University of Technology - Department of Electrical Engineering – Baghdad - Iraq

University of Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering
Electronic Engineering
Fourth-year

Mobile Communication

Dr. Mohammed Al-hayanni

2021

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 University of Technology - Department of Electrical Engineering – Baghdad - Iraq

Lecture 1 - Introduction to Mobile Communication

1.1 Course Information.

Lecturer: Dr. Mohammed Al-hayanni
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

References • J. Chiller, Mobile Communications, 2003.

• Martin Sauter “Communication System for the mobile Information
Society” John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2006.
• C. Cox, An Introduction to LTE, LTE-advanced, SAE and 4G Mobile
Communications, 2012.
• W. Stallings, Wireless Communications and Networks, 2005.
• W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communication, 2007.
• Abhijit Mitra, Lecture Notes on Mobile Communication, Indian Institute
of Technology Guwahati, 2009.
• Ahmad El-Banna, Lecture Notes on Mobile Communications Systems,
Integrated Technical Education Cluster, AlAmeeria, 2014.
• Z Ghassemlooy, Lecture Notes on Mobile Communication Systems,
Faculty of Engineering and Environment, University of Northumbria,
Newcastle Upon Tyne, U.K, 2018.

1.2 Introduction.
Generally, most computers will certainly be portable in the next decade. How will users access
networks with the help of computers or other communication devices? An ever-increasing number
without any wires, i.e., wireless. How will people spend much of their time at work, during vacation?
Many people will be mobile – already one of the key characteristics of today’s society.
Think, for example, of an aircraft with 800 seats. Modern aircraft already offer limited network
access to passengers, and aircraft of the next generation will offer easy Internet access. In this scenario,
a mobile network moving at high speed above ground with a wireless link will be the only means of
transporting data to and from passengers.
Think of cars with Internet access and billions of embedded processors that have to communicate
with, for instance, cameras, mobile phones, CD-players, headsets, keyboards, intelligent traffic signs and
sensors. This plethora of devices and applications show the great importance of mobile communications
today.

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Before presenting more applications, the terms ‘mobile’ and ‘wireless’ as used throughout this
lecture should be defined. There are two different kinds of mobility: user mobility and device portability.
User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication services at
different places, i.e., the user can be mobile, and the services will follow him or her. Examples for
mechanisms supporting user mobility are simple call-forwarding solutions known from the telephone or
computer desktops supporting roaming (i.e., the desktop looks the same no matter which computer a user
uses to log into the network).
With device portability, the communication device moves (with or without a user). Many
mechanisms in the network and inside the device have to make sure that communication is still possible
while the device is moving. A typical example for systems supporting device portability is the mobile
phone system, where the system itself hands the device from one radio transmitter (also called a base
station) to the next if the signal becomes too weak. Most of the scenarios described in this lecture contain
both user mobility and device portability at the same time.
With regard to devices, the term wireless is used. This only describes the way of accessing a
network or other communication partners, i.e., without a wire. The wire is replaced by the transmission
of electromagnetic waves through ‘the air’ (although wireless transmission does not need any medium).

A communication device can thus exhibit one of the following characteristics:

● Fixed and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office. Neither
weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The devices use fixed networks
for performance reasons.
● Mobile and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop from one
hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone network and a modem.
● Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings to avoid
damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup. Another example is bridging
the last mile to a customer by a new operator that has no wired infrastructure and does not want to lease
lines from a competitor.
● Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who can roam
between different wireless networks.

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1.3 Evolution of Mobile Communications.

Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896. In 1901, he sent telegraphic signals
across the Atlantic Ocean from Cornwall to St. John’s Newfoundland, a distance of about 3200 km. His
invention allowed two parties to communicate by sending each other alphanumeric characters encoded
in an analog signal. Over the last century, advances in wireless technologies have led to the radio, the
television, communications satellites, mobile telephone, and mobile data. All types of information can
now be sent to almost every corner of the world. Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on
wireless networking, cellular technology, mobile applications, and the Internet of Things.
Communications satellites were first launched in the 1960s; today satellites carry about one-third
of the voice traffic and all of the television signals between countries. Wireless networking allows
businesses to develop Wide Area Networks (WANs), Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), and
Local Area Networks (LANs) without a cable plant. The IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless LANs
(also known as Wi-Fi) has become pervasive. Industry consortiums have also provided seamless short-
range wireless networking technologies such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, and Radio Frequency
Identification tags (RFIDs).
The cellular or mobile telephone started with the objective of being the modern equivalent of
Marconi’s wireless telegraph, offering two-party, two-way communication. Early generation wireless
phones offered voice and limited data services through bulky devices that gradually became more
portable. Current third and fourth generation devices are for voice, texting, social networking, mobile
applications, mobile Web interaction, and video streaming. These devices also include cameras and a
myriad of sensors to support the device applications. The areas of coverage for newer technologies are
continually being expanded and focused on key user populations.
The impact of wireless communications has been and will continue to be profound. Very few
inventions have been able to “shrink” the world in such a manner, nor have they been able to change the
way people communicate as significantly as the way wireless technology has enabled new forms of social
networking. The standards that define how wireless communications devices interact are quickly
converging, providing a global wireless network that delivers a wide variety of services.
Figure 1.1 highlights some of the key milestones in the development of wireless communications.
Wireless technologies have gradually migrated to higher frequencies. As will be seen in later chapters,
higher frequencies enable the support of greater data rates and throughput but require higher power, are
more affected by obstructions, and have shorter effective range.

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Figure 1.1 Some Milestones in Wireless Communications

The number of cellular telephone users grew due to the increasing demand of mobile services.
As shown in figure 1.2, the subscribers rise from 3.95 billion in 2008 to around 7.6 billion in the year
2020 and the demand rate is increasing day by day. A schematic of the subscribers is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2 The worldwide mobile subscriber chart.

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1.4 Applications.
Although many applications can benefit from wireless networks and mobile communications, particular
application environments seem to be predestined for their use. This section enumerates some of them.

1.4.1 Vehicles.
Today’s cars already comprise some, but tomorrow’s cars will comprise many wireless communication
systems and mobility aware applications. Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and another
broadcast information are received via Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. For personal
communication, a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) phone might be available
offering voice and data connectivity with 384 kbit/s. For remote areas, satellite communication can be
used, while the current position of the car is determined via the Global Positioning System (GPS). Cars
driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of information in emergency
situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be
triggered, but the police and ambulance service will be informed via an emergency call to a service
provider. Cars with this technology are already available. In the future, cars will also inform other cars
about accidents via the ad-hoc network to help them slowdown in time, even before a driver can
recognize an accident. Buses, trucks, and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic
information to their home base, which helps to improve organization (fleet management), and saves time
and money. Figure 1.3 shows a typical scenario for mobile communications with many wireless devices.
Networks with a fixed infrastructure like cellular phones Global System for Mobile (GSM), UMTS
will be interconnected with Wireless LANs (WLAN). Satellite communication links can also be used.
The networks between cars and inside each car will more likely work in an ad-hoc fashion.
Wireless networks inside a car can comprise Personal Digital Assistants (PDA), laptops, or mobile
phones, e.g., connected with each other using the Bluetooth technology.
This first scenario shows, in addition to the technical content, something typical in the communication
business – many acronyms.
Think of similar scenarios for air traffic or railroad traffic. Different problems can occur here due to
speed. While aircraft typically travel at up to 900 km/h and current trains up to 350 km/h, many
technologies cannot operate if the relative speed of a mobile device exceeds, e.g., 250 km/h for GSM or
100 km/h for AMPS. Only some technologies, like DAB work up to 900 km/h (unidirectional only).

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Figure 1.3 A typical application of mobile communications: road traffic

1.4.2 Emergencies.
Just imagine the possibilities of an ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital. Vital
information about injured persons can be sent to the hospital from the scene of the accident. All the
necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and specialists can be consulted for
an early diagnosis. Wireless networks are the only means of communication in the case of natural
disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In the worst cases, only decentralized, wireless ad-hoc
networks survive. The breakdown of all cabling not only implies the failure of the standard wired
telephone system, but also the crash of all mobile phone systems requiring base stations!

1.4.3 Business.
A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the company’s database: to ensure that files on his or
her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of their
travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the laptop can be turned
into a true mobile office, but efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure
data consistency. Figure 1.4 illustrates what may happen when employees try to communicate off base.

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At home, the laptop connects via a WLAN or LAN and DSL to the Internet. Leaving home requires a
handover to another technology, e.g., to an enhanced version of GSM, as soon as the WLAN coverage
ends. Gas stations may offer WLAN hot spots as well as gas. Trains already offer support for wireless
connectivity. Several more handovers to different technologies might be necessary before reaching the
office. No matter when and where, mobile communications should always offer as good connectivity as
possible to the internet, the company’s intranet, or the telephone network.

Figure 1.4 Mobile and wireless services – always best connected

1.4.4 Replacement of wired networks.

In some cases, wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g., remote sensors, for
tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote
sensors for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental information. Wireless
connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Tradeshows need a highly dynamic
infrastructure, but cabling takes a long time and frequently proves to be too inflexible. Many computer
fairs use WLANs as a replacement for cabling. Other cases for wireless networks are computers, sensors,
or information displays in historical buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
Wireless access points in a corner of the room can represent a solution.

1.4.5 Infotainment and more.

Internet everywhere? Not without wireless networks! Imagine a travel guide for a city. Static information
might be loaded via CD-ROM, DVD, or even at home via the Internet. But wireless networks can provide
up-to-date information at any appropriate location. The travel guide might tell you something about the
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history of a building downloading information about a concert in the building at the same evening via a
local wireless network. You may choose a seat, pay via electronic cash, and send this information to a
service provider. Another growing field of wireless network application lies in entertainment and games
to enable gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together.

1.4.6 Location dependent services.

Many research efforts in mobile computing and wireless networks try to hide the fact that the network
access has been changed (e.g., from mobile phone to WLAN or between different access points) or that
a wireless link is more error prone than a wired one. For example: Mobile IP tries to hide the fact of
changing access points by redirecting packets but keeping the same IP address, and many protocols try
to improve link quality using encoding mechanisms or retransmission so that applications made for fixed
networks still work. In many cases, however, it is important for an application to ‘know’ something about
the location or the user might need location information for further activities. Several services that might
depend on the actual location can be distinguished:
● Follow-on services: The function of forwarding calls to the current user location is well known from
the good old telephone system. Wherever you are, just transmit your temporary phone number to your
phone and it redirects incoming calls. Using mobile computers, a follow-on service could offer, for
instance, the same desktop environment wherever you are in the world. All e-mail would automatically
be forwarded and all changes to your desktop and documents would be stored at a central location at your
company. If someone wanted to reach you using a multimedia conferencing system, this call would be
forwarded to your current location.
● Location aware services: Imagine you wanted to print a document sitting in the lobby of a hotel using
your laptop. If you drop the document over the printer icon, where would you expect the document to be
printed? Certainly not by the printer in your office! However, without additional information about the
capabilities of your environment, this might be the only thing you can do. For instance, there could be a
service in the hotel announcing that a standard laser printer is available in the lobby or a color printer in
a hotel meeting room etc. Your computer might then transmit your personal profile to your hotel which
then charges you with the printing costs.
● Privacy: The two service classes listed above immediately raise the question of privacy. You might
not want video calls following you to dinner, but maybe you would want important e-mails to be
forwarded. There might be locations and/or times when you want to exclude certain services from
reaching you and you do not want to be disturbed. You want to utilize location dependent services, but

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you might not want the environment to know exactly who you are. Imagine a hotel monitoring all guests
and selling these profiles to companies for advertisements.
● Information services: While walking around in a city you could always use your wireless travel guide
to ‘pull’ information from a service, e.g., ‘Where is the nearest Mexican restaurant?’ However, a service
could also actively ‘push’ information on your travel guide, e.g., the Mexican restaurant just around the
corner has a special taco offer.

1.4.7 Mobile and wireless devices.

Even though many mobile and wireless devices are available, there will be many more in the future.
There is no precise classification of such devices, by size, shape, weight, or computing power. Currently,
laptops are considered the upper end of the mobile device range. The following list gives some examples
of mobile and wireless devices graded by increasing performance (CPU, memory, display, input devices
etc.).
● Sensor: A very simple wireless device is represented by a sensor transmitting state information. One
example could be a switch sensing the office door. If the door is closed, the switch transmits this to the
mobile phone inside the office which will not accept incoming calls. Without user interaction, the
semantics of a closed door is applied to phone calls.
● Embedded controllers: Many appliances already contain a simple or sometimes more complex
controller such as, washing machines, coffee machines, hair dryers and TV sets. Why not have the hair
dryer as a simple mobile and wireless device (from a communication point of view) that is able to
communicate with the mobile phone? Then the dryer would switch off as soon as the phone starts ringing
● Pager: As a very simple receiver, a pager can only display short text messages, has a tiny display, and
cannot send any messages. Pagers can even be integrated into watches. The tremendous success of mobile
phones, has made the pager virtually redundant in many countries. Short messages have replaced paging.
● Mobile phones: The traditional mobile phone only had a simple black and white text display and could
send/receive voice or short messages. Today, mobile phones migrate more and more toward PDAs.
Mobile phones with full color graphic display, touch screen, and Internet browser are easily available.
● Personal Digital Assistant: PDAs typically accompany a user and offer simple versions of office
software (calendar, note-pad, mail). The typical input device is a pen, with built-in character recognition
translating handwriting into characters. Web browsers and many other software packages are available
for these devices.

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● Pocket computer: The next steps toward full computers are pocket computers offering tiny keyboards,
color displays, and simple versions of programs found on desktop computers (text processing,
spreadsheets etc.).
● Notebook/laptop: Finally, laptops offer more or less the same performance as standard desktop
computers; they use the same software – the only technical difference being size, weight, and the ability
to run on a battery. If operated mainly via a sensitive display (touch sensitive or electromagnetic), the
devices are also known as notepads or tablet PCs. The mobile and wireless devices of the future will be
more powerful, less heavy, and comprise new interfaces to the user and to new networks.

Figure 1.5 Mobile and wireless devices.

1.5 A simplified reference model

Figure 1.4 shows a personal digital assistant (PDA) which provides an example for a wireless and
portable device. This PDA communicates with a base station in the middle of the picture. The base station
consists of a radio transceiver (sender and receiver) and an interworking unit connecting the wireless link
with the fixed link. The communication partner of the PDA, a conventional computer, is shown on the
right-hand side.
Underneath each network element (such as PDA, interworking unit, computer), the figure shows the
protocol stack implemented in the system according to the reference model. End-systems, such as the
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PDA and computer in the example, need a full protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer. Applications on the end-systems communicate
with each other using the lower layer services.
Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do not necessarily need all of the layers. Figure
1.4 only shows the network, data link, and physical layers. As (according to the basic reference model)
only entities at the same level communicate with each other (i.e., transport with transport, network with
network) the end-system applications do not notice the intermediate system directly in this scenario. The
following paragraphs explain the functions of each layer in more detail in a wireless and mobile
environment.

Figure 1.6 Simple network and reference model

Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for the conversion
of a stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on the sender side. The physical layer of the receiver
then transforms the signals back into a bit stream. For wireless communication, the physical layer is
responsible for frequency selection, generation of the carrier frequency, signal detection (although heavy
interference may disturb the signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and (depending on the
transmission scheme) encryption.

Data link layer: The main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium, multiplexing of different
data streams, correction of transmission errors, and synchronization (i.e., detection of a data frame).

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Altogether, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point-to point connection between two devices
or a point-to-multipoint connection between one sender and several receivers.

● Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network or establishing a
connection between two entities over many other intermediate systems. Important topics are addressing,
routing, device location, and handover between different networks.

● Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish an end-to-end connection.
Topics like quality of service, flow and congestion control are relevant, especially if the transport
protocols known from the Internet, TCP and UDP, are to be used over a wireless link.

● Application layer: Finally, the applications (complemented by additional layers that can support
applications) are situated on top of all transmission-oriented layers. Topics of interest in this context are
service location, support for multimedia applications, adaptive applications that can handle the large
variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access to the world wide web using a portable
device. Very demanding applications are video (high data rate) and interactive gaming (low jitter, low
latency).

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