COURSE CODE: MAC 215

COURSE TITLE: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

NUMBER OF UNITS: 2 UNITS
COURSE DURATION: Two hours per week
COURSE LECTURER: DR. ATE ASAN ANDREW

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the completion of this course, students are expected to:
1. Define the theory
2. Understanding the process of arriving at a theory
3. Understand types of theories
4. Know how to apply the theories in different political settings
5. Know how to formulate the theory

COURSE DETAILS

Week 1-2: Understanding theories, how to arrive at theories

Week 3-4: Normative Theories.
Week 5-6: Working Theories
Week 7-8: Communication Models
Week 9-10: Theories of Persuasion and Media violence
Week 11: Common sense Theory
Week 12: Revision

RESOURCES

 Griffin, E. M. (2012). A First Look at Communication Theory. (8th Edition). New

York: McGrawHill. www.hhe.com
 McQuail, D (2010). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (6th Edition).
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage
 http://www.edouniversity.edu.ng/oer/masscomp/mac215.pdf
 Folarin, B. (1998). Theories of Mass Communication: An Introduction. Ibadan:
Stirling Holden (Nig.) Ltd.
 Ate A.A. (Undated). Theories of Mass Communication. Ikeji-Arakeji: JABU

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

Assignments & Grading
For group assignments, team work is encouraged but each member must participate.
• Homeworks + Project: ~ 30% of final grade.
• Exams:
• Final, comprehensive (according to university schedule): ~ 70% of final grade

• NO LATE HOMEWORKS ACCEPTED

• Turn in what you have at the time it’s due.
• All homeworks are due at the start of class.
• If you will be away, turn in the homework early.

PREAMBLE:

Mass communication theories describe the relationship between the media and the
society. Theories are dynamic and are subject to change depending on certain variables.
That accounts to the postulations of different theories by experts at different times.

THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION by Dr. Ate Asan Andrew is

licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International License

UNDERSTANDING A THEORY
A theory according to Daramola (2003, p. 36) is a systematic and deductive way of
thinking about reality in order to describe and understand such reality.
According to McQuail (1983), a theory consists of a set of ideas of varying status and
origin which seek to explain or interpret some phenomenon. Some scholars look at a
theory as making meaning out of nothing. Through theories, sense or meaning can be
made out of disturbing situations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
The following characteristics of a typical theory were outlined by Folarin (1998, p.3-4):
1. Intellectual rigour: a typical theory must be involved in obvious intellectual rigour
that they become testable, verifiable or systematic.
2. Dynamism: a theory is subject to change, it is not immutable or dogmatic.
MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO
 3. Economy: in a theory, words are few as postulations are summarized for easy
comprehension of the people.

HOW TO ARRIVE AT THEORIES

A. Steps at arriving at a theory: A theory passes through the following steps;
i. Conception.
ii. Operationalization.
iii. Observation.
iv. Analysis.
v. Testing.
vi. Generalization.
vii. Theory.
viii. Law.
B. Differentiating theory from myth, dogma, philosophy or belief:
i. Myth- While myth employ stories and mystery, theories are built on
concrete facts and have traceable origins.
ii. Dogma- dogma is a belief based on tradition and authority. It is rigid and
static, however, theories are based on logic and common sense therefore it
is flexible and reliable.
iii. Belief/philosophy- while philosophy addresses the questions of value,
theory deals with what obtains and why.

KINDS OF THEORIES
On a general perspective, McQuail (1983) identifies 4 types of theories namely:
a. Normative theory.
b. Working theory.
c. Social scientific theory.

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

 d. Common sense theory.

NORMATIVE THEORY: It ties the operation of the mass media to the political
environment in which the media operates. According to Daramola (2003, p. 40), the
basic assumption of normative theories is that “the mass media reflect and are
conditioned by the nature of society in which they operate”. There are 4 theories of the
press, these are:
i. Authoritative theory
ii. Libertarian theory
iii. Social responsibility theory
iv. Soviet-communist theory
McQuail (1989) added two more theories, they are:
v. Development media theory
vi. Democratic-Participant media theory.

i. Authoritative theory
The authoritative theory dates from the 16th Century. It describes a situation in which
the media mass media are subordinated to state power whether the media ownership is
private or public.

Some of the instrument of authoritative control of the media include heavy taxation,
regressive legislation, direct or subtle state control of staffing, etc.

ii. Libertarian theory or free press theory

This theory believes that an individual should be free to publish what he or she likes to
hold and express opinion freely.

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

However it doesn’t obliterate the laws of defamation, sedition, obscenity and invasion of
privacy.

It is clearly expressed in the American constitution which infringes on freedom of

speech or of the press.

According to Daramola (2003, p.2) some principles of libertarian theory are:

 There should be no compulsion to any theory
 No restriction should be placed on collection of information for publication provided
it is done by legal means.

He describes libertarian theory as the bedrock of print media in democratic society.

iii. Social responsibility theory

This theory places emphasis on the moral and social responsibilities of people and
institutions which operate the mass media.

Experts like Siebert et al (1954), Kunzick (1988), McQuail (1987) cited by Folarin
outlines the basic tenets of social responsibility theory
 To serve the political system by making information of public affairs generally
accessible.
 To protect the rights of the individual by acing as watch dog over the government.
 To serve the economic system
 To provide good entertainment

Professor John Meril identifies three roads to social responsibility theory:

 That which is defined by the individual
 That which is defined by the professional bodies

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

  That which is defined by the society.

iv. Soviet-Communist Theory

The main task of the press under this theory is to promote socialist ideologist and system
and maintain the sovereignty of the proletariat through the communist party.

v. Development Media Theory

This theory was put forward as a means of paying for the imbalance in development and
information flow of the third world countries and a solution to the technological
problems facing them.
The major tenets of development media theory as enunciated by McQuail are:
 Media must accept and carry out positive development task in line with naturally
established policies.
 Freedom of the media should be open to economic priorities and development
needs of the society
 In the interest of development the state has a right to intervene or restrict media
operations.
Features of the third world countries that make it difficult to apply normative
theories:
 Absence of requisite communication infrastructure
 Limited supply of requisite professional skills
 Limited availability of media literate audiences
 Dependence on developed world for technology skills and cultural products.

vi. Democratic Participant Media Theory

McQuail (1983) and Kunzick (1988) are major experts of this theory. The theory reflects
public reaction against commercialization and monopolization of privately owned media
and grown at the bottlenecks in public broadcasting institutions.

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

According to Folarin (1998), the theory viewed broadcasting as being too elitist, rigid in
structure and being manipulated by those in government.

WORKING THEORIES
These theories consist of basic guidelines, techniques, traditions and conventions that
guide the world of media production and give it consistency over time.

The Gatekeeping Process

Gate keeping amounts to serenity of the information to be disseminated. A gate keeper
not only decides which occurrences come to public awareness but also influences the
ways in which those occurrences are perceived through the kind of editorial treatment
given to them.
Factors affecting gatekeeping conditions:
 Timing
 Ownership pattern
 Management policy
 Perceived needs and preferences of the audience
 Availability of photographers or film footage
 Perceived needs and preference of the audience.

News Value
The term “news value” was first used by Walter Lipman in 1922. News value refers to
the criteria by which news is selected. They are intuitive assumptions of journalists about
what interest their audience.

Why bad news is good news.

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

Wilke (1984) cited by Kunczick (1988:151) identifies four possible reasons why bad
news usually gets preferences in media reporting:
1. Because bad news satisfies the frequency criterion better
2. More people are likely to agree on the interpretation of a bad occurrence than on
the interpretation of a good event
3. Negative news is more unexpected than positive news
4. Negative news is said to be more constant with at least some dominant images of
our time

SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC THEORY

Communication Models
A model according to Folarin (1998) is a symbolic representation designed to help
visualize the relationship among various elements of a structure, system or process, for
the purpose of discussion and analysis.

Describing a model as a device representing the essential features of a given

phenomenon, Daramola (2005) outlines the advantages of a model:
 First, models help to clarify the structure of complex events
 Second, models provide a frame of reference for scientific inquiry
 Third, models are heuristic stimulus, that is, they crystalise new ideas and new
ways of looking at things
 Lastly, models help make predictions about the real world. They do not only
describe the “what” of communication but they also help to explain the “why” in
such a way that we can talk about the future.
The shortcoming of a model is that it is only a means to an end and not an end in itself. It
presents a selective or partial picture of a reality and not a holistic picture.

We shall revisit Shannon and Weaver model (1949) and Lasswell Model (1948).

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

The Shannon-Weaver Model.
Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after them as
the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-
systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels and codes.
The model proposes that all communication must include six elements:
 Source
 Encoder
 Channel
 Message
 Decoder
 Receiver
This model is often referred to as an 'information model' of communication. A
drawback is that the model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is
remedied by the addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that disturb
or otherwise influence messages as they are being transmitted

The Lasswell Model (1948)

This model is referred to as an interrogatory model because it has questions such as:
 Who?
 Says what?
 In which channel?
 To whom?
 With what effect?
Lasswell attempted to analyse the process of communication in terms of the function
performed by it in every human society. He cites the functions as:
 Surveillance of the environment

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

  Correlation of different parts of the socity in making a response or presenting a
solution to problems, and
 Transmission of the social heritage from one generation to another. This is the
education or socialization function of the media. Laswell asserted that there were
groups of specialists who were responsible for carrying out the functions.

Theories of Media Effects

The Instinctive S-R Theory
The Post-Instinctive S-R Theory
The Individual Difference Perspective
The Social Categories Perspective
The Social Relations Perspective
The Two-Step Flow Theory/Hypothesis

Minimally Powerful Media Theories

1. Selective Processes: This perspective on how humans “see” the world is based on
individual differences of upbringing, race, gender, socioeconomic status, life
experiences. Individuals are exposed to different experiences and influences—some
profound (like nationality or gender) and some subtle (like bigtown/smalltown)—that
help shape how they see and make sense of the world, people, issues, culture, society.
The result of these differences is that people perceive and interpret the world differently.
Recognizing shared perceptions of the world is essential to understanding how
individuals form communities.

• Selective Exposure: Based on how we see the world, individuals tend to pay attention
to different kinds of information that is more or less relevant and familiar to their own
experience. This concept also relates to the media choices we make—which news
sources we read & view (e.g., Fox News or PBS News Hour, NPR or Rush

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

Limbaugh, Salt Lake Tribune or Deseret News), entertainment viewing (TV, movies—
Dexter or CSI, Girl with the Dragon Tatto or Disney), music (Dixie Chicks or Toby
Keith). The media choices we make influence our perception of reality.

• Selective Perception: As a result of these difference background and formative

influences, as well as media choices, individuals see and make sense of the world
differently; we all create our own meanings of events around us, filtering information
that reaches us through our own prejudices and prior knowledge, framing information so
that it makes sense in our own context.

• Selective Retention: Some information flies right past us; some sticks. We tend to
remember best the information that confirms our beliefs and values, and forget the
information that contradicts our values and beliefs.

Uses and Gratification Theory

Uses and gratification theory seeks to understand why people seek out the media that
they do and what they use it for. UGT differs from other media effect theories in that it
assumes that individuals have power over their media usage, rather than positioning
individuals as passive consumers of media. UGT explores how individuals deliberately
seek out media to fulfill certain needs or goals such as entertainment, relaxation, or
socializing.

Modern-Day Applications

Today, UGT has more relevance than ever as a tool for understanding how we as
individuals connect with the technologies around us. These technologies span everything
from the Internet to video gaming to mobile phones. UGT research into mobile phone
usage has found that people seek a number of gratifications from their phones, including
affection/sociability, entertainment, and mobility, among others. As another example of
a contemporary technology, when using social media, users can be motivated by factors
like a need to vent negative feelings, recognition, and cognitive needs. Animated news
and entertainment media are just two other examples of media technologies that UGT
researchers continue to explore.
MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO
Theory Criticism

UGT has been plagued almost from its inception by criticisms that it does not meet the
standards necessary to be a theory. Common criticisms include the fact that gratifications
are more dependent on researchers’ input than on the subjects’, that audiences of
different ages will have different motivations for watching the same media, and that
much of the information collected in studies is self-reported, and as such, difficult to
measure. Despite the criticism, UGT may be more relevant and useful today as media
users now have hundreds of TV channels, the internet, and a whole array of other media
entertainment options that help solidify the argument that the individual has agency over
their media consumption.

Conditionally Powerful Media Theories

Agenda-Setting
This theory holds that although the mass media can’t tell us what to think, the media are
stunningly successful at telling us what to think about. That is, through their selection or
de-selection of what is “news” (gatekeeping), the mass media serve to create an agenda
for social discourse. When there were only three major national TV networks, and some
70-80% of Americans watched them nightly, a very clear national agenda of what’s most
important was created. Even in such a monopolistic and dominated mass media system,
the networks couldn’t make people think in certain ways (because of individual selective
perception), but they were and are able to focus attention of some issues while ignoring
others. (The Project Censored story is an illustration of what stories did not make the
public’s agenda/consciousness.) Examples of how agenda-setting worked in society
include: The OJ Simpson murder trial; the Clinton impeachment hearings following
Zippergate; WMDs and the Iraq War/War on Terrorism. Consider the implications of
agenda-setting for public policy debate and creation of laws. Another question: Who sets
the agenda for the media agenda-setters?
Other theories include:
 Cultural Norms Theory
 Mainstreaming or Synchronisation Theory
 “Knowledge Gaps” Theory
 Spiral of Silence

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

 Persuasion Theories

Cognitive Dissonance

Explanation of Theory:

This theory of Cognitive Dissonance says that human beings often have conflicting
beliefs with actions they take, or other beliefs they have. This dissonance creates a
tension and tension reduction is automatically sought by changing our evaluations by
some degree. Cognitive Dissonance is when you have two good choices and you make
your decision then you find yourself unsure or in doubt about the choice you made. You
might have to downplay the other choice in order to reassure yourself.

Theorist: Leon Festinger

Date: 1962

Social Judgement Theory

Explanation of Theory:

Social Judgement theory states that you have a statement or message and you accept it
or reject it based on your cognitive map. You accept or reject a message based on one's
own ego-involvement and if it falls within their latitude of acceptance.

Theorist: MuzaferSherif, Carolyn Sherif, Carl Hovland

Date: 1961

Critique:
Social Judgement theory proposes the idea that persuasion is a two-step process. The
first step involves individuals hearing or reading a message and immediately evaluating
where the message falls within their own position. The second step involves individuals
adjusting their particular attitude either toward or away from the message they heard.

Ideas and Implications:

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

Individuals have three zones in which they accept or reject specific messages or
attitudes. The latitude of acceptance zone is where individuals place attitudes they
consider acceptable. The latitude of rejection zone is where individuals place attitudes
they consider unacceptable or objectionable. The latitude of noncommitment is where
people place attitudes they find neither acceptable nor rejectable.

Example:
Example of Social Judgement theory:

Read through these statements and recognize the variety of opinions they represent;
1. Student athletes should be given extra time to complete assignments.
2. Student athletes are for the most part lazy when it comes to schoolwork.
3. Student athletes should receive more time to complete assignments because their
schedule is more hectic than the average student.
4.Student athletes should be treated like every other student.
5. Athletes should be able to skip class because they are tired from practices or games.
6. Professors should take extra time to tutor those student athletes who miss class.
Now, reread through these questions again and underline the statement that most closely
represents your opinion, and run a line through the statement that is most objectionable.
Circle the statements you think are reasonable, and cross out the statements you reject.
Social Judgement theory predicts that people hear a message and they immediately
decide whether they accept, reject, or remain noncommitted on the message.

Inoculation Theory

Explanation of Theory:

Inoculation theory states that inoculation is used to describe the attribution of greater
resistance to individuals. Or, the process of supplying information to receivers before
the communication process takes place in hopes that the information would make the
receiver more resistant.

Theorist: William McGuire

Date:1961

Primary Article:

McGuire, W. (1961). Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior

refutation of the same and alternative counterarguments. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 63, 326-332.
MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO
Rank's Persuasion Model

Explanation of Theory:

Rank's model of persuasion states that persuaders use two major strategies to achieve
their goals. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas known as (1)
intensify, and (2) downplay.

Theorist: Hugh Rank

Date: 1976

Source Credibility Theory

Explanation of Theory:

The Source Credibility theory states that people are more likely to be persuaded when
the source presents itself as credible. The theory is broken into three models that can be
used to more aptly apply the theory. The names of those models are: the factor model,
the functional model, and the constructivist model.

Theorist: Hovland, C., Janis, I., Kelley, H.

Date: 1953

Primary Article:

Hovland, C.I., Janis, I.L., & Kelley, H.H. (1953).Communication and Persuasion. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Congruity Theory

Explanation of Theory:

The Congruity theory predicts that if there are two contradicting people, sets of
information, or concepts on which a judgment must be made by a single observer, the
observer will experience pressure to change his or her judgment on one of the sides.
However, if the two sets of information are similar or congruent, then there will be no
problem, and the observer will not experience pressure of any form.

Theorist: Osgood, C., &Tannenbaum, P.

Date: 1955

Reinforcement Theory
MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO
Explanation of Theory:

Attitude changes result from an opinion change produced through reinforcement in

areas such as attention, comprehension and acceptance.

Theorist: Hovland, Janis and Kelly

Date: 1967

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Explanation of Theory:

There are two routes to persuasion -- the central route and the peripheral route. The
central route uses message elaboration, and can produce a major positive attitude
change, while the peripheral route uses six different message irrelevant cues to illicit a
quick response with a minor shift in attitude.

Theorist: Petty and Cacioppo

Date: 1986

Attribution Theory

Explanation of Theory:

Attribution Theory attempts to explain causes of behavior. It attempts to explain the

causes of people's behavior and attributing or explaining reasons as to why people
behave the way they do. Theorists: Heider Date: 1958

MAC 215: THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION, EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO