Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems
In Search of Powerful Circuits:
Developments in Very High Frequency
Power Conversion
David J. Perreault
Princeton
April 28, 2014
??
Circa 2016
20 kW Kenotron Rectifier, Circa 1926 Server Power Supply, Circa 2006
(From Principles of Rectifier Circuits, (Manufactured by Synqor)
Prince and Vogdes, McGraw Hill 1927)
Power Electronics
The function of power electronic circuits is the processing and
control of electrical energy
Modern electrical and electronic devices require power electronics
Lighting, computation and communication, electromechanical systems
(e.g., motors), renewable generation,…
In 2005 ~ 30% of generated energy goes through power electronics;
this is expected to be ~ 80% by 2030 (ORNL 2005)
Power electronic circuitry is often a major factor determining
system size, functionality, performance and efficiency
LED lightbulb and driver
Lighting, Power
supplies
Distributed
renewables
Microinverter for
Inverter for Prius HEV photovoltaic systems
(Modified from Tolbert et al, “Power Electronics for Distributed Energy Systems and Transmission and Distribution Applications,” ORNL 2005)
Structure of Power Electronic Systems
Control
Input Filter Power Stage Output Filter
Power processing with (ideally) lossless components
Switches, inductors, capacitors, transformers,…
Ancillary elements
Control, heat sinking, filtering…
System operates cyclically
Draw some energy (switches)
Store in energy storage (L’s, C’s)
Transform
Transfer to output
Often specified to operate over wide
voltage, current and power ranges
Passive Components Dominate
Passive components dominate the size of power
electronics
Also limit cost, reliability, bandwidth,…
A Voltage Regulator Module for a computer A 25 W Line Connected LED Driver
Motivations for Frequency Increases
Commercial
Goals LED Driver
100 kHz
Miniaturization 21 W
Integration 85% eff
4.8 W/in3
Increased performance (bandwidth…)
Passive energy storage components (especially
magnetics) are the dominant constraint
Energy storage requirements vary inversely with
frequency: C,L proportional to f -1
Volume can be scaled down with frequency
But, often scales down slowly with frequency
Magnetic core materials especially impact frequency scaling
Integration / batch fabrication of passives imposes
further challenges
Perreault, et. al., “Opportunities and Challenges in Very High Frequency Power Conversion,” APEC 2009
Switching Frequency Limitations
Loss mechanisms in power electronics limit switching frequencies
Relative importance of different losses depends on power, voltage
Gating loss (∝ f ) Switching loss (∝ f ) Magnetics loss (∝ f k)
VSW(t)
ISW(t)
time
p(t)
time
Design Requirements and Device Capabilities
Application requirements also impose limits on
miniaturization, integration and performance
e.g., line-frequency energy buffering requirement for single-
phase grid interface imposes significant size constraints
Large conversion ratios, wide voltage or power ranges,
isolation requirements, etc., impact achievable size
Devices & characteristics available in different
operating regimes also greatly impact performance
CMOS at low voltages (e.g., a few V) and power levels
Integrated LDMOS at moderate voltages (10’s to 100’s V) at
low power
Discrete devices at high voltage and/or power levels
Vertical Si devices
GaN-on-Si devices
SiC devices
Very High Frequency Power Conversion
Objective: develop technologies to enable
miniaturized, integrated power electronics operating
at HF and VHF (3 – 300 MHz)
To achieve miniaturization and integration:
Circuit architectures, topologies and controls for HF/VHF
Develop approaches that overcome loss and best leverage
devices and components available for a target space
Devices
Optimization of integrated power devices, design of RF power IC
converters, application of new devices (e.g., GaN)
Passives Circuits Devices
Synthesis of integrated passive structures
incorporating isolation and energy storage
Investigation and application of VHF-compatible
magnetic materials
Integration Magnetics
Integration of complete systems
System Examples
Low-voltage, low-power
step-down conversion for battery-powered systems
CMOS devices
Hybrid capacitor/magnetic conversion
Moderate voltage, low power
Isolated dc-dc converter for power supply applications
Integrated LDMOS devices
PCB integrated magnetics
Grid voltage, moderate power
Grid-interface LED driver system
Line frequency energy buffering and power factor correction
Discrete GaN-on-Si devices
Hybrid capacitor/magnetic conversion
Switching Frequency Limitations
At moderate voltage levels, ALL of gating, switching and magnetics losses
are important constraints on switching frequency
Gating loss (∝ f ) Switching loss (∝ f ) Magnetics loss (∝ f k)
VSW(t)
ISW(t)
time
p(t)
time
Switching Frequency Solutions
Minimize frequency dependent device loss, switch fast enough to
eliminate/minimize magnetic materials, enable PCB integration
Resonant gating ZVS Soft switching Coreless magnetics in
package or substrate
Sagneri, MIT, 2011
Low-permeability RF
VD(t) magnetic materials
Topology Implications for VHF Conversion
Vin RL
Inverter
Inverter Matching Rectifier
Transformation Rectifier
Network
Stage
Driving high-side “flying” switches becomes impractical
Circuit operation must absorb parasitics
device capacitances, interconnect inductance, …
Topology & device constraints impose limits
Topologies are often sensitive to operating conditions
Resonant gating, ZVS topologies limit control
Fixed frequency and duty ratio controls become preferable
Inverter Topology: Ф2 Inverter
vDS (idealized)
Multi-resonant network shapes the switch voltage to a
quasi-square wave
Network nulls the second harmonic and presents high impedance
near the fundamental and the third harmonic
Reduces peak voltage ~ 25-40% as compared to class E
Reduces sensitivity of ZVS switching to load characteristics
No bulk inductance (all inductors are resonant)
Small inductor size
Fast transient performance for on-off control
Absorbs device capacitance in a flexible manner
Rivas, et. al., “A High-Frequency Resonant Inverter Topology with Low Voltage Stress,” Trans. P.E., July 2008
Isolated VHF dc-dc Topology
Isolated Φ2 inverter, resonant rectifier
Single-switch resonant Inverter and resonant rectifier
ZVS switching waveforms with low voltage stress
Device, transformer parasitics fully absorbed
provide Φ2 inverter and rectifier tuning
Fixed frequency and duty ratio enables resonant gate drive of M1
On-off control to regulate output
Transformer design critical to obtain desired tuned operation
May be implemented as a planar PCB structure
Planar PCB Transformer Implementation
The transformer inductance matrix is
fully constrained by converter design
Implement in printed circuit board
Achieve characteristics by careful
geometry selection
Select structure that best trades
size and loss
Primary Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3
Sagneri, et. al., “Transformer Synthesis for VHF Converters,” 2010 International Power Electronics Conference, June 2010
Integrated Switch and Controls
Power applications often require integrated switches and controls in
low-cost processes (e.g., LDMOS devices in a BCD process)
With device layout optimization one can achieve VHF operation (30-
300 MHz) with conventional (low-cost) power processes
Circuit/Device co-optimization: Optimize device layout for specific circuit waveforms
Take advantage of soft switching trajectory in device design
>55% loss reduction demonstrated through this method
Gating Conduction Displacement
Simulated Ideal Hard-
Resonant Switched
Trajectory Trajectory
Sagneri, et. al., “Optimization of Integrated Transistors for Very High Frequency dc-dc Converters,” Trans. P.E (July 2013)
Integrated VHF Converter in BCD Process
Isolated converter
Half-sine resonant
gate drive
Integrated controls and power devices 41
Prototype Isolated Φ2 Converter
6 W, 75 MHz isolated converter
8-12 V input, 12 V output
On-off control to regulate output
ZVS switching, resonant gating to achieve VHF
Printed-circuit-board transformer
Integrated switch, resonant driver and controls
ABCD5 process
Prototype Isolated Φ2 Converter Results
ZVS Resonant waveforms over operating range
Efficiency 66%-76% across voltage, load range
Half-sine resonant gate driver
Pgate ~ 110 mW @ 75 MHz, ~ 3x improvement over hard gating
Prototype 75 MHz Integrated Converters
Isolated Φ2 Converter Φ2 Boost Converter
6W, 73% efficiency 14W, 85% efficiency
Non-isolated (boost) variant with
PCB-integrated magnetics also
demonstrated
Non-isolated version yields higher
power, efficiency, power density
Many related topology variants
Pilawa-Podgurski, et. al., “Very High-Frequency Resonant Boost Converters,” Trans. P.E. June 2009
Power Density, Efficiency, Integration
System Examples
Low-voltage, low-power
step-down conversion for battery-powered systems
CMOS devices
Hybrid capacitor/magnetic conversion
Moderate voltage, low power
Isolated dc-dc converter for power supply applications
Integrated LDMOS devices
PCB integrated magnetics
Grid voltage, moderate power
Grid-interface power conversion
Line frequency energy buffering and power factor correction
Discrete GaN-on-Si devices
Hybrid capacitor/magnetic conversion
High Voltage, Moderate Power
Many electronic systems operate at 100’s of Volts
and 10’s – 100’s of Watts
Conventional designs typically operate at 50 kHz – 500 kHz
Application requirements:
Discrete power devices and passives can be used
Integration of passives desired but not presently typical
Single-phase grid interface requires twice-line frequency
energy buffering
Higher switching frequency does not help with this
To increase switching frequency, must address:
Switching loss (ZVS soft switching)
Circuit parasitics (capacitance and inductance limits)
Example: Solid-State Lighting Drivers
Today: η ~ 60-90%
Power density of commercial designs < 5 W/in3
Largest components are typically magnetic elements (inductors,
transformers)
Second largest are usually electrolytic capacitors for line-
frequency energy storage
Switching frequencies typically ~ 100 kHz
Power factor / line-frequency energy buffering is also an
important consideration
PF of 0.7 (residential) or 0.9 (commercial) is desired but often NOT
achieved
Twice-line-frequency energy buffering
Interface between (continuous) dc and single-phase ac
requires buffering of twice-line-frequency energy
Energy storage requirement is independent of switching frequency
Electrolytic capacitors are
energy dense but have
temperature and lifetime limits
Added Goal: Achieve energy buffering (for high pf and continuous
output) at high power density without electrolytics
Application Background
Operation from ac-line-voltage inputs (to 200 V peak) to
moderate outputs (~30 V) at low powers (~10-50 W)
Resonant circuits at high voltage and low current lead to
very small capacitance limits and large inductor values
Challenging to achieve with integrated magnetic
components
Increase in frequency reduces both L’s, C’s
Minimum practical capacitances can limit frequency
Design approach selected to enable minimal magnetics and
improved integration possibilities
Stacked architectures to reduce subsystem operation
voltage
Multi-stage/merged conversion techniques
Topologies selected for small magnetics size
HF dc-dc Power Stage
High-frequency dc-dc conversion block (50-100 V in, ~25-40 V out)
Enables small
Inductance
and possible
Integration!
Resonant transition inverted buck circuit at edge of DCM
Low voltage stress enables operation with significant device capacitance
Small magnetics (700-1000 nH inductor for 100 V input)
ZVS / near ZVS with PWM control of output power
ground referenced switch for HF switching operation (~5-10 MHz)
PWM “on-time” control for 50-100 V input range at ~25-50 V output
HF dc-dc Power Stage
Discrete Prototype Vin=100 V, Vout = 35 V, fsw ~ 7.8 MHz
Efficiency vs. Output Power, 100 V input, 35 V output
97
96
95
94
93
Efficiency (%)
92
91 fan
90 no fan
89
88
87
86
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Power (watts)
HF Inverted Buck Converter Control
peak inductor current is controlled by changing switch
on-time
Enables continuous modulation of power at high frequency
turn on at ZVS / near ZVS voltage
Architectural Strategy
Use a “stacked” circuit architecture to enable
processing of high input voltage with lower-voltage
blocks
Enables “resonant-transition inverted buck”
conversion blocks to be used for energy processing
at high frequency
Buffer line-frequency energy at relatively high voltage
with large voltage swing to minimize capacitor size
Can use film or ceramic capacitors, eliminating
electrolytic capacitors while maintiaining high power
density
This is important because energy buffering depends
upon line frequency, and not upon switching
frequency
HF AC-DC Architecture
Two stacked “regulating” converters operating at HF
Generate regulated voltages across CR1, CR2
Capacitor C2 buffers twice-line-frequency energy (with
high voltage fluctuation over the ac line cycle)
Capacitor C1 enables capacitor stack voltage to track line
voltage
HF AC-DC Architecture – front end
0.95 power factor can be achieved for a clipped-sine input
current (sine current flows when input voltage is above 100 V
(120 Vac case)
At a given input current with a certain power factor, there are
currents i1 and i2 satisfying steady state conditions for vc1 ,
vc2 over the ac line cycle
Stacked Converter Model Simulation
Example current and voltage waveforms
For desired input power, calculate i1 and i2 currents over
the ac line cycle (command for the individual dc-dc
conversion blocks)
Constant output power supplied to load
Prototype Converter
Power combining converter
HF buck converter
Two stacked HF buck converters modulate input power
across the ac line cycle, causing desired input current
waveform and providing energy buffering in C2
SC circuit combines the power from converters to supply
the load
SC Power Combining Converter
Power combining converter
Interleaved switched capacitor charge transfer circuit
Delivers power from Cr1 to Cr2 (output port)
Operates at ~30kHz with 50% duty ratio
High efficiency operation
May be expanded:
Isolated power combining
converters are also possible
Universal-input power converters
Experimental Results
15uF x 15 = 225 uF MLCC ac energy buffer capacitor (
works as 50 uF at 70V): eliminates electrolytic capacitors
at modest size
Buck converters each use a miniature ~800 nH inductor
Overall 93.3% efficiency at 30W output power
0.89 power factor (higher performance appears possible)
Prototype Power Density
PCB board volume
Buffer Capacitor
Digital Isolator
4.54
Connector
37.04 HF stage control
9.55
MISC
SC stage capacitor
9.99
Protection
HF stage switch and diode
HF stage inductor
28.38 SC stage control
SC stage switch
1.9 x 1.4 x 0.45 inch, 25 W/in3 “box” power density
Displacement volume: 0.23 in3 , Power density: 130.55 W/in3
Digital isolator, Connector, HF stage control volume, pcb
volume and layout can be further optimized
Many Opportunities for Advances!
Improved architectures, topologies and control methods
Phase-shift control / outphasing at VHF offers large performance
gains (e.g., load modulation control of VHF power converters)
Synchronous rectification (for higher efficiency at low voltages) is
feasible at VHF (especially with CMOS rectifiers)
Hybrid GaN / Si Converters for large voltage step down
Integrated 50 MHz CMOS step-down rectifier
27.12 MHz 100 W RF Inverter
27.12 MHz 25 W GaN Class E
System with Outphasing Control
Inverter optimized for load
of 4 inverters
modulation and outphasing
A.S. Jurkov, et al, “Lossless Multi-Way Power Combining and Outphasing for High-Frequency Resonant Inverters,” IPEMC 2012
W. Li et al, “Switched-Capacitor Rectifier for Low-Voltage Power Conversion,” APEC 2013
Many Opportunities for Advances!
Bulk Low-μ RF
magnetic materials
are advantageous to
beyond 60 MHz
e.g., 30 MHz, 1 A,
200 nH inductors
Smaller size, higher Q
New integrated thin- ′
µr
film magnetic 1000 ′′
µr
relative permeability
Q
designs provide 100
ultra-high density at 10
up to 100 MHz 1
Sullivan, Dartmouth 0.1
10 100 1000 3000 Charles Sullivan, Dartmouth
f (MHz)
We can still leverage cored magnetics at frequencies to ~ 100 MHz
Han, et. al., “Evaluation of magnetic materials for very high frequency power applications,” Trans. P.E, Jan. 2012
Araghchini, et. al., “A Technology Overview of the PowerChip Development Program,” Trans. P.E., Sept. 2013
Summary
Higher frequency offers the potential for miniaturization,
integration, bandwidth
Must overcome device and magnetics losses and manage
parasitics
Appropriate system design methods enable operation at
HF and VHF frequencies
Correct strategy depends upon operating regime (voltage /
power) , device characteristics, integration requirements
Example strategies shown for two operating regimes
Low voltage, low power: CMOS devices, mixed SC/magnetic,
hybrid fabrication
Mid voltage, low power: integrated LDMOS, pcb magnetics
High voltage, mid power: discrete GaN, mixed SC/magnetic
Feasibility and advantage of these approaches have
been demonstrated
Outperform more conventional implementations
The potential for further improvements is large
