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FOR-502 FOREST BIOMETRY

Objective –To develop understanding of students about tree measurements, forest

inventory & yield concepts.

Theory
UNIT I
Measurement of tree parameters. Estimation of volume, growth & yield of individual tree &
forest stands, Preparation of volume & its application, yield & stand tables.

1. Introduction to Forest Biometry

What are forest measurements?
• “How-to-do-it” for tree overstory, i.e., timber volume, tree form, growth, culls factors,
mortality, etc.
• Deals with direct measurements, sampling, and prediction

Why measure forest resources?

• Forest management requires knowledge of the location and their current features
• The role of measurements is to supply the numerical data required to make
management decisions

Types of measurements
• Direct measurements
– Tree height
– Tree diameter
• Sampling
– A portion of the entire resource - expand to characterize entire resource
• Prediction
– Those resources, such as tree volumes, not easily measured

Scales of measurements
• Nominal scale
– Numbering objects for field identification, e.g., tree number, plot number
• Ordinal scale
– Expressing rank or position in a series, where rank has meaning, e.g., tree crown
classes, lumber grades, site quality classes
• Interval scale
– A series of graduations marked off at uniform intervals from an arbitrary origin,
e.g., temperature
• Ratio scale

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– A series of graduations marked off at uniform intervals from an origin of
absolute zero, e.g., tree height, volume, length of trail, amount of habitat

There are also many reasons that forests are measured:

1. Measure the quantity (and quality) of tree boles to determine how much sawlog
or pulpwood could be harvested under specific circumstances.
2. Measure the amount of woody biomass to determine how much bio-fuel could
be harvested.
3. Measure the amount of leaf area to determine how much atmospheric pollution
can be intercepted and removed by living trees.
4. Measure the variability of tree species, sizes and ages to determine the
biodiversity and stability of the forest.
5. Measure the amount of damage caused by fire, insect or disease to assist in
determining if remedial treatment is necessary.

Forest Measurements
• Features measured: trees
• Sampling units: fixed-radius plots, variable radius plots, strips
• Sampling schemes: systematic sampling, stratified random sampling
• Measures: timber volume, wildlife habitat, forest density

Standard practices
• Abbreviations and symbols
• Significant digits and rounding off
– Don’t record more significant digits than were observed
– Ignore the 5 when the digit preceding is an even number. Conversely, if the
digit preceding is an odd number?
– Rounding off should be carried at least two places beyond that of the final
rounded figures
• Conversions between metric and English units
- British and Metric system
cm – m, gallon – Litre, Degree F – Degree C

Standard units
International System of Units (SI for short).

The standard units are:

metre (m) - length
kilogram (kg) - mass
second (s) - time
ampere (A) - electric current
degree Centigrade (C) - thermodynamic temperature
lumens(lm) - luminous intensity
mole (mol) - amount of substance

Other units can be derived through the inclusion of decimal prefixes (e.g. deci, kilo).
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Some units are not included in the SI, but are nevertheless commonly used and
accepted:
hectare (ha) - area
day (d) - time interval
hour (h) - time interval
minute (min) - time interval
tonne (t) - mass

Bias, Accuracy, Precision

• Bias
– systematic distortion of measurements
– sources: measurement flaw, incorrect sampling method
• Accuracy
– success of estimating the true value of a quantity
• Precision
– clustering of sample values about their own average

Parameter vs. Variable

• Parameter
– A constant that describes the population as a whole
• Variable
– A characteristic that may vary from one sample to the next

Tools for measuring tree diameter

Fiberglass tape:
A tape measures girth of a tree directly where as diameter indirectly.
The tape is wrapped around the tree to measure circumference. This value is divided
by PI (3.1415....) to estimate diameter.
Often the tape will have normal units (mm and cm) on one side and PI units on the
other side.

Calipers: Calipers are comprised of a fixed arm, scale and moveable arm. The fixed
arm is placed along one side of the tree at the desired height. The moveable arm is
then placed flush against the other side of the tree and the scale is read directly. The
calipers must be located perpendicular to the stem axis.

The length of the caliper arms must be at least half the diameter of the tree. Biased
estimates (underestimates) of the diameter will result if the arms are less than half the
tree diameter. This limitation may restrict the use of calipers to smaller trees - the
large diameter trees often found in natural eucalypt forests would require calipers arms
in excess of 1 m which would be inconvenient.

Spiegel Relaskop (Relascope): Commonly referred to as a Relaskop. A sophisticated,

compact and robust device for measuring range, tree height and diameter, and stand
parameters. It is relatively expensive.
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Telerelaskop: A research quality instrument that is no longer in production. The

Telereskop is similar in principle to the relascope except that it includes 5 x optical
magnification

Criterion Laser: A heavy height, diameter and range measuring instrument. The
Criterion uses laser light to determine distance from a tree. The user enters numbers
read from a rifle-scope and a simple computer chip calculates diameter.

Pentaprism: A medium weight and cost instrument for measuring tree diameter. The
Pentaprism uses a moveable prism to superimpose an image of the tree bole over an
original image. When the sides of the superimposed image line up with the original
image, the diameter can be read directly from a scale which measures displacement of
the moveable prism.

Many users experience difficulties with the Pentaprism. They have difficulties lining
up the sides of the tree for the two images

Abney Level : The Abney Level is an engineering instrument which can be used to
determine height. It is moderately expensive and of medium size and weight.
Although the Abney Level is relatively robust, the bubble tube can be knocked out of
alignment during rough treatment.

Tools for measuring tree height

Blume Leiss: A height measuring instrument of medium size and weight. It is robust
and only moderately expensive.Heights above and below the observer's eye can be
read directly from the scale if the observer is 15, 20, 30 or 40 m from the tree.

Haga: A height measuring instrument of medium size and weight. It is robust and only
moderately expensive.Heights above and below the observer's eye can be read directly
from the scale if the observer is 15, 20, 25 or 30 m from the tree. The appropriate scale
can be selected by rotating the selection dial at the front of the instrument

Spiegel Relaskop (Relascope): Commonly referred to as a Relaskop. A sophisticated,

compact and robust device for measuring range, tree height and diameter, and stand
parameters. It is relatively expensive.Heights can be read from an internal scale if the
user is 20, 25 or 30 m from the tree. However, there are a number of scales visible and
novice users are often confused by the apparent reading complexity.

Suunto Clinometer: A small, light, robust and inexpensive instrument for measuring
height. An internal scale normally indicates percentage slope. Height above or below
the operator is calculated by multiplying the percentage slope by the distance from the
tree. Thus, there is no fixed distance for common use.Some people experience
difficulties sighting through the Suunto. You must look into the Suunto while

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simultaneously sighting along side it to see the tree. Particular care is needed if the
operator suffers from astigmatism.

LEM-300: A relatively heavy height, diameter and range measuring instrument. The
LEM uses laser light to determine distance from a tree. A built in angle reader and a
simple computer chip calculates tree height.

Criterion Laser: A heavy height, diameter and range measuring instrument. The
Criterion uses laser light to determine distance from a tree. A built in angle reader and
a simple computer chip calculates tree height

2. Stand Growth

• “The basic elements of stand growth are accretion, mortality, and ingrowth”
• Accretion is the growth on all trees that were measured at the beginning of the growth
period, including the growth on tree that were cut plus those tree died and were
utilized
• Mortality is the volume of trees initially measured that died during a growth period
and were not utilized
• Growth
– Gross: change in total stand volume including mortality
– Net: change in total stand volume excluding mortality

Absolute and Relative Growth Rate

• Absolute volume growth rate (m3/year)
• Relative volume growth rate (growth percent/year)

Characteristics of Stand-Table Projection

-Procedure
1. Develop a present stand table showing number of tree in each dbh class
2. Determine past periodic growth by dbh classes by increment borings or
measurement of PSP
3. Apply past diameter growth rates to the present stand to derive future stand
table
4. Apply local volume equation to estimate both present and past stand volume
5. Obtain periodic stand volume growth as the difference during the growth period

Defining Periodic and Mean Annual Growth

• Current annual growth (current annual increment)
– The increase in tree size (measured by dbh, height, volume, or biomass) for one
year
• Periodic annual growth
– Average annual growth over a period of 5 or 10 years
• Mean or average annual growth
– Total tree size at any point in time divided by total age
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Growth from Stem Analysis

• Diameter growth
• Height growth
• Volume or biomass growth

Parameters for measurement of tree bole

o Measurement of a tree bole at a nominated height would be easy if the bole
corresponded to a simple geometric shape.
o For example, if we could assume that the bole cross section was like a circle,
then we could measure the radius (r), diameter (d), circumference (c) or the area
(a).
o We can calculate all the other variables once we measure any one of them.
However, the tree bole is rarely circular (or any other simple geometric shape)
and the use of the above equations will only provide approximate estimates.
o The selection of which parameter to measure will depend on: the use of the
measurement; the resources and tools available; tradition; and the acceptable
error.

Increase in Tree Diameter

• Adding wood just under the bark
– In temperate forests, a growing tree adds a yearly layer. What about trees in
tropical forests? What about the trees growing under a very stressful
environment?
• Annual ring width decreases as tree age increases, but basal area and volume may
increase
• Diameter growth are influenced by spacing (stand density), climate, site
characteristics, disturbances

1 Radius (r): length from the centre to the outside of the bole. It is rarely measured in
forestry. Radius cannot be measured on standing trees because the centre of the tree
needs to be accurately located. Because a bole is not circular, different measurements
of radius are possible.

2 Diameter (d): length from the outside of the bole, through the centre, to the opposite
side. Diameter is commonly measured in forestry. Again, because tree boles are not
circular, different measurements of diameter are possible.

Diameter at breast height (dbh) is probably the most common measurement made on a
standing tree.

3. Circumference (c) - also known as girth: the length around the outside of the bole.
Circumference is commonly measured in forestry, but usually it is then used to
estimate bole diameter. If the bole were circular, diameter can be estimated as
circumference divided by PI. However, if the bole deviates from this ideal shape, then
this calculation will overestimate the diameter. This bias is not constant and will vary
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with the degree and type of deviation. However, this bias is rarely considered
significant.

An advantage of measuring the bole girth is that there is no sampling error involved.
Unlike diameter measurements, the result does not depend on which axis was selected
to measure. This leads to an increase in measurement precision. In addition, if a tree
bole changes by 1 cm in diameter, the girth measurement changes by 3.1415... cm
(PI). Thus, finer readings of the change can be read.

How to determine diameter growth with increment borings

• Measure dob
• Obtain wood growth in diameter from an increment boring (e.g., 10 years)
• Develop a relationship between bark thickness and dib
• Calculate dob from dib and the above relationship for any previous years

Tree volume
Stem volume is function of a tree's height, basal area, shape, and depending on
definition, bark thickness. It is therefore one of the most difficult parameters to
measure, because an error in the measurement or assumptions for any one of the above
factors will propagate to the volume estimate.

Volume is often measured for specific purposes, and the measurement and
interpretation of the volume estimate will depend on the units of measurement,
standards of use, and other specifications.

For example:
1 Biological volume is the volume of stem with branches trimmed at the junction
with the stem, but usually excluding irregularities not part of the natural growth
habit (e.g. malformation due to insects, fungi, fire, and mechanical damage).

2 Utilizable or merchantable volume excludes some volume within irregularities of

the bole shape caused by normal growth in addition to those irregularities not part
of natural growth. For example, the volume contained in the swelling around a
branch node may be excluded because this volume could not be utilized

Direct measurement of diameter commonly measures two different axes:

1 The diameter of the maximum and minimum axis of the bole on trees those are
clearly elliptical;
2 The diameter of the maximum axis and the axis at 90 degrees;
3 The diameter of any two axes at 90 degrees to each other.

The two diameter measurements are averaged using an arithmetic mean (most
common) or a geometric mean (for highly elliptical boles).

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The measurement of diameter on one axis is often acceptable when the data is only
being used to group trees into a stand table.

Standard point on tree bole for measurement

The size of a tree trunk or bole is of direct relevance to people interested in
quantifying the amount of woody material, carbon or biomass in a tree. It is also
related to other important tree parameters and may be an index of the quality of a site.

Unfortunately measurement of a tree bole is not trivial. The bole is a three dimensional
object with a cross sectional area that decreases progressively with height. It is also
not a regular shape. Instead, defects and structural anomalies cause bumps and
swellings that make measurements difficult.

Breast height
(reference or standard height on the bole)
1 To allow measurements of bole size to be compared, a standard point on the trunk is
defined. It is important that this point is at a convenient height near the ground and
that it can be reliably located (and relocated) by different measurers. This standard
height is termed breast height.
2 The actual location of breast height varies slightly between some countries.
3 In continental Europe breast height is defined as 1.3 m above the ground.
4. The breast height convention in the USA, New Zealand, Burma, India, Malaysia,
South Africa and some other countries is to measure at 1.4 m (or 4' 6") above ground.
5. In India breast height measured at 1.37m above ground

Growth and Yield Models

• Forest management decisions-making relies on accurate information about both
current and future forest resource conditions
• Stand-table projections for future growth based on the past may be most accurate for a
limited period of time, but
– Not reliable for long periods
– Not necessarily useful for evaluate treatment alternatives because …
• Therefore, many models for forecasting stand dynamics are developed, ranging from
tables, equations, to computer simulation models

Definition of yield
• The total amount available at a given point of time
– gross volume
– merchantable volume
– biomass

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UNIT II
Forest inventory, sampling methods adopted in forestry, Use of GPS In forest
inventory. Measurements stand density. Simulation techniques.

3. Forest Inventories

Purpose of inventories
• Determine the value (volume, quantity) of resources in an area as accurately as
available time and money will permit

• Requires:
– Reliable estimate of the forest area (maps, air photos, GIS databases)
– Measurements of an unbiased sample of the resources

General rules of thumb

• Intensity of sampling increases as the value of the resource increases
• Intensity of sampling increases as area covered decreases
• Intensity of sampling increases as risk of making a bad management decision
increases

Types of inventories
• Land acquisition
– Surveys designed to evaluate the net volume and value of merchantable trees
– Timber quality information desired
– Soil / site quality information may be desired
– Distance to mills or other property you own or manage would be of interest
• Timber sales:
– Surveys designed to evaluate the net volume and value of merchantable trees
– Timber quality information desired
• Special purposes
– Insect and disease infestations
– Regeneration surveys
– NTFP surveys
– Biodiversity surveys
– Wildlife census

Inventory planning
1. Purpose of the inventory
– Why the inventory is required
– How the results will be used
2. Background information
– Past surveys, reports, maps, photos
– Personnel, budget, or time constraints
3. Description of area to be inventoried
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– Location, size, terrain, accessibility, transportation factors
4. Information required from inventory
– Tables and graphs
– Maps
– Outline of report
5. Inventory design
– Identification of the sampling unit
– Construction of the sampling frame
– Selection of the sampling technique
– Determination of the sample size
6. Measurement procedures
– Location of sampling units
– Establishment of sampling units
– Measurements within sampling units
– Recording field data
– Supervision and quality control
7. Compilation and calculation procedures
– Data editing
– Conversion factors
– Statistical calculations
8. Reporting the results, maintenance and storage of records
– Number and distribution of copies
– Storage and retrieval of data
– Plans for updating inventory

Where and When to Carry out Inventory?

1. Forest inventory may be defined as the systematic collection, evaluation and
presentation of specific information on forest areas.

2. Generally, detailed observations are only made of a small part of the area and reliable
techniques are applied to extrapolate from this limited observation to the whole area of
interest.

3. Probability-based sampling techniques constitute some of the most reliable ways of

making inferences about the whole area of interest from these limited observations.

Successful practice of the art and science of forest inventory depends on making
appropriate choices about:
i. The information needed - why is the inventory being conducted?
ii. The observations - what parameters to measure and how should it be
done?
iii. The individuals or representatives selected - what sort of sampling?
iv. Implementation of the inventory - how to make practice match theory?

4. Presentation of the observations and information - how to provide the report reader
with the information needed without confusion.
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Recording data: Electronic data recorders

Hand-held computers
• High initial cost
• Improved data quality
• No need for data entry mode
• Real-time data analysis

Timber Inventory as a Sampling Process

• The conduct of inventory is a sampling process, except for those circumstance in
which a complete tree tally is justified
• Involves in developing an efficient sampling scheme:
– sample size
– plot size & shape
– Sampling design (systematic, simple random, stratified random, etc.
• Regardless of inventory objectives, the method of selecting samples for measurement
is based on sampling probability
– Probability proportional to frequency
– Probability proportional to size or point sampling
– Probability proportional to prediction (3P)

Sampling Design
• The method of selecting non-overlapping sample units to be included in a sample

Sampling Frame
• The list of all possible sampling units that might be drawn in a sample
• Developing a reliable frame may be difficult
– Jack pine trees in Crown forest (infinite population)
– In most field situation, differences between the sampling frame and the
population are inconsequential

Elementary Sampling Methods:

1. Selective,
2. Simple Random,
3. Systematic

Selective Sampling
• The method involved selecting areas that appeared to be reprehensive of the
average stand condition to the sampler (cruiser)
• Was widely used in forestry, is still…
• Depends on skill of the cruiser, biased
• No valid variance, and therefore no confidence interval, could be calculated
• Because sampled areas appeared to be average, their variability would be smaller
than the true variability

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Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
• Sampling units are chosen completely at random
• Every possible combination of sampling units has an equal and independent chance of
being selected
• SRS is the fundamental method for other sampling procedures
• Other procedures are simply modifications to achieve better precision or greater
economy

Procedure
• Requires the development of a frame, implying the need of aerial photographs, or
maps
• Select random numbers between one and the total number of sampling units in the
population
• Samples are either chosen with replacement or without replacement, the latter means
that once a sampling unit is chosen it may not been chosen again

Sampling Intensity
• How many samples to take? Depends on:
– The variability of the population
– Desired confidence interval
– Acceptable level of error

Can we use SRS all the time? - Problems

• Locating some sample units on the ground may be very time-consuming
– Reference point to sample units
– Access

Systematic Sampling
The initial sampling unit is randomly selected. All other sample units are spaced at
uniform intervals throughout the area sampled

Pros:
• Sampling units are easy to locate
• Sampling units appear to be “representative”
• Generally acceptable estimates for the population mean

Cons:
• Impossible to estimate the variance of one sample
• Accuracy can be poor (i.e., bias) if a periodic or cyclic variation inherent in the
population

Arguments of systematic sampling

Against
– SRS statistical techniques can’t logically be applied to a systematic design
unless populations are assumed to be randomly distributed
For
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– There is no practical alternative to assuming that populations are distributed in a
random order

Summary
1. Use systematic sampling to obtain estimates about the mean of populations
2. Numerical statement of precision should be viewed as an approximation
3. Use SRS formulas

UNIT III
Growth & yield prediction models – their preparation & application

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