, 0) = f (x) at the two points obtained by backtracking along the lines
x − ct = x0 − ct0 , x + ct = x0 + ct0
back to the x-axis.
For example, suppose the initial displacement is given by

1 −1 < x < 1
f (x) = .
0 |x| ≥ 1
Then, u(x, t) = 1/2 between the lines x + ct = ±1, and between the lines x − ct = ±1. Where these
regions overlap, these values of u(x, t) are added, and the solution is equal to 1. Outside of these
regions, u(x, t) = 0.
Next, we consider the case of a zero initial displacement,
u(x, 0) = 0, ut (x, 0) = g(x), −∞ < x < ∞.
Then, the solution is Z x+ct
1
u(x, t) = g(s) ds.
2c x−ct
That is, the solution at (x0 , t0 ) is obtained by integrating the initial velocity ut (x, 0) = g(x) along
the x-axis from x0 − ct0 to x0 + ct0 .
Therefore, if the initial velocity is given by

1 −1 < x < 1
g(x) = ,
0 |x| ≥ 1
then u(x, t) = (1 + x + ct)/(2c) between the lines x + ct = ±1, and u(x, t) = (1 − x + ct)/(2c)
between the lines x − ct = ±1. Where these regions overlap, the solution is equal to t. Between
these two regions, the solution is equal to 1/c; everywhere else, it is equal to 0.

3
Solution of the Semi-Infinite String via the D’Alembert Solution
We now consider a vibrating semi-infinite string with a fixed end, modeled by the IBVP

utt = c2 uxx , 0 < x < ∞, t > 0,

u(x, 0) = f (x), ut (x, 0) = g(x), 0 < x < ∞,

u(0, t) = 0, t > 0.
As with the infinite string, using the change of variables

ξ = x + ct, η = x − ct,

we obtain the much simpler PDE

uξη = 0,
which has the general solution

u(x, t) = φ(η) + ψ(ξ) = φ(x − ct) + ψ(x + ct).

As before, we substitute this form of the solution into the initial conditions, and obtain

1 x−ct 1 x+ct
Z Z
1 1
φ(x − ct) = f (x − ct) − g(s) ds, ψ(x + ct) = f (x + ct) + g(s) ds.
2 2c x0 2 2c x0

However, we can only evaluate f (x) and g(x) wherever x > 0, which presents a problem when
x − ct < 0. To get around this, we apply the boundary condition to the form of u(x, t) to obtain

u(0, t) = φ(−ct) + ψ(ct) = 0,

or
φ(−ct) = −ψ(ct).
This yields Z ct−x
1 1
φ(x − ct) = −ψ(ct − x) = − f (ct − x) − g(s) ds,
2 2c x0

and therefore
Z x+ct
1 1
u(x, t) = ψ(x + ct) − ψ(ct − x) = [f (x + ct) − f (ct − x)] + g(s) ds, 0 < x < ct.
2 2c ct−x

When x ≥ ct, we simply use D’Alembert’s solution as before,

1 x+ct
Z
1
u(x, t) = [f (x + ct) + f (x − ct)] + g(s) ds, x ≥ ct.
2 2c x−ct

This solution exhibits reflection at the boundary x = 0.

Exercises
Section 4.6: Exercises 1, 2, 5, 11, 14